THE  HUMAN 
INTEREST  LIBRARY 

VISUALIZED  KNOWLEDGE 


EDITORS 

RT.  REV.  SAMUEL  FALLOWS,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
HENRY  W.  RUOFF,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  D.C.L. 


VOLUME  I. 


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CHICAGO 
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Copyright  1914,  by  The  Midland  Press 


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ITS 
PURPOSE 


ITS 
METHOD 


ITS  ILLUS- 
TRATIONS 


CUMULATIVE 

HOME 

LIBRARY 


PUBLISHER'S     STATEMENT 


Today  —  every  day  —  there  is  something  we 
would  hke  to  know  and  to  understando  "Learn  one 
thing  every  day"  might  be  the  legend  of  The 
Human  Interest  Library.  Its  purpose  is  to 
acquaint  the  reader  with  the  human  interest  facts 
of  the  world's  knowledge  through  his  devoting  five 
minutes  of  spare  time  each  day  to  interesting  read- 
ing and  to  looking  at  instructive  pictures. 

In  order  that  this  knowledge  may  be  acquired 
agreeably  and  without  special  effort,  the  facts  have 
been  woven  into  gripping  human  interest  stories — 
stories  that  give  in  concise  manner  and  without 
unnecessary  detail,  just  what  everyone  wants  to 
know  about  a  famous  person,  place,  picture  or 
event.  Each  story  is  complete  in  itself  and  can  be 
read  in  a  few  moments  of  spare  time.  If  one  story 
only  is  read  every  day,  every  day  something  worth 
while  will  be  learned,  and  the  reader  will  be  quite 
unaware  of  any  effort  to  acquire  knowledge. 

More  than  a  thousand  illustrations,  selected 
for  their  educational  and  inspirational  value ;  nearly 
two  hundred  beautiful  full-page  engravings  and 
numerous  drawings  by  special  artists  have  been 
used  to  fully  illustrate  all  subjects  treated  and  to 
visualize  to  a  remarkable  degree  the  story  of  man's 
achievements.  Gathered  from  all  available  sources 
throughout  the  world,  the  paintings  and  photo- 
graphs reproduced  form  a  veritable  picture  gallery 
of  the  world's  great  men  and  great  events. 

The  volumes  now  issued  are  the  basic  volumes 
of  a  cumulative  set  of  books  to  which  additional 
volumes  are  to  be  added  from  time  to  time.  Each 
volume  as  purchased  is  complete  in  itself  but  so 
planned  as  to  cover  a  special  field,  or  to  form  a  dis- 
tinct part  of  the  whole. 


^141080 


NO  REPETI- 
TION OF 
MATTER 


PERSONAL 
TO  THE 
SUBSCRIBER 


Succeeding  volumes  will  contain  no  duplication  of 
matter,  but  rather  an  orderly  continuation  of  the 
departments  already  projected,  or  possibly  new 
departments.  When  all  volumes  have  been  issued, 
The  Human  Interest  Library  will  present  in 
picture  and  story  the  sum  total  of  a  practical  and 
liberal  education  in  Science,  Fine  Arts,  History, 
the  Kingdoms  of  Nature,  Literature,  Biography  and 
Travel.  The  final  volume  will  contain  a  general 
index,  minutely  analyzing  and  indexing  the  con- 
tents of  the  entire  set. 

If  some  favorite  subjects  or  authors,  or  perhaps 
the  story  of  what  seems  a  most  important  event, 
do  not  appear  in  the  initial  volumes  of  the  set, 
they  may  be  confidently  expected  in  the  volumes 
that  are  to  follow.  Each  volume  affords  only  a 
given  amount  of  space  and  the  editors  keeping  in 
mind  the  comprehensive  plan  of  the  complete 
library,  have  exercised  unrestricted  judgment  in 
the  selections  they  have  made.  Some  favorite 
human  interest  topic — the  story  that  you  may  have 
looked  for  and  failed  to  find — is  sure  to  be  told  in 
its  most  interesting  form  in  the  volumes  that  are 
to  follow. 

SAVE  YOUR  Upon   inquiry   the   publishers   will   be   glad   to 

A??OWANrE     ^^^i^^  subscribers  of  the  approximate  date  upon 
FOR  which  succeeding  volumes  will  be  ready  for  delivery. 

SUCCEEDING  TJ^e  advance  subscriptions  received  for  these  vol- 
umes  will  be  filled  with  First  Edition  copies.  Save 
a  portion  of  your  annual  book  money  for  the  forth- 
coming volumes  and  your  home  will  soon  possess 
a  comprehensive  library  of  the  world's  best 
knowledge. 


VOLUMES 


X  ^^  .-^ou^^^Y     ^'—^'^^'^'^--    A^^C;^^^^.^ 


EDITORS 

RT.  REV.  SAMUEL  FALLOWS,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church;  Ex-President  Illi- 
nois Wesleyan  University;  editor  Popular  and  Critical  Bible 
Encyclopedia;    Webster's  Encyclopedic  Dictionary,  etc. 

HENRY  W.  RUOFF,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  D.C.L. 

Editor  The  Century  Book  of  Facts;  The  Capitals  of  the  World; 
The  Standard  Dictionary  of  Facts;  Masters  of  Achievement;  The 
Volume  Library,  etc. 

CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 

ROBERT  E.  PEARY,  LL.D.,  U.S.N. 

Rear-Admiral  U.  S.  Navy;  Discoverer  of  the  North  Pole; 
■author  of  Northward  Over  the  Great  Ice,  etc. 

RT.  REV.  WILLIAM  A.  QUAYLE,  D.D.,  Litt.D.,  LL.D, 

Bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  author  of  The 
Poet's  Poet  and  other  Essays;  Eternity  in  the  Heart;  God's 
Calendar;   The  Song  of  Songs,  etc. 

WINFIELD  S.  HALL,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  M.D. 

Professor  of  Physiology,  Northwestern  University  Medical 
School;   author  oi  Essentials  of  Physiology;  Sexual  Hygiene,  etc. 

FREDERIC  STARR,  Ph.D.,  D.Sc. 

Professor  of  Anthropology,  University  of  Chicago;  author  of 
First  Steps  in  Human  Progress;  Strange  Peoples,  etc.;  editor  of 
the  Anthropological  Series. 

DOROTHY  CANFIELD  FISHER,  Ph.D. 

Author  of  Corneille  and  Racine  in  England;  What  Shall  We  Do 
Now?;    The  Montessori  Mother,   etc. 

CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Psychology  and  Pedagogy,  Illinois  State  Normal 
School;  author  of  The  Eight  Grades,  Methods  in  Elementary 
Science,  Nature  Study  Lessons,  etc. 


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CONTRIBUTORS  AND  REVISERS 

BENJAMIN  C.  ALLIN 

Writer,  Traveler,  Lecturer. 

GRANVILLE  WALTER  BARR,  M.D. 

Former  Editor  Keokuk  Standard;  Lecturer  on  Popular  Science; 
author  of  Shacklett,  etc. 

JAMES  T.  CASE,  M.D. 

Roentgenologist  to  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.,  and  to  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  Chicago;  lecturer  on  Roent- 
genology, Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  etc. 

GEORGE  LUCIUS  COLLIE,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Dean  Beloit  College;  geologist;  educator  and  traveler;  writer 
on  Geological  and  Educational  topics. 

CHARLES  AARON  CULVER,  Ph.D. 

Professor  Physics,  Beloit  College;  author  of  papers  on  subject 
of  electromagnetic  waves,  etc.  Contributor  to  Physical  Review- 
Electrical  World;   Science,  etc. 

HENRY  PURMORT  EAMES,  LL.B.,  Mus.D. 

Formerly  Director  Piano  Department  and  Lecturer  on  Theory 
of  Music,  L'niversity  of  Nebraska;  founder  of  Omaha  School  of 
Music;  concertized  in  France,  Great  Britain  and  United  States. 

EMIL  GERBER,  C.E. 

Late  General  Manager  of  Erection,  American  Bridge  Company, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

CURVIN  H.  GINGRICH,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  Astronomy,  Carleton  College;  associate  editor  of 
Popular  Astronomy,  etc. 

JEANNETTE  RECTOR  HODGDON 

Teacher  of  History  in  New  York  City  High  School;  author  of 
A  First  Course  in  American  History,  etc. 

BEVERLY  W.  KUNKEL,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Zoology,  Beloit  College.  Writer  on  zoology  and 
anatomy. 

SAMUEL  A.  LOUGH,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  in  the  University  of  Denver;   Educator,  Writer. 

ARTHUR  MEE 

Journalist  and  author.  Editor  Harmsworth'a  Self-Educator; 
Children's  Encyclopedia;  Children's  Magazine;  author  of  Life 
Story  of  Edward  VII,  etc. 

E.  L.  C.  MORSE,  B.A.,  LL.B. 

Principal  Phil  Sheridan  Public  School,  Chicago;  periodical 
writer,  etc. 

WILLIAM  LEWIS  NIDA,  Ph.B. 

City  Superintendent  Schools,  River  Forest,  111.  Author,  Ele- 
mentary Agriculture;  Farm  Animals  and  Farm  Crops;  City, 
State  and  Nation,  etc. 

CHARLES  ELSTON  NIXON,  B.A. 

Dramatic  and  Music  Critic;  writer  of  dramatic  Sketches, 
songs  and  historic  dramas.  Formerly  western  manager  Music 
Trades  and  Musical  America,  and  The  Philharmonic,  Chicago. 

ALBERT  J.  NORTON,  B.Sc. 

Writer  and  Lecturer  on  Spanish  American  Subjects;  author  of 
Norton's  Complete  Handbook  of  Havana  and  Cuba,  etc. 

ETHEL  COOPER  PIERCE,  M.A. 

Editorial  writer  Home  and  School  Reference  Work;  teacher 
science  and  mathematics;    contributor  to  periodical  literature. 

MARA  L.  PRATT 

Author  of  America's  Story  for  America's  Children;  World  History 
in  Myth  and  Legend;  etc. 

GEORGE  ROCKWELL  PUTNAM,  C.E. 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Lighthouses;  director  United 
States  Coast  Surveys,  Philippine  Islands,  1900-6;  author 
Nautical  Charts,  and  numerous  technical  papers. 

ANNA  E.  REURY 

Assistant  editor  Home  and  School  Reference  Work;  former  as- 
sistant editor  The  Freeman,  Kingston-on-Hudson;  contributor 
to  periodical  literature,  etc. 

LEW  R.  SARETT,  B.A. 

Department  of  Rhetoric  and  Public  Speaking,  University  of 
Illinois;   lecturer  on  out-of-door  subjects;    magazine  writer,  etc. 

FREDERIC  BENNETT  WRIGHT,  M.A. 

Author,  traveler,  lecturer.     Editor  Records  of  the  Past,  etc. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  CONTENTS 


VOLUME  ONE 

Page 

EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 11 

This  book  concerns  many  of  the  commonest  things  in  life  about  which  we,  and  especially  those 
of  us  who  are  children,  are  continually  wondering  what  the  explanation  may  be.  Very  often  these 
questions  remain  unanswered  through  life;  because,  perhaps,  they  are  so  simple.  Here  is  a  very 
marvelous  book  in  which  the  ever  recurring  "Why"  is  answered.  Whether  it  concerns  the  mysteries 
of  the  body  or  the  far-off  wonders  of  sun,  moon  and  stars,  the  explanation  is  equally  lucid. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE .89 

In  an  age  replete  with  discussion  of  matters  relative  to  our  physical  well  being,  with  public  interest 
as  never  before  focussed  on  physical  culture,  sex  hygiene,  eugenics  and  pubUc  sanitation,  nothing  is 
more  timely  than  this  very  Book  of  Our  Own  Life.  It  traces  human  life  from  the  cell  to  the  full 
grown  man  and  shows  how  the  tiny  microbes,  the  enemy  of  man,  enter  the  blood  stream,  and  the  havoc 
they  make.  How  the  senses  stand  guard  over  the  avenue  of  approach  to  the  body  and  how  the  central 
nervous  system  from  its  seat  in  the  brain,  guides  and  directs  all,  is  beautifully  told  in  text  and 
illustration. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 169 

Here  is  a  book  prepared  especially  to  aid  the  parent  and  the  teacher.  For  the  pre-school  days 
the  book  gives  a  delightful  description  of  Dr.  Montessori's  system  of  self-instruction  for  children. 
This  is  followed  by  courses  in  other  elementary  studies  to  aid  the  parent  in  instructing  the  child  when 
necessarily  detained  from  school.  The  section  on  Rural  Economy  is  especially  adapted  to  rural  and 
suburban  districts.  Home  life  in  the  country  has  never  been  surpassed  in  natural  environment.  It  is 
the  problem  of  today  to  enhance  it  still  more  by  enlarging  its  educational  and  cultural  opportunities; 
by  utilizing  every  product  of  invention  and  science  for  the  improvement  of  scientific  agriculture, 
horticulture,  stock  raising  and  the  domestic  arts;  by  providing  an  improved  system  of  rural  banking  and 
credits;  and  by  affording  new  facilities  for  the  distribution  and  marketing  of  farm  products. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 263 

The  many  things  a  boy  or  girl  wants  to  do,  whether  work  or  amusement,  is  provided  for  here : 
carpentry,  wood  carving,  kites,  flying  machines,  telephones,  etc.,  for  boys;  sewing,  millinery  and  fancy 
work,  for  girls;  and  stories,  plays,  games,  puzzles,  private  theatricals  and  magic  for  all.  The  section 
on  stories  and  plays  is  replete  with  fancy,  anecdote,  moral,  description,  episode  and  dramatic  settings 
intended  to  appeal  to  the  imagination  and  moral  sense  of  children.  The  play  instincts  of  children 
are  so  evident  that  it  seems  superfluous  to  argue  the  need  of  proper  material  in  story  and  dramatic 
form  to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  and  expansion  of  the  child  mind.  The  world  of  childhood  is 
peopled  with  fairies,  myths,  flowers,  animals,  ogres,  and  wonderful  characters  at  once  humorous- 
pathetic,  cruel  and  kind. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS    IN    VOLUME    I 


FULL  PAGE  COLOR  PLATES 

Page 

The  Archer  Fish opp.  10 

The  Pygmies  and  Storks opp.  1 1 

FULL  PAGE  ENGRAVINGS  AND  DRAWINGS 

Spectre  of  the  Brocken 12 

How  the  World's  Story  was  First  Told 15 

How  a  Magnifying  Glass  Makes  Things  Bigger 70 

How  the  Camera  Takes  a  Photograph 71 

Airship  Attacked  by  Aeroplanes .  , 82 

Birth  of  the  American  Flag 84 

Ventilation  of  the  Human  House 90 

Blood  Circulation  in  the  Human  House 92 

Brain  Signals  of  the  Human  House 93 

Machinery  of  the  Ear 118 

How  Sound  Reaches  the  Brain 120 

Blindfolded  Man's  Walk  Across  Niagara 124 

Pictures  Drawn  by  the  Human  Voice 128 

The  Cells  and  Nerves  of  Smell 140 

Inside  and  Outside  of  Brain 150 

Statue  of  Liberty  Enlightening  the  World 168 

Dr.  Maria  Montessori 170 

Self-Education  by  Montessori  System 173 

Montessori  Sense  Training  Apparatus 177 

Montessori  Self-Instructing  Devices 178 

Children  Directing  Their  Own  Lessons 184 

Grace  Before  Meals 199 

Plowing  by  Machinery 248 

Thumbeline  Floated  Down  the  Stream 264 

Alphabet  Illustrated 266 

Picture  Words 267,  268,  269 

The  World  at  Work  to  Fill  the  Paint  Box 273 

A  Warrior  of  the  Vanishing  Race 310 

Knots  in  General  Use  by  Sailors  and  Builders 323 

The  Boy  Who  Would  Not  Grow  Up 367 

AND  110  ADDITIONAL  TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS 

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THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  PVG^^ES  AND  THE  STORKS 

Homer  and  other  ancient  writers  frequently  refer  to  pygmy  races  which  they  represent  as  waging  desperate 
warfare  with  the  storks  that  came  to  raid  their  crops.  Recently  various  expeditions  have  proved  their  existence 
in  several  parts  of  the  globe. 


The  Everyday  Wonder 

Book 


WONDERS  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY 
WONDERS  OF  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS 

WONDERS  OF  LIGHT  AND  SOUND 

WONDERS  OF  AIR,  FIRE  AND  WATER 

WONDERS  OF  EARTH,  SUN  AND  STARS 

THE  CHILDREN'S  "WHYS"  AND  "HOWS' 

MISCELLANEOUS  QUESTION-BOX 


19 


THE     MYSTERIOUS     SPECTRE     OF     THE     BROCKEN 


An  enormously  magnified  image  of  the  observer,  cast  upon  a  bank  of  mist,  is  sometimes  seen  in  high  mountain  regions 
when  the  sun  is  low  in  the  heavens  and  the  observer  is  between  the  cloud  bank  and  the  sun;  it  is  seen  oftenest  in  the  Harz 
Mountains,  Germany. 

12 


THE     REASON     WHY 

We  are  asking  questions  continually;  all  our  lives  we  keep  saying,  "I  Wonder 
Why."  Where  does  the  day  begin?  How  do  I  remember?  What  makes  the  rain- 
bow? To  all  of  us  come  such  questions,  and  as  long  as  we  live,  such  questions  will 
come,  however  wise  we  grow.  The  questions  will  never  stop  as  long  as  the  world 
lasts,  because  out  of  the  answer  to  one  question  another  arises;  and  so,  all  over  the 
world  and  down  the  ages  of  time,  grown-ups  and  children  have  been  saying,  "I 
Wonder  Why."  All  through  these  volumes  we  shall  find  the  answers  to  our  questions, 
but  in  this  especial  Book  we  shall  find  questions  about  many  things  which  we  par- 
ticularly want  to  know.  First  of  all,  we  learn  how  the  world  was  peopled;  then, 
how  nations  lived;  how  men  know  things  that  happened  long  ago,  and  how  they 
gathered  up  the  knowledge  that  is  in  the  world.  Later  follows  the  answers  to  the 
puzzling  workings  of  our  own  bodies,  and  the  multitude  of  questions  that  come 
up  from  day  to  day  about  animals  and  plants;  light  and  sound;  air,  fire  and  water; 
earth,  sun  and  stars;  and  numerous  other  things  we  want  to  know  about. 

HOW  THE  WORLD  WAS  PEOPLED 


IN  the  childhood  of  the  world,  there 
were  not  nearly  so  many  people 
on  the  earth  as  there  are  today. 
We  cannot  tell  exactly  what  happened 
then,  because  it  is  so  very  long  ago; 
but  we  can  make  believe  that  all  the 
people  lived  in  one  small  part  of  the 
world  all  by  themselves.  They  were 
like  a  big  family  living  together  in 
the  same  house.  By-and-by  the  family 
grew  bigger;  more  boys  and  girls  began 
to  come,  and  at  last  the  house  became 
too  small  for  them  to  live  in.  So  some 
of  them  had  to  go  out  and  find  another 
home.  They  wandered  up  and  down 
over  the  earth,  and  when  any  of  them 
found  a  comfortable  place  to  live  in, 
there  they  stopped  and  settled. 

So,  we  are  all  one  big  family,  and 
though  now  some  nations  seem  very 
different    from    others,    yet    they    are 


each  some  relation  to  the  other, 
brother  or  sister,  or  cousin,  or  some- 
thing. This  is  why  we  find  so  many 
of  the  same  words  used  by  different 
nations ;  the  words  father  and  mother, 
for  instance,  are  alike  in  manv  dif- 
ferent  languages. 

Nations  live  and  die  and  pass 
away  as  you  and  i 

Some  of  these  early  nations  have 
died,  but  others  are  still  living  today; 
for  nations,  just  as  we  do,  are  born, 
grow  up,  and  die,  only  it  takes  them 
a  great  deal  longer  time  than  it  takes 
us.  And  perhaps  some  of  the  nations 
that  are  alive  today  will  die  and  pass 
away  some  time  in  the  future. 

You  may  have  wondered  how  we 
know  about  what  happened  long  ago, 
before  there  were  any  books  or  news- 
papers, even  before  there  was  writing 


13 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


f    c     f.        r     < 


of  any  sort.  '  It  is  quite  easy  to  find  out 
what  happe)aed  only^  3,  hundred  years 
ago,  because  there  are  plsutyo^t  books 
that  will  tell  us  all  about  it.  But 
what  about  things  that  happened 
thousands  of  years  ago.'^ 

How  WE  KNOW  THE  STORY  OF 
THE  WORLD 

The  boys  and  girls  who  lived  long 
ago  were  just  as  fond  of  stories  as  the 
children  of  today.  They,  too,  would 
ask  for  stories;  and  when  they  grew 
up,  they,  too,  would  tell  these  stories 
to  their  children.  So  the  stories  came 
down  to  us,  right  from  the  earliest 
time,  when  there  was  no  reading  or 
writing,  but  simply  story-telling.  That 
is  the  first  way  in  w  hich  we  know  what 
happened  far  back.  Boys  and  girls 
have  been  among  the  most  important 
people  in  handing  on  to  us  our  story 
of  the  world.  What  a  great  loss  it 
would  have  been  if  those  boys  and 
girls  who  lived  once  upon  a  time  had 
forgotten  the  stories  that  were  told 
them! 

The  next  way  of  finding  out  what 
happened  long  ago  is  by  reading  the 
earliest  books.  What  do  you  think 
these  books  were.'*  Not  books  such  as 
we  have  now,  but  bricks;  just  clay 
bricks,  with  writing  and  pictures 
marked  on  them  while  the  clay  was 
soft,  and  then  baked  hard  in  the  heat 
of  the  sun.  Thousands  of  these  bricks 
have  been  dug  out  of  the  earth  at 
Babylon  and  other  places.  When  these 
cities  were  destroyed  long  ago,  they 
became  gradually  covered  with  earth; 
the  houses,  the  streets,  the  libraries, 
and  everything  in  them  were  buried 
under  the  ground.  And  down  under 
the  ground  these  bricks  have  been  kept 
dry  and  clean  and  fresh,  and  so  today 
we  are  able  to  read  the  writing  and  the 
pictures,  and  find  out  what  the  people 
in  those  days  were  doing. 

In  ancient  times,  also,  when  a  king 
did  anything  of  which  he  was   very 


proud,  such  as  conquering  his  enemies 
and  taking  them  captive,  he  had  an 
account  of  it  carved  on  a  big  stone  or 
pillar,  and  set  it  up  so  that  people 
could  read  all  about  what  he  had  done. 
Thousands  of  these  monuments  have 
been  found,  and  there  probably  are 
thousands  still  buried  in  Eg;y'pt,  and 
parts  of  Asia.  The  writing  on  these 
stones  looks  very  strange  to  us.  Most 
of  those  found  in  Egypt  have  pictures 
upon  them,  instead  of  words  and 
letters.  When  you  are  in  New  York, 
you  should  visit  Central  Park  and 
look  at  the  tall  column  called  Cleo- 
patra's Needle.  This  was  brought 
from  Egypt,  and  is  covered  with  pic- 
tures; we  call  these  pictures  hiero- 
glyphics, which  means  sacred  carvings. 
When  the  first  of  these  old  pillars 
was  found,  no  one  could  read  the 
writing  or  understand  the  pictures. 
It  was  like  a  hard  riddle. 

At  last,  when  all  the  learned  men 
were  very  nearly  giving  up  the  riddle, 
a  great  piece  of  good  fortune  hap- 
pened. Some  French  officers  who 
were  in  Egypt  about  a  hundred  years 
ago,  in  1799,  happened  to  dig  up  a 
stone  with  writing  on  it,  and,  to  their 
great  delight,  the  writing  was  in  three 
languages.  One  of  these  was  the 
picture  writing,  and  another  was 
Greek.  Now,  it  w^as  easy  enough  to 
read  the  Greek,  and  when  they  had 
made  out  what  that  meant  they 
guessed  that  the  picture  writing  would 
mean  just  the  same  thing.  And  so  it 
did.  That  gave  people  the  key  to 
the  riddle,  and  the  whole  mystery 
was  made  clear.  They  found  that  an 
eagle  stood  for  the  letter  a,  a  leg  and 
foot  for  h,  a  serpent  with  horns  for  /, 
a  hand  for  t,  an  owl  for  m,  a  chicken 
for  V,  and  so  on.  A  man  w^ith  his 
hands  lifted  up  meant  prayer. 

After  reading  this  one  stone,  it  was 
easy  to  read  all  the  other  writings  on 
stones    and    pillars    found    in    Egypt. 


HOW  THE  WORLD'S  STORY  WAS   FIRST  TOLD 

The  Egyptians  painted  tlie  walls  of  their  temples  and  tombs  with  strange  letters  and  pictures  which  tell  the  history 
Egypt.       This  is  from  the  wall  of     a  tomb  where  the  paint  is  still  fresh,  though  it  Is  thousands  of  years  old. 


"^*-  -J*  .Hy 


Cleopatra's  Needle, 
once  in  Egypt,  and  now 
standing  in  Central  Parli, 
New  York,  shows  the 
strange  writing  on  the 
Egyptian   monuments. 


The  Rosetta  Stone,  which  taught  us  to  read  the  strange 
writing  the  Egyptians  left  behind.  It  said  the  same  thing 
in  three  kinds  of  writing,  and  one  kind  was  the  Egyptian. 
Men  knew  one  of  the  other  kinds  of  writing,  so  that  they 
were  able  to  find  out  what  the  Egyptian  writing  meant. 


There  was  no  paper 
In  old  Egypt,  and  the 
people  wrote  on  bricks 
and  on  the  dried  bark 
ol  the  papyrus  plant, 
here      shown      growiag. 


i.<F  ^,^.-?&?;-**^^^^^^ . 


An  early  way  of  writing  was  to  mark  soft 
clay   and   bake   it   Into   a   brick   like   this. 


This  Is  a  piece  of  papyrus,  showing  how  the  Egyptians  used  it  to 
write  unon.    Nearly  all  these  things  are  In  the  British  Museum. 
19 


16 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


This  precious  stone  is  known  as  the 
Rosetta  Stone,  because  it  was  found 
at  a  place  called  Rosetta,  and  it  can 
now  be  seen  in  the  British  Museum  in 
London. 

Another  way  in  which  we  are  finding 
out  a  great  deal  about  early  times  is 
by  the  opening  up  of  many  tombs 
underground,  especially  in  Egypt. 

All  kinds  of  things  used  to  be  buried 
with  people  in  those  days;  so  dry  and 
air-tight  were  the  tombs  that  every- 
thing in  them  has  been  wonderfully 
well  preserved.  Dolls  have  been  found 
buried  with  the  little  girls  who  played 
with  them  long  before  Moses  lived; 
a  baby's  rattle  that  amused  a  tiny 
brown  Egyptian  baby  when  Joseph 
was  in  Egypt;  ladies'  combs  and 
mirrors,  gold  ornaments,  and  jewelry, 
worn  perhaps  when  the  Children  of 
Israel  were  passing  through  the  Red 
Sea.  And  so,  little  by  little,  we  are 
finding  out  what  life  was  like  in  the 
old  days,  and  are  piecing  together  the 
different  bits   of   knowledge  that   we 


pick  up,  just  as  you  put  together  the 
pieces  of  a  puzzle  to  make  the  whole. 

There  is  one  more  way  in  which  we 
are  being  helped  to  do  this,  and  that 
is  by  finding  buried  cities  and  towns 
just  as  they  were  hundreds  of  years 
ago.  In  parts  of  Asia,  such  as  at 
Babylon,  men  are  digging  out  whole 
towns  that  disappeared  thousands  of 
years  ago. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  nothing 
happens  by  chance.  There  is  a  reason 
and  a  cause  for  everything.  If  we 
are  wise  enough  we  shall  find  out  why 
we  live  and  how  we  are  related  to  one 
another.  For  we  are  really  one  big 
family;  or  we  may  say  that  the  dif- 
ferent nations  are  like  the  beads  on 
a  string — each  bead  is  different  and 
separate,  but  they  are  all  joined 
together  by  the  same  string.  Through 
all  the  story  of  the  world  we  find  this 
string  joining  up  the  beads;  through 
it  all  we  find  some  plan  at  work,  and 
see  God's  hand  in  its  guidance  and 
control. 


WONDERS   OF   THE   HUMAN   BODY 


Why  we  go  to  sleep 

WE  GO  to  sleep  so  as  to  rest. 
The  whole  body  rests  when 
asleep,  more  or  less — the 
brain,  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  mus- 
cles, stomach  and  all.  Children  want 
a  lot  of  sleep  because  children  have  to 
grow,  and  they  do  most  of  their 
growing  during  sleep;  so  if  they  will 
not  go  to  bed  they  will  not  grow  prop- 
erly. Sleep  is  more  important  for  chil- 
dren than  for  anyone  else,  just  for  this 
reason,  though  no  one  can  get  on  with- 
out it.  Many  of  the  people  who  grow 
up  too  small  or  weak,  or  poor  in  their 
minds,  are  people  who  did  not  sleep 
enough  when  they  were  children. 
Time  was  when  older  people  were 
careless  about  children's  sleep,  but  one 
of  the  happiest  and  best  things  for 


children  nowadays  is  that  their  sleep 

is  looked  after. 

Where  we  go  in  our  sleep 

We  do  not  go  anywhere.  We  are 
still  there,  only  we  are  not  awake. 
That  means  that  we  are  not  awake 
to  what  is  around  us;  but  though  we 
take  no  notice  of  what  is  about  us,  we 
are  still  there;  and  even  while  we  are 
fast  asleep  we  are  often  doing  all  sorts  , 
of  things,  or,  rather,  we  think  we  are.     ■ 

This  is  so  every  time  we  have  a 
dream,  and  we  have  far  more  dreams 
than  we  remember  when  we  wake. 
Long  ago  savages  used  to  think  that 
men  merely  went  away  somewhere 
when  they  slept,  and  dreaming  was  one 
of  the  reasons  that  made  them  think 
so;  but  now  we  are  sure  that  that  was 
a  mistake. 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK                            11 

Dreams  do  people  all  sorts  of  harm  of  all  these  muscles  together  that  we 

if  they  are  not  sensible  about  them;  call  laughter,  and  it  is  really  a  reply 

but   we    must   be   sensible,    and   not  to  the  tickling,  just  as  drawing  away 

think  that  terrible  things  are  going  your  foot  is  a  reply  when  someone 

to   happen.     Dreams   show   that   we  tickles  the  sole  of  it. 

have  not  really  gone  away,  because  Why  you  cry 

they  are  almost  always  due  to  some-  You  cry  because  your  brain  is  made 

thmg  disturbmg  us,  and  nothmg  could  g^  ^s  to  act  that  way.     We  do  not 

disturb  us  if  we  were  not  there,  could  know  why  your  brain  should  be  so 

^^^  made,  for  though  there  is  much  use 

So  slight  a  thing  as  the  wind  in  the  i^  tears  when  we  are  not  crying,  yet 

chimney,   or   a   leaf   tappmg   on   the  there  is  no  real  use  in  crying  when  we 

window-pane,   may   make  us  dream,  g^j.^  \yxx\. 

But   the  commonest  thing   that   dis-  ^^^n  people  g^ow  older  they  find 

turbs  us  is  our  stomach.     If  we  eat  this  out,  and  usually  they  do  not  cry 

too  much  before  we  go  to  sleep,  and  ^^en  they  are  hurt.     The  highest  part 

especially  if  we  eat  things  that  do  not  ^f  the  brain— where  people  themselves 

agree  with  us,  then  in  the  night  they  really  live— is  the  master  of  the  lower 

disturb  the  brain,  and  make  part  of  it  p^^  of  the  brain,  and  can  order  it  to 

wake  up,  though  not  so  much  as  to  Jq  things,  and  forbid  it  to  do  things, 

make  us  know  where  we  are.     So,  also,  ^^  jt  likes 

noises  often  make  us  dream  because  Now,  it  is  the  lower  part  of  the  brain 

they  disturb  the  brain.     But  sounds  that  replies  by  crying  when  we  are 

could  not  disturb  the  brain  if  we  were  hurt,  so  that  even  the  tiniest  baby  can 

not  still  there  to  hear  them.  cry    perfectly.     But    when    we    grow 

Why  you  laugh  ol^jer  ^^  ^gH  t^^  j^^e^  p^^.^  ^j  ^y^^ 

You  laugh  because  you  are  "made  brain  that  it  must  not  do  as  it  feels  in- 

that    way."     Perhaps    you    do    not  clined  to  do,  and  so  we  stop  crying. 

think  much  of  it,  but  that  is  the  real      „,„„ „ .„ 

T,    ,         ,              ,,             .  Why  the  tears  come 
answer.     It  depends  upon  the  way  in 

which  your  brain  and  body  are  built.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  tears 

After  all,   you   laugh   when  you  are  should  come  when  you  cry,  but  there 

tickled,   even   though   you   may   not  is  a  very  good  and  beautiful  reason  for 

be  pleased,  and  that  is  really  easier  to  ^^e  tears  which  we  are  really  making 

explain.     If  a  bright  light  suddenly  all  the  time  that  we  are  awake,  though 

strikes  your  eye,  you  shut  it  because  ^^  know  nothing  about  it.     You  know 

your  brain  is  made  so  as  to  make  you  ^^}^^  well  that  every  few  seconds  you 

reply  in  that  way.  wink  both  your  eyelids  at  once.     You 

That  is  a  simple  way  of  replying,  ^o  not  do  it  on  purpose,  but  you  do  it 

And  laughing  when  you  are  tickled  is  ^11  the  same.     If  you  purposely  stop 

really  the  same,  only  that  instead  of  ^^i^g  i^'  as  people  often  do  when  they 

doing  just  one  thing,  you  do  a  number  stare  at  each  other,  your  eye  becomes 

of  things  all  at  once.     You  move  many  very  uncomfortable,  and  if  you  did 

muscles  of  your  face  instead  of  merely  "^t  wink  at  all  your  eye  would  soon 

moving  the  muscles  of  your  eyelids,  ^ease  to  work  properly. 

You  also  move  the  muscles  that  you  What  winking  does  for  the  eye 

breathe  with,  in  an  unusual  way,  and  When  the  eye  is  open,  the  front  of  it 

also  the  muscles  that  you  make  sounds  is  exposed  to  dust  and  dirt,  and  also 

with.     It  is  this  particular  movement  the  front  of  it  is  apt  to  get  dry,  and  if  it 


18  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

did  we  could  not  see  properly.     Yet  erly,  you  know  very  well  that  when 

how  is  it  that,  though  we  never  wash  you  cry  you  make  so  many  tears  that 

the  front  of  our  eyes,  they  are  always  you  cannot  see  clearly  at  all. 

clean?     It  is  because  we  wash  them  What  wakes  us  up  in 

every  time  we  wink.     Up  above  each  the  morning 

eye,  rather  to  the  outer  side,  there  is  We  do  not  sleep  in  just  the  same 

a    tmy    little    duct    called    the    tear-  way  all  through  the  night.     To  begin 

gland,  and  all  the  time  we  are  awake  with,    we   sleep    deeply.     Now,    it    is 

this   is   slowly   making   tears.     Then,  good   to  sleep   deeply.     It   makes  us 

when  the  front  of  the  eye  feels  itself  look  well   and  beautiful,   and  people 

becoming  rather  dry,  and  perhaps  a  seem  to  have  noticed  this,  since  thej'^ 

little  dusty,  it  tells  the  brain,  and  down  call  the  first  hours  of  sleep  "the  beauty 

comes  the  eyelid  for  a  second,  with  a  sleep."     But  for  some  hours  after  this 

tear  inside  it,  and  so  washes  clean  the  we  sleep  less  and  less  deeply.     We  can 

front  of  the  eye.     It  is  the  most  gentle  easily  find  this  out  by  noticing  exactlj'^ 

and  perfect  washing  in  the  world.  how  loud  a  noise  is  required  to  wake 

Where  the  tears  go  anybody  up  at  various  times  in  his 

Well,  if  you  look  at  the  inner  corner  sleep.     And    we    find    that    when    he 

of  your  lower  eyelid  you  will  see  a  tiny  has  had  nearly  enough  sleep  he  will 

little  opening.     The  tear  runs  down  be  wakened  by  a  little  noise  which,  a 

this   and   finds  itself — where   do  you  few  hours  before,  he  would  not  have 

think.'*     Now,  I  will  give  you  a  hint  noticed  at  all. 

before  I   tell  you.     When  you   have  Now,  that  is  the  sort  of  thing  that 

been  crying  a  great  deal,  do  you  not  happens   when    we   wake.     We   have 

have  to  blow  your  nose?     The  reason  been  sleeping  less  and  less  deeply  for 

is  that  the  tears,  as  many  of  them  as  some  time,  and  our  brain  has  almost 

can,  run  down  into  the  nose.     All  the  awakened  of  itself.     Then  there  comes 

time  we  are  awake  and  not  crying,  this  a  sound  or  a  light,  or  perhaps  we  move 

goes  on,  keeping  our  eyes  moist  and  in  bed  and  feel  ourselves  moving,  and 

perfectly    clean,    and    costing    us    no  since  we  are  already  very  nearly  awake, 

trouble.     But  when  we  cry  we  make  the  sound  or  the  light  or  the  feeling 

far  more  tears  than  we  need.     Indeed,  wakes  us  up.     Of  course,  we  live  in 

we  make  so  many  that  they  cannot  a  way  that  we  have  made  for  our- 

even    all    run    down    into    the    nose,  selves;    but  if  we  lived  out  of  doors, 

though    many    of    them    do.     So,    as  as  men  did  long  ago,  and  as  birds  do 

there  is  nowhere  else  for  them  to  go,  now,  it  would  naturally  be  light  that 

and  the  eye  itself  cannot  hold  them  all  woke  us  up   at  last.     That   is   what 

as  they  come  pouring  into  it,  they  are  wakes  the  birds  u])  now.     When  the 

spilled    over   the   edge   of   the   lower  sun  rises,  and  the  light  gets  stronger, 

eyelid,  and  run  down  our  cheeks.  it    wakes    them    up,    though    we    are 

But,  though  the  tears,  when  we  are  awakened  by  a  noise, 

not    crying,    are    so    useful    that    we  Do  our  eyes  deceive  us? 

could    not    do    without    them,    and  Sometimes  we  can  learn  from  the 

though  the  way  they  are  made  and  deception  of  our  senses.     Our  eyes  see 

used  by  the  upper  eyelid  when  we  wink  things  for  a  tiny  fraction  of  a  second 

is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  things  in  after   they    are   gone.     For   instance, 

the  body,  yet  it  is  no  use  to  make  too  if  you  spin  a  little  black  and  white  disk 

many  of  them.     Indeed,  though  the  you  see  circles  instead  of  little  bits  of 

real  use  of  tears  is  to  make  us  see  prop-  circles.     That  is  because  the  eye  goes 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


19 


on  seeing  even  when  the  lines  are  not 
there,  and  sees  until  they  come  round 
again.  So  if  you  take  a  card  with  a 
gate  drawn  on  one  side,  and  a  man  on 
a  horse  on  the  other  side,  and  spin  it, 
you  seem  to  see  the  horse  jumping  the 
gate.  It  is  this  trick  of  the  eye  that 
is  used  in  the  biograph  or  cinemato- 
graph. 

How  A  COAT  KEEPS  US  WARM 

A  coat  does  not  make  us  warm,  but 
all  that  any  coat  can  do  is  to  keep  us 
warm.  Except  when  the  sun  is  actually 
shining  upon  us,  or  when  we  are 
huddling  over  a  fire,  we  make  all  our 
warmth  for  ourselves.  There  is  no 
warmth  in  a  coat  or  in  any  article  of 
clothing.  So,  of  course,  clothing  can- 
not make  us  warm — unless,  indeed,  we 
hold  it  in  front  of  the  fire  until  it 
is  hot,  and  then  put  it  on.  Indeed, 
when  you  come  to  think  of  it,  we  make 
our  clothes  warm.  Our  clothes  often 
feel  quite  cold  when  we  put  them  on, 
but  when  we  take  them  off  they  are 
warm,  and  they  have  received  the 
warmth  from  our  bodies. 

How  CLOTHES  KEEP  ICE  COLD 

The  best  way  to  understand  how 
clothes  keep  us  warm  is  to  learn  how 
to  keep  ice  cold.  Well,  if  clothing  is 
simply  something  that  keeps  back 
heat,  as  a  blind  keeps  back  light,  what 
would  happen  if  we  put  some  clothing 
on  the  ice?  If  we  choose  nice  warm 
clothing — which  simply  means  that  it 
keeps  us  warm — ought  it  not  to  keep 
the  heat  from  outside  from  getting 
into  the  ice? 

Now,  that  is  exactly  what  happens. 
If  we  take  the  warmest  kind  of 
clothing  that  we  can  think  of,  which 
is  flannel,  and  if  we  wrap  the  ice  up 
in  flannel,  we  keep  the  ice  cool,  and 
prevent  it  from  melting.  Now,  do 
you  not  think  that  is  rather  funny? 
When  we  want  to  keep  ourselves 
warm  we  put  on  warm  clothing,  as  we 
call  it;    and  when  we  want  to  keep 


ice  cold  we  put  warm  clothing  on  it. 
Would  you  not  almost  have  thought 
that  the  clothing  which  made  us  warm 
would  make  the  ice  warm  too,  and  so 
make  it  melt?  Well,  so  it  would  if 
the  clothing  were  really  warm,  like  a 
hot  bottle.  But  then,  you  see,  there 
is  no  warmth  in  it  at  all. 

Why  SOME  clothes  are  warmer  than 

OTHERS 

You  know  what  a  thermometer  is. 
It  is  something  that  measures  how 
hot  things  are.  Now,  if  you  take  a 
piece  of  flannel  and  a  piece  of  linen 
that  have  both  been  in  the  same  room 
for  some  time,  and  with  a  thermometer 
you  try  to  find  out  how  hot  they  are, 
you  find  that  they  are  both  just  of 
the  same  temperature.  But  on  a  cold 
day  you  would  rather  put  on  flannel 
than  linen,  because,  as  we  say,  the 
flannel  is  so  much  warmer.  Yet, 
according  to  the  thermometer,  the 
flannel  and  the  linen  are  each  just  as 
warm  as  the  other. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  this  puzzle? 
It  is  simply  that  some  things  are  better 
barriers  to  heat,  and  keep  heat  back 
better,  than  others. 
Why  SOME  things  are  colder  than 

OTHERS 

In  an  ordinary  room  without  a  fire 
all  the  different  things  are  equally  as 
warm,  because,  if  it  has  time  enough, 
the  warmth  will  spread  itself  over 
everything  about  it,  running  from 
anything  that  started  warmer  to  any- 
thing that  started  cooler. 

Yet  if  you  go  and  touch  several  of 
the  things  in  the  room,  one  after  the 
other,  you  find  that  they  feel  very  dif- 
ferent as  you  touch  them.  A  thing 
like  the  fender  will  feel  cold;  the  car- 
pet will  feel  warm;  wood  would  feel 
colder  than  the  carpet,  but  warmer 
than  the  fender.  Now,  that  is  simply 
because  these  things  differ  in  their 
power  of  keeping  heat  from  running 
through    them,    just    as    flannel    and 


20  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

linen  differ.     The  brass  of  the  fender  nervous  tissue  is  more  richly  supplied 

lets  heat  run  through  it  quickly,  but  with  blood  than  any  other  tissue  in  the 

the  carpet  lets  heat  run  through  it  body,  not  even  excepting  the  muscle 

slowly,  and  so  we  say  that  the  fender  tissue  of  the  heart  itself.     The  blood 

feels  cold  and  the  carpet  feels  warm,  carries    the    food    materials    without 

just  as  a  linen  sheet  feels  chilly  when  which   nerve   tissue   cannot   act,   and 

we    get    into    bed,    while    a    woollen  nerve  tissue  has  practically  no  reserve 

blanket  feels  warm.     If  a  thing  car-  at  all  of  food  supply   in  it.     If  the 

ries  heat  quickly  away  from  our  fin-  supply    of    blood    is    stopped    for    a 

ger,  it  makes  our  finger  cold,  and  we  moment,   nervous  tissue   "gives  out" 

say  that  the  thing  is  cold;  and  we  call  sooner  than  any  other  tissue  in  the 

another   thing    warm    in    comparison  body. 

with  it,  if  that  other  thing,  like  flan-  A  simple  and  wonderful  little  ex- 

nel,  only  carries  away  the  heat  from  periment  will  show  you  this  for  your- 

our  finger  slowly.  self.     The   screen   or   curtain   at   the 

What  happens  when  anyone  faints  back  of  your  eye,  which  receives  the 

^  .     .       .         „                1     (.  1    1  •  ravs  of  light  from  everything  you  see, 

Famtmg  IS  really  a  wonderful  thmg.  j/ ^^^^^^    ^f    ^^^^^^^    ^-^^^^      It    -^ 

What  happens  IS  that  the  heart  does  j,^^    ^^j^j^    blood-vessels.     If    you 

not  send  enough  blood  to  the  bram  ^j^^^^  ^^^^         ^^^^  j^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^j^^  ^^j^^^^ 

and  so  the  bram  stops  working,  and  j   .i                             n          n      ^ 

,                   ,                ,  ^             -    °' „  and  then  press  your  nnger  hrmly  on 

the  person  drops  to  the  ground.    \\  hen  ^j^^                     (pressing  on  it  through 

you  are  standmg  or  sittmg,  your  heart  ^j^^  ^.^^^  j^  ^  ^^^  ^^^^^^^  everything 

has  to  drive  the  blood  upwards  to  your  ^^.jjj    ^^^^    ^^^-^^    ^^^^      ^j^^    ;^,^    j^ 

brain   against   the   attraction   of   the  ^^^^  ^1^^,^  i,     l^ntv  of  light,  but 

whole  earth,  ^^'hlch  tries  to  pull  every-  -^  j^        -^^  ^,j^^      ^^^^  ^^^^^  g 

thing  down.     But  directly  the  faint mg  ^^^  -^  ^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^;^,^  ^^^  ^^,jU 

person  falls  the  hearts  task  of  sending  ^^^         .^_     ^j^^  ^^^^^^  -^  ^j^^^  ^^j^^^^ 

sufhcient  blood  to  the  brain  is  made  ^^^^    ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^.^_^^11  ^.^^^  ^^^_ 

easy,    and    so    very    soon    his  ^  brain  ^^^^^^^  ^j^^  ^j^^^j  ^^^^^^-^^^  ^j^^^^^^j^  ^j^^ 

gets  sufficient  blood,  and  he     comes  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^.^^.^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^j^^ 

round,     as  we  say.     If  his  heart  has  ^^^^^    ^^^ ^    ^^^^^    ^^^^^^    ^^^.^    ^^^^^^^^ 

not  been  actually  strained  he  is   all  ^^^^-^^^  ^^.j^^^j^  j^  ^,^^  ^^^.^^^  ^p  ^.j^^^^  -^ 

right  again.     So  you  see  that  the  fall-  j^^^^  ^^^j.^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^1^^^^  -^  ^^^^1^  ^^ 

ing  IS  I\atures  method  of     relieving  i                    u              ur   j 

"°    ;        .       ,,                                         '^  no  more,  and  your  eye  became  bund. 

the  situation.  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^p  breath 

People  who  ha^^  not  learned  this  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  -^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 

try  to  raise  up  the  fallen  person  which  ^^      .^^  jt  ^^^^r  gets  tired.     But  if 

IS    simply    mterfering    with    Nature  s  ^^  ^unVery  hard,  or  swim  verv  hard, 

way    and    putting    his    brain    in    the  ^^  ^^  anvthing  of  that  kind,  we  sud- 

worst  possible  position  for  getting  the  ^^^^j^  ^j^;^^  ^  ^^^^^  ^^^1  ^^  ^^^^^  ^.^^j. 

amount  of  blood  it  needs      The  feet  ^^^  ^^^^^      ^^^^  ^^  j^^^  ^^  ^^ 

of  a  famtmg  person  should  be  raised  ^^^  ^,^jj^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  wonderful 

to    allow    the    blood    to    more    freely  ^^.^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  j^^^^^  j^  ^j^^  ^^^^^^^^^^ 

reach  the  bram.  ^^  ^^^^^^^^  p^^,^^  ^.j^.^j^  -^  j^  ^^1^  ^^ 

DOES  THE  BRAIN  NEED  FOOD?  Call  upou  at  a  moment's  notice.     When 

The  brain  is  made  of  nerves  and  we  get  out  of  breath  we  have  already 

nerve-cells.     These  taken  together  we  called  upon  this  reserve  power,  and 

call  nervous  tissue,  and  we  know  that  should  take  warning. 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


21 


Why  we  have  lines  on  our  hands 

Some  people  have  said  that  the  use 
of  these  Hnes  is  to  give  us  a  better 
hold  upon  things,  but  probably  that 
is  not  their  real  use.  If  it  were  so 
we  should  really  have  to  say  that  they 
were  scarcely  worth  having.  It  is 
much  more  likely  that  the  use  of  these 
lines  is  to  help  the  sense  of  touch  in 
our  hands  and  fingers,  where  touch  is 
so  very  important.  By  making  little 
valleys  and  ridges  they  increase  the 
surface  of  the  skin,  and  by  going  in 
different  directions  they  help  us  to 
feel  the  kind  of  surface  that  anything 
has  which  we  touch.  The  little  end- 
ings of  the  nerves  of  touch  are  placed 
to  the  greatest  advantage  by  means  of 
these  lines,  and  that  seems  to  be  the 
reason  why  they  are  so  very  well 
marked  on  just  those  parts  of  the  skin 
where  delicacy  of  touch  is  most 
important. 

What  is  the  best  cure  for  fatigue 
We  must  not  take  a  large  meal  when 
we  are  tired,  because  we  are  not  then 
fit  to  deal  with  food.  We  may  take 
water,  or  lemonade,  or  oranges,  be- 
cause water,  in  passing  through  the 
body,  always  carries  ail  sorts  of  poi- 
sons away  with  it  and  helps  us  to 
get  rid  of  them. 

But,  above  all,  we  must  rest,  and 
there  is  no  kind  of  rest  which  can  be 
compared  with  sleep.  In  general,  the 
people  who  sleep  best  are  those  who 
work  hard.  The  man  who  works  all 
day  in  the  fields  usually  has  the  best 
sleep  in  the  world,  far  better  than  some 
unfortunate  people  who  do  little  or 
nothing,  and  who  may  even  take  medi- 
cine to  help  them  to  sleep.  Nature, 
the  best  of  all  doctors,  has  her  own 
medicine  to  procure  good  sleep  for 
every  healthy  person  who  works; 
and  the  most  beautiful  thing  about 
'  tiredness,  when  it  is  the  right  fatigue 
that  everyone  should  feel  when  he 
goes  to  bed,  is  that  it  produces  in  our 


blood  just  the  very  thing  that  gives 
us  perfect  and  natural  sleep. 
Why  we  have  ten  fingers 

Nature  decided  on  five  fingers,  or 
toes,  at  the  end  of  each  limb  very  long 
ago  indeed — ages  before  man  appeared 
upon  the  earth  at  all.  It  is  true  that, 
at  first  sight,  there  seem  to  be  many 
exceptions  to  this.  We  find  only  one 
obvious  finger,  or  toe,  for  each  limb  in 
the  horse,  two  for  the  pig,  and  so  on. 
But  the  original  figure  was  five.  The 
hen,  for  instance,  has  only  three  and  a 
half  toes,  and  when  we  examine  the 
skeleton  of  its  wing — which  is  really 
its  arm — we  find  three  and  a  half 
fingers  there.  The  chicken,  as  we  see 
it,  is  the  same.  But  if  we  examine 
the  hen's  egg  before  the  chicken  is 
ready  to  break  through  the  shell,  we 
find  that  it  has  five  fingers,  or  toes,  on 
the  end  of  each  of  its  four  limbs;  only 
the  birds  have  apparently  found  that 
they  could  do  as  well  with  three  and 
part  of  a  fourth,  so  they  have  stopped 
developing  the  rest.  We  must  go  far 
below  the  the  mammals  or  the  birds,  or 
even  the  reptiles,  for  the  beginnings  of 
the  five-fingered  or  five-toed  ar- 
rangement, and  it  is  not  till  we  study 
the  still  humbler  creatures  that  we 
get  to  the  real  beginning.  If  we  look 
at  a  frog  we  can  see  that  it  has  five 
fingers  and  five  toes  just  as  we  have. 
So  we  may  say  that  it  was  the  frog,  or 
the  remote  ancestors  of  the  frog, 
which  decided  ages  ago  that  we  should 
count  in  tens! 

Why  all  our  fingers  are  not  the 
same  length 

It  might  be  very  difficult  to  answer 
this  question  if  we  had  only  the  present 
use  of  the  hand  to  account  for;  and  it 
is  a  disadvantage  to  us  that  our  little 
fingers  and  ring-fingers,  for  instance, 
are  so  short  and  weak,  for  this  weakens 
our  grasp  for  things,  which  is  the 
principle  purpose  of  which  we  use  our 
hands.     Also,   this  inequality  of  the 


22 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


fingers  in  length  and  strength  is  a 
difficulty  for  the  pianist  and  the 
typist.  We  therefore  cannot  hope  to 
answer  this  question  by  referring  to 
the  usefulness  of  the  hand  for  its 
present  purpose.  But  we  find  the 
answer  when  we  consider  the  history 
of  the  hand,  and  when  we  look  at  the 
fingers  of  many  kinds  of  lower  animals 
which  have  fingers  more  or  less  like 
ours. 

We  learn  that  our  hands  were 
originally  used  for  standing  and  for 
walking,  since  we  inherit  them  from 
"four-footed  ancestors."  If  we  put 
the  hand  on  a  table,  as  if  we  meant  to 
walk  on  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  I  think 
we  shall  see  at  once  what  a  well- 
balanced  support  it  makes,  just  be- 
cause the  fingers  are  unequal  in  length 
— the  middle  finger  the  longest,  and 
the  short  thumb  and  little  finger 
falling  behind  and  balancing  the 
whole.  We  see  the  same  thing  in  the 
case  of  animals  that  have  three 
fingers — as  the  toes  of  the  forefeet 
might  rightly  be  called — and  we  can 
notice  it  for  ourselves  any  day  in  the 
dog  or  the  cat.  This  is  only  one  in- 
stance of  a  very  large  number  furnished 
by  our  bodies  which  helps  us  to  under- 
stand why  certain  things,  for  which 
we  can  find  no  particular  reason  now, 
and  which  may  even  be  inconvenient 
to  us,  are  as  they  are. 

Why  we  have  finger-nails  and  toe- 
nails 

Perhaps  we  may  think  that,  at  any 
rate,  there  is  a  use  for  finger-nails,  as 
we  can  use  them  to  scratch  with;  but 
at  the  present  day  there  is  no  explana- 
tion of  finger-nails  and  toe-nails  so 
far  as  use  is  concerned.  If  we  turn 
to  the  past,  however,  we  find  the 
explanation  at  once.  Our  nails  are 
all  that  is  left  to  us  of  the  things  which 
the  lower  animals  have  and  make 
great  use  of  as  claws  and  hoofs.  We 
live  by  our  minds,  not  by  things  like 


claws;  and  as  we  have  not  sufficient 
use  for  them,  they  have  grown  smaller 
and  weaker  in  us — just  as  our  teeth 
also  have  done,  and  our  bones  and 
muscles  in  large  degree — until  we 
have  nothing  left  but  nails. 

Yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are 
really  the  same  as  the  claws  the  cat 
uses  for  fighting  and  for  climbing  with, 
and  for  tearing  its  food;  and  the  hoofs 
which  the  horse  uses  for  walking 
upon.  The  ancestors  of  the  horse  had 
five  fingers  and  toes,  as  we  have,  and 
a  nail,  or  hoof,  at  the  end  of  each;  but 
all  these  except  the  middle  ones  have 
shrunk  in  the  modern  horse,  until  we 
find  only  one  that  reaches  the  ground, 
and  the  remains  of  another  on  each 
side.  Occasionally  we  find  a  young 
horse  born  with  three  or  even  four 
toes.  The  horse's  hoofs,  then,  are 
really  the  nails  of  its  middle  fingers 
and  middle  toes,  and  are  very  useful 
to  it.  They  are  made  of  the  same 
material  as  our  nails,  and  can  be  cut 
without  pain,  as  our  nails  can. 

Why    some    people    are    dark  and 
some  fair 

The  differences  of  color  between 
various  people  are  a  good  instance  of 
those  many  difl^erences  which  are  due 
not  to  anything  that  happens  to  us  in 
the  course  of  our  lives,  but  to  some- 
thing that  is  inborn  in  us,  and  usually 
derived  from  our  parents.  The  chil- 
dren of  two  dark  parents  are  dark, 
those  of  parents  who  are  both  brown- 
eyed  are  always  brown-eyed,  and  so 
on.  This  way  in  which  people  re- 
semble their  parents  is  one  of  the  most 
important  things  in  the  world,  and  the 
special  name  for  it  is  heredity.  We 
say  that  the  thing  in  question,  such  as 
skin-color  or  eye-color,  is  hereditary. 

All  human  beings  may  be  divided 
into  races  by  their  color — the  fair- 
skinned,  the  yellow-skinned,  and  the 
dark-skinned,  and  they  are  each  apt 
to   think   the   others   ugly,   especially 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK  23 

when  these  are  accompanied  by  other  irregular,  or  have  thin,  soft,  crumbly 

differences.     In    America    there    is    a  outsides,  which  easily  break  away  or 

great  mixture  of  races,  though  nearly  decay.     Now   we   see   why   a   second 

all  belong  to  the  fair-skinned  family  tooth  grows  when  the  first  falls  out  or 

of   mankind.     Among   us  are  a  fairer  is  pulled  out.     But  no  third  tooth  will 

and  a  darker  race,  and    it    is    known  grow  when  a  second  tooth  has  been 

that  at  present,  owing  to  some  reason  lost,  because  there  is  no  other  tooth- 

we    do    not    understand,    the    darker  germ  lying  below  the  second  tooth,  as 

people  are  increasing  and  the  fairer  there  is  below  the  first  tooth.     Thus  a 

people  becoming  fewer.     It  is  probable  third  tooth  cannot  grow, 

that    ages    ago    differences    in    color  Why  onions  make  our  eyes  water 
depended   partly   on    the    amount   of         Our  eyes  are  really  watering  all  the 

sun,    darker    people    having    coloring  time,    or,    rather,    we    are    producing 

matter  in  skin  and  eyes  which  pro-  tears  that  pass  over  the  eyeball  and 

tects  them  from  strong  sunlight;  but  keep  it  clean.     That  is  why  we  wink 

this  is  a  question  about  which  we  do  —to    carry    the    tears    that    appear 

not  know  much  yet.  under  the  upper  lid  over  the  surface 

Why  only  two  sets  of  teeth  grow  of  the  eye.     These  tears  escape  into 

When  we  are  born  we  have,  hidden  the  nose,  as  we  know.  We  say  that 
in  our  gums,  all  our  first  teeth.  These  our  eyes  water  when  the  tears  form  so 
twenty  teeth  are  already  completely  quickly  that  they  cannot  escape 
formed  in  all  their  parts  at  birth,  and  quickly  enough,  because  then  we  see 
only  have  to  get  through  the  gums  in  them  water.  Onions  give  off  some- 
order  to  be  seen.  A  baby  gets  its  thing  to  the  air  which  excites  the  ends 
food  by  sucking  and  not  by  biting,  and  of  the  nerves  of  smell  in  the  nose,  and 
so  it  is  better  that  its  teeth  should  be  also  excites  the  ends  of  the  nerves  of 
out  of  the  way  at  first,  below  the  gums,  touch  in  the  eyeball  and  eyelids,  and 
Still  deeper  in  the  gums,  below  each  of  so  sends  a  message  to  the  brain,  telling 
the  primary  teeth,  and  also  farther  the  tear-glands  to  make  tears  quickly, 
back  in  the  jaw  than  the  primary  and  then  we  say  that  our  eyes  water, 
teeth  extend,  there  are  little  groups  of  There  is  use  in  this,  for  the  rapid  flow 
cells,  called  tooth-germs,  which  will  of  tears  helps  to  protect  the  eyelids 
some  day  make  the  second  set  of  and  the  eyeball  from  the  irritant  the 
teeth,  usually  called  the  permanent  onions  give  off.  In  people  who,  for 
teeth,  though  they  are  often  not  as  some  reason,  cannot  produce  tears, 
permanent  as  they  might  be.  There  such  things  as  onions  will  make  the 
are  thirty-two  sets  of  these  little  cells ;  eyes  smart  severely,  because  such 
and  though  none  of  them  are  teeth,  or  people  cannot  protect  themselves  by 
look  in  the  least  like  teeth,  they  have  making  their  eyes  water, 
in  them  the  power  of  making  teeth  of  Why  we  are  right-handed 
the  various  kinds  that  we  possess.  Some  people  think  that  babies  are 

We  should  take  very  great  care  of  born  with  a  natural  tendency  to  use 

the  first   teeth   of  children,   brushing  one  hand  more  than  the  other,   and 

them,  and  having  them  filled  if  they  that  in  the  greater  number  of  cases 

decay,  even  though  we  know  that  they  this  is  the  right  hand;  but  in  a  few — 

will  fall  out  soon;  because  if  they  are  perhaps  about  six  in  a  hundred — it  is 

neglected  the  tooth-germs  underneath  the  left.     They   say  it  i.-   not  worth 

them  are  very  apt  to  be  injured,  and  while  to  train  both  hands  equally  for 

when  the  new  teeth  come  they  will  be  everything — for  instance,   for  writing 


2I^  TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

— as  this  would  take  too  much  time;  keep  the  brain  awake  and   make  it 

and  we  could  not  become  so   skilful  aware  that  something  must  be  done, 

with  either  hand  if  we  were  taught  to  How  shivering  from  cold  helps  to 

use  both  equally  for  everything.  make  us  warm 

But  others  think  that  the  inclination  A  very  good  reason  for  shivering 
shown  by  a  child  to  use  one  hand  or  perhaps  can  be  found.  Whenever  a 
the  other  is  determined  by  the  way  it  muscle  works,  heat  is  produced;  in- 
is  held  to  the  breast  by  the  mother  deed,  a  very  great  part  of  the  heat  of 
when  young.  Some  educators  even  the  body  is  made  in  the  muscles,  which 
favor  teaching  children  to  write  and  have  been  called  "the  fireplaces  of  the 
draw  indiscriminately  with  both  body."  Shivering  consists  of  small, 
hands.  This  is  called  being  ambi-  quick,  to-and-fro  movements,  some- 
dextrous.  It  is  certain  that  there  times  almost  quite  regular,  as  when 
is  very  little  in  the  old  prejudice  our  "teeth  chatter,"  of  most  or  all  of 
against  the  use  of  the  left  hand,  for  the  muscles  of  the  body.  Now, 
left-handed  people  as  a  rule  write  as  though  shivering  often  makes  us  aware 
well  as  others,  despite  the  fact  that  that  we  are  cold,  yet  it  helps  to  keep  us 
our  system  of  penmanship  was  framed  warm,  for  all  these  little  muscular 
for  right-handed  people.  movements  are  producing  heat.  So 
Why  we  shiver  when  we  are  very  we  may  say  that  when  a  person,  by 
COLD  keeping    still,    refuses    to    work    his 

There  are  more  good  reasons  than  muscles  so  as  to  keep  warm,  the  brain 

one  why  we  shiver  when  we  are  cold,  takes  the  matter  into  its  own  hands 

The  machinery  of  it,  as  we  may  say,  and  does  what  little  it  can  by  setting 

is  that  cold,  at  first,  rather  excites  and  the  muscles  shivering, 

disturbs  the  nervous  system,  just  as  why  everything  spins  round  when 

heat  usually  soothes  it.     We  notice  we  are  dizzy 

these  contrary  effects  of  heat  and  cold  When  anyone  feels  dizzy,  and  per- 

in  the  case  of  a  warm  bath  and  a  cold  haps  almost  about  to  faint,  his  brain 

dip.     This  does  not  say  that  shivering  cannot  properly  control  the  working  of 

is  at  all  the  same  thing  as  the  feeling  his  eyes.     They  may  move  round  from 

of    activity    we    have    after    a    cold  side   to   side,   perhaps   independently 

plunge;   but  in  each  case  the  cold  has  instead   of  together,   and   so   it   may 

been  what  is  called  a  stimulant.     But  look  as  if  things  were  spinning  round, 

now    we    have    to    ask    whether    the  Another  reason  for  dizziness  has  to  do 

shivering  is  of  any  use  to  us,  or  whether  with  a  wonderful  part  of  the  body  near 

it  is  a  wholly  useless  and  purposeless  the  ear,  and  without  which  none  of  us 

thing;  beyond  any  doubt  it  is  possible  could   sit   upright,   much   less   stand, 

to  show  that  shivering  serves  the  pur-  though  few  people  have  ever  heard 

poses  of  the  body  just  as  hunger  does,  of  it.     This  organ,  which  used  to  be 

and   just   as   even   fever   often   does,  thought  to  have  something  to  do  with 

though  we  think  of  these  as  things  hearing,  really  controls  our  balance, 

rather  bad  in  themselves.     One  good  In  some  people  it  suffers  from  a  dis- 

reason  for  shivering  is  that  it  makes  us  ease,    and    these    people    constantly 

aware  of  cold  as  we  might  not  other-  suffer  from  dizziness  and  a  feeling  that 

wise  be,  and  so  we  can  protect  our-  everything    is    spinning    round    and 

selves.     After   the   first   stage   of   its  round. 

action  great  cold  sends  the  brain  to  As  every  one  knows,  we  can  make 

sleep.     Shivering    perhaps    serves    to  ourselves  dizzy,  and  can  think  that 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


25 


everything  is  spinning  round,  by  turn- 
ing round  ourselves  several  times  in 
one  direction.  This  disturbs  the  organ 
of  balancing,  and  this  disturbance 
gives  us  the  feeling.  If  you  turn 
round  the  other  way  you  put  things 
right,  by  restoring  the  original  state 
of  affairs  within  the  balancing  organ. 
The  name  for  the  feeling  that  things 
are  spinning  round  is  vertigo;  and 
vert  simply  means  turn,  as  in  such 
words  as  convert,  invert,  and  others. 
Sleeping  with  the  bed-clothes  over 

THE  FACE 

Mothers  sometimes  get  anxious 
about  this,  for  they  think — and  quite 
rightly,  too — that  a  child,  or  anyone 
else,  should  have  its  nose  free  when  it 
is  asleep,  and  not  covered  with  the 
bed-clothes.  But  if  they  will  watch 
a  sleeping  child,  they  will  see  that 
though  often  the  child  starts  to  go  to 
sleep  by  covering  its  face  up,  yet  al- 
ways, when  it  is  asleep  or  nearly 
asleep,  the  child's  body  will  do  the 
rest  for  itself,  and  the  head  will  be 
moved  until  the  nose  gets  free  of  the 
clothes,  so  that  fresh  air  can  get  to  it. 
So  people  who  look  after  children 
really  need  not  worry  if  children  like 
to  start  the  night  with  the  bed-clothes 
almost  over  their  faces.  The  child's 
brain,  as  soon  as  the  child's  self  is 
asleep  and  cannot  interfere  with  it  in 
any  way,  will  put  things  right. 
What  are  freckles 

What  we  usually  speak  of  as  freckles 
are  spots  of  a  yellowish-brown  color 
which  are  seen  on  the  skin  of  some 
people,  especially  after  they  have  been 
exposed  to  strong  sunshine  for  some 
time.  They  occur  chiefly  on  the  face, 
on  the  neck,  and  on  the  hands,  because 
those  are  the  parts  of  the  skin  unpro- 
tected by  clothes.  Some  people  are 
much  more  liable  than  others  to  have 
this  coloring  produced,  and  in  some 
it  disappears  quite  quickly,  while  in 
others  it  lasts  a  long  time. 


In  all  these  cases  the  freckles  are 
the  result  of  the  action  of  the  sun  on 
certain  cells  of  the  skin,  which  causes 
these  cells  to  produce  coloring  matter, 
or  pigment,  which  remains  there  for  a 
certain  time.  There  are  cases,  how- 
ever, in  which  freckles  do  not  appear 
to  be  caused  by  very  hot  sunshine  or 
exposure,  but  which  come  naturally, 
just  as  the  color  of  the  skin  itself  is 
either  fair  or  dark,  according  to  the 
tendency  inherited  by  the  individual. 
What  makes  a  dimple 

In  order  to  understand  a  dimple,  we 
should  know  the  structure  of  the  skin 
and  what  lies  beneath  it.  In  most 
parts  of  the  body  the  skin,  with  its 
outer  horny  layer,  and  the  inner  living 
layer,  which  carries  nerves  and  blood- 
vessels and  makes  the  horny  layer 
afresh  from  day  to  day,  lies  very 
loosely  upon  the  layer  of  tissue  be- 
neath it.  This  is  a  loose  layer,  con- 
taining a  certain  number  of  fibers 
running  in  all  directions,  with  fat- 
cells  lying  between  them  in  healthy 
people — except  under  the  skin  of  the 
eyelids,  where  fat  is  never  found  even 
in  the  fattest  people.  A  few  of  these 
fibers  are  attached  to  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  skin,  so  that,  though  we  can 
move  the  skin  about  very  freely  over 
what  lies  beneath  it,  there  is,  never- 
theless, a  limit  to  this  movement. 

But  where  there  are  dimples,  as  on 
the  face,  and  often  round  such  joints  as 
the  knee  and  the  elbow,  the  number  of 
fibers  attached  to  the  under  surface 
of  the  skin  is  much  increased,  and  they 
are  rather  short,  so  that  the  skin  is 
depressed,  or  dimpled,  at  these  points. 
We  see  what  is  really  the  same  thing 
produced  accidentally  in  the  case  of 
scars,  which  are  often  a  little  depressed 
below  the  general  level  of  the  skin 
because  they  are  tacked  down  in  the 
same  way.  But  a  scar  differs  from  a 
dimple,  as  the  skin  over  a  scar  has 
been  lost,  and  is  replaced  by  a  new 


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thing  called  scar-tissue,  while  the  skin  already  contains  a  quantity  of  water, 

over  a  dimple  is  true  and  healthy  skin,  and  so  does  not  easily  take  up  more. 

Why  damp  air  often  makes  us  ill  and   the   passage   of  water  from   our 

Damp  air  is  often  cold  air,  and  the  bodies  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  checked, 

cold  has  usually  been  blamed  for  mak-  All  life,  as  we  know,  is  lived  in  water, 

ing  us  ill,   though  many  facts  prove  and  if  life  is  to  go  on,  enough  fresh 

that    it    is    not    blameworthy    at    all.  water  must  always  be  supplied  to  the 

There  is  one  great  difference  between  living  body,  whether  it  be  a  man  or  an 

damp  air  and  dry  air,  which  accounts  animal   or   a  plant.     When   the   pas- 

for  the  fact  that  people  usually  feel  sage  of  water  is  slow,  as  it  is  in  damp 

at  their  best  in  dry  air,  while  many  air,  then  the  processes  of  our  lives  are 

feel  at  their  worst  in  damp  air.  checked,   and  our  bodies   are   apt  to 

Water  is  always  leaving  our  bodies  get  choked  up  with  things  which  would 

by  many  channels,   such  as  the  skin  otherwise  have  been  burned  up  and  got 

and    the    breath.     When    the    air    is  rid  of.     This  seems  to  be  the  real  key 

dry,  this  journey  of  water  is  readily  to  the  effect  of  damp  air  upon  rheu- 

made,  but  when  the  air  is  damp,  it  matism. 


WONDERS     OF     ANIMALS     AND      PLANTS 

What  the  birds  sing  about  most  beautiful  thing  about  the  birds' 

WHENEVER  a  child  or  a  bird  singing,  which  is,  that  they  never  sing 

or  anyone  else  sings  naturally,  that  people  may  say  "What  a  beauti- 

it  sings  about  its  feelings.     If  ful    voice    you    have!"    b-'t    always 

you  have  no  feelings  you  ought  not  to  because    they    have    som^    beautiful 

sing.     Sometimes  we  sing  just  to  show  feeling  which  makes  them  sing, 

that  we  are  brighter  than  other  people.  Why  birds  fly  so  high 

and  when  we  do  that  we  do  not  feel  If  you  stand  on  the  top  of  a  high 

what  we  are  singing,  and  everyone  is  building  on  a  sunny  day,  you  can  see 

glad  when  we  stop.     But  the  birds  sing  nearly    over    the    city.     The    higher 

only  when  they  must — when  their  feel-  you  go  the  more  you  can  see,  if  your 

ings    find    their    way    out    somehow,  eyes  are  strong  enough.     These  birds 

Then  they  try  to  tell  the  world  how  have   very   strong   sight.     Their  eyes 

happy    they    are.     The   feelings    that  can  see  as  well  as  ours  would  if  we 

birds  sing  about  are  always  happy  feel-  used  a  telescope. 

ings.     When  a  bird  is  ill,  or  miserable.  The  big  birds  look  down  from  the 

or  unhappy,  it  never  sings.     Generally  great  height  at  which  they  are  flying, 

birds  sing  to  express  their  feelings  of  and  they  see  many  birds  flying  below, 

love,  and  to  call  to  their  mates  and  These  birds   below  watch  the  earth, 

their  friends  when  they  want  company.  They   see   food  thrown  away  by  men 

At  other  times  they  sing  simply  for  and  placed  in  the  garden  by  children, 

the  joy  of  living,  as  the  lark  sings  when  and  in  a  moment  they  fly  down  to  get 

he  goes  up  into  the  sky.     He  sings  for  it.     The  bird  which  is  right  up  in  the 

the  joy  of  his  nest  on  the  ground,  and  air  knows  what  they  are  doing,  and 

for  the  joy  of  the  light,  and  the  joy  swoops  down  quickly  to  take  its  share, 

of  the  air,   and   the  joy  of  freedom.  These  birds  get  a  good  meal.     If  they 

Perhaps  the  singing  of  the  birds  was  did  not  eat  that  food  it  would  soon 

the    first    music    that    was    heard    on  become  bad  in  the  sunshine,  and  make 

the    earth.     But    do    remember    the  us  ill;  but  it  serves  the  birds  for  a  good 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


m 


dinner,  and  by  eating  it  the  birds  save 
us  from  being  ill.     So  we  see  how  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  Nature  looks 
after  her  big  family. 
The  use  of  a  moth 

Hair  and  wool  are  rubbed  off  the 
thousands  and  thousands  of  hairy  and 
woolly  animals  in  the  world,  and,  if 
this  hair  and  wool  were  never  de- 
stroyed, it  would,  in  the  course  of 
many  years,  become  a  great  nuisance. 
The  moths  eat  this  and  so  prevent  us 
from  suffering  from  such  a  nuisance. 

But  moths  eat  our  clothes,  you  say. 

Moths  never  eat  the  clothes  which 
we  have  on,  or  the  clothes  which  we 
wear  regularly.  If  you  have  too  many 
clothes  to  wear,  you  should  give  them 
to  poor  people  who  have  not  enough. 
So  that  moths  teach  us  not  to  be 
greedy,  not  to  hoard  up  things  which 
other  people  would  be  thankful  to  have ! 

That  is  a  lesson  which  not  all  of  us 
would  expect.  Other  unpleasant  things 
teach  us  just  as  well.  Those  of  us 
who  have  relatives  in  hot  lands  know 
how  badly  people  there  suffer  from 
fever. 
Where  the  flowers  go  in  winter 

The  flowers  of  most  plants  can  live 
and  be  useful  for  only  part  of  one  year, 
when  there  is  plenty  of  light  and 
warmth.  When  the  summer  goes 
they  die.  You  know  how  the  roses  on 
a  rose-bush  die,  but  you  know  also 
that  the  rose-bush  itself  does  not  die. 

In  just  the  same  way  the  leaves  of 
most  trees  die  at  the  end  of  the  sum- 
mer, but  the  trees  go  on  living.  When 
the  flowers  and  the  leaves  die  and  fall, 
their  death  and  fall  is  really  a  sign  of 
life  in  the  plant,  or  bush,  or  tree  that 
bears  them.  If  the  whole  bough  of  a 
tree  is  killed  by  something  in  the  sum- 
mer, the  leaves  will  remain  on  it  when 
the  leaves  of  all  the  living  boughs  have 
fallen.  There  is  really  no  waste  or 
loss  to  a  plant  or  a  tree  when  its  leaves 
and  flowers  die. 


Before  a  leaf  falls  it  changes  its 
color,  as  we  know,  because  the  plant 
or  tree  is  taking  out  of  the  leaf  all 
the  useful  things  that  it  needs  for  its 
own  life.  Then,  at  the  base  of  the 
leaf,  it  forms  a  thin  layer  of  something 
rather  like  cork,  so  that,  after  some  of 
the  useful  things  have  been  taken  out 
of  it,  the  leaf  is  left  to  die.  There 
are  still  some  useful  things  in  the  leaf, 
however,  only  they  need  something  to 
be  done  to  them  before  the  plant  can 
use  them. 
what  happens  when  a  leaf  falls 

Many  changes  take  place  in  the 
leaf  as  the  summer  goes  away.  When 
the  leaf  falls  to  the  ground,  there  are 
waiting  for  it  many  tiny  living  crea- 
tures called  microbes,  which,  as  we 
say,  make  it  decay.  But  this  really 
means  that  the  substance  of  the  leaf 
is  changed  in  such  a  way  that  it  can 
be  taken  up  by  the  plant  from  the  soil 
and  built  up  again  into  the  plant  when 
the  spring  comes.  This  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  wonderful  things 
in  Nature,  and  there  is  no  greater 
lesson  we  can  learn  than  that  what 
looks  like  useless  death  and  decay  and 
waste  is  really  nothing  of  the  sort, 
but  a  living  process  that  makes  for 
more  life. 

You  will  say.  Why  should  not  the 
leaves  and  flowers  live  on  all  the  year 
round,  as  they  do  in  some  plants  for 
special  reasons?  But  the  leaf  is  made 
in  order  to  use  the  sunlight,  and  in 
the  winter  there  is  not  enough  sun- 
light, and  so  the  leaf  would  be  wasting 
its  time. 

So  the  plant  takes  what  it  can  use 
from  the  leaf  and  the  rest  of  the  leaf 
is  changed,  so  that  the  plant  can  use 
that,  too,  when  the  summer  is  coming, 
and  there  is  use  for  new  leaves. 
How  the  mosquito  causes  fever 

And  now,  after  all  these  years,  after 
many  brave  men  have  died  from  fever, 
a    doctor   has    discovered   that    fever 


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there  can  be  checked,  and  can  be  done 
away  with.  The  fever  is  caused  by 
the  sting  of  a  httle  insect  called  a 
mosquito.  What  we  call  the  "midge" 
in  this  country  is  really  one  form  of 
mosquito.  In  the  hot  lands  this 
mosquito,  when  it  stings,  forces  a 
deadly  poison  into  the  blood  of  the 
person  it  bites. 

What  the  doctor  does,  having  found 
out  the  cause  of  the  fever,  is  to  get 
rid  of  that  cause.  He  finds  that  the 
mosquito  lays  the  eggs  from  which  the 
young  ones  are  born  in  moist,  swampy 
places.  So  the  stamps  are  drained 
and  the  puddles  dried  up.  Then  the 
mosquito  eggs  cannot  be  hatched,  and, 
there  being  no  mosquitoes,  men  can- 
not be  poisoned.  The  mosquito  has 
taught  men  that  they  must  be  clean 
and  careful  in  their  homes. 

How  A  SPIDER  SPINS   ITS  WEB 

Great  men  say  that  nothing  is  more 
wonderful  than  the  cleverness  of  the 
spider.  The  silk  of  which  it  makes  its 
web  comes  from  its  body  through 
tiny  tubes,  like  the  finest  hairs. 
Many  of  them  come  out  at  the  same 
time,  but  after  leaving  the  spider's 
body  they  are  all  formed  into  one  rope 
of  silk,  which  is  so  thin  that  a  hundred 
of  them  together  are  only  as  thick  as  a 
hair.  The  end  of  the  silk  is  fastened 
to  a  twig  or  a  leaf  or  a  piece  of  wood 
Sometimes  the  spider  makes  the  fasten- 
ing itself,  or  it  may  let  the  silk  float 
from  its  body  for  the  wind  to  blow  it 
about  until  it  touches  something  and 
clings  there. 

When  both  ends  have  been  made 
fast,  the  spider  is  able  to  run  down  the 
thread  and  fix  several  more  threads, 
perhaps  twenty,  all  fastened  to  differ- 
ent points,  but  meeting  in  the  middle. 
These  are  the  cross  ropes  of  the  web. 
Then  other  lines  have  to  be  woven 
round  and  round  these,  making  per- 
haps twenty  rings.  All  this  beautiful 
silk  has  come  from  the  spider's  body. 


The  spider  works  hard  and  fast,  and 
when  the  web  is  begun  the  work  is 
finished  in  less  than  an  hour.  The 
web  is  then  so  strong  that  the  wind 
cannot  blow  it  away  and  the  rain 
cannot  break  it. 

The  purpose  of  the  spider's  web  is 
to  catch  insects,  so  the  spider  has  still 
much  work  to  do.  Insects  would  not 
be  caught  in  a  web  if  they  could  walk 

HOW    NATURE    HANGS    HER    BEADS    UPON    A 
SPIDER'S  WEB 


This  is  a  spider's  web  covered  with  dewdrops.  The 
spider  makes  its  web  with  silk  from  its  own  body,  which  it 
spins  into  rings  and  threads  until  the  web  is  complete.  A 
web  is  so  strong  that  wind  and  rain  do  not  break  it.  There 
is  nothing  prettier  than  the  spider's  web  with  the  hanging 
dew  upon  it. 

or  fly  out  of  it,  and  to  prevent  their 
escape  the  spider  covers  all  the  web 
with  a  glue-like  substance,  which 
sticks  to  anything  entering  the  web 
and  holds  it  fast.  We  cannot  see  this 
glue  with  our  eyes,  but  there  are 
thousands  of  tiny  beads  of  it  dotted 
all  over  the  spider's  web. 

How  THE  BIRDS  FIND  THEIR  WAY 

We  know  that  many  birds  fly  away 
home  over  the  sea  to  warmer  countries 
when  our  summer  ends,   and  return 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  ROOK  29 

when  it  begins  again.  This  flight  up  sound  like  a  telephone,  but  is  made 
across  the  seas  is  called  migration,  and  by  the  bee  itself.  You  have  never 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  heard  a  bee  hum  when  it  was  crawling 
We  say  that  instinct  guides  them;  but  — nor  any  other  insect.  This  tells  us 
this  does  not  tell  us  how  instinct  is  what  we  might  have  guessed,  that  the 
able  to  do  so  marvelous  a  thing,  bee's  humming  is  made  by  the  move- 
When  we  cross  the  seas  we  are  guided  ment  of  its  wings  when  it  flies.  The 
by  those  who  have  been  that  way  noise  is  not  made  by  its  voice-box,  as 
before.  We  have  charts  and  pilots  when  you  sing,  for  the  bee  has  no  voice- 
and  compasses,  and  even  then  we  box.  But  its  wings  move  very  quickly 
sometimes  make  mistakes.  ■ — a  bird  would  "hum"  when  flying  if 

But  the  birds  have  none  of  these  its  wings  moved  quickly  enough — and 

things.     They  do  not  even  take  pro-  as  they  move  to  and  fro,  or  vibrate,  or 

visions  W'ith  them;  and  we  know  that  tremble,  they  set  the  air  moving,  and 

some  of  them  become  exhausted  with  you  know  that  waves  in  the  air  make 

their  long  flight,  unsupported  by  food,  sound  when  we  hear  them, 
while  not  a  few  are  nearly  dead.    Yet,  If  the  waves  are  too  slow,  as  when 

though  this  is  so,  the  wonder  of  their  you  wave  a  stick  in  the  air,  or  when  a 

flight,  and  their  guidance,  remains.  bird  flaps  its  wings,  we  hear  nothing. 

We  can  only  guess  that  perhaps  the  If  they  are  too  fast,  as  they  are  in  the 

older  birds  teach  the  younger  ones,  as  case  of  some  insects,  perhaps,  and  in 

happens  with  ourselves;  and  if  anyone  other  cases,  like  the  scream  of  the  bat 

finds  it  hard  to  believe  how  they  can  we  cannot  hear  them;  or,  to  take  the 

remember,  all  we  can  say  is  that  birds  bat,  some  people  can  hear  them,  but 

have   wonderful   memories   for   these  many  cannot.     Thus  there  are  many 

things.     The  birds  also  have  a  wonder-  sounds  we  cannot  hear,  as  there  are 

ful  sense  of  direction.  many  colors  w^e  cannot  see.     But  the 

We  know  that  some  people  can  never  vibrations   in   the   air   made   by   the 

find  their  way.     They  turn  to  the  left  bee's  wings  are  of  a  rate  that  is  within 

when  they  should  turn  to  the  right,  the  range  of  our  hearing — if  the  bee 

and  so  on.     Other  people  scarcely  ever  is   near  enough — and   so   we   hear   a 

make  a  mistake,  even  though  they  humming.     No  doubt  you  will  guess 

have  been  only  once  in  a  place  before,  that   that   word,    like    "murmur,"    is 

Probably    birds    and    many    other  made  to  imitate  the  sound  of  which  it 

animals  are  even  wiser  than  the  wisest  is  the  name, 

human  beings  in  this  respect.  Perhaps  did  tame  flowers  once  grow 
if  you  bandaged  a  bird  and  "turned  it  wild? 

round  three  times"- — as  w^hen  you  play  Certainly  all  flowers  did  once  grow 

games — it  would  remember  just  how  wild,  and  all  animals,  too.     There  are 

far  and  often  it  had  gone  round.    But  certain  kinds  of  flowers  and  animals 

when  they  turn  you  round,  you  -don't  which  men  have,  so  to  speak,  made  by 

know  whether  you  are  facing  the  fire-  choosing  the  kind  of  thing  they  wanted 

place    or    the    window.     Your    brain  and  leaving  the  rest,  and  so  gradually 

can't  remember  the  turnings  as  the  getting  such  things  as  the  garden  rose, 

bird's  brain  does.  the  pouter  pigeon,  and  so  on.    These 

What  makes  a  bee  hum  are  what  we  call  cultivated  varieties. 

The  humming  of  the  bee  and  of  so  but  all  of  them,  even  the  most  curious 

many   other   insects   is   not  like  the  and  newest  orchid,  or  pigeon,  or  breed 

murmur  of  the  seashell,  which  picks  of  dog,  have  been  made  from  wild  or 


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natural  forms;  and,  of  course,  before 
man  started  doing  this,  all  flowers,  all 
plants,  all  animals,  were  wild.  Even 
now,  if  we  are  careless,  our  garden 
plants  will  return  sometimes  more  or 
less  completely  to  their  natural  state, 
and  so  will  domestic  animals.  On  the 
other  hand,  cultivated  flowers  may 
escape  from  a  garden,  as  we  say,  their 
seeds  being  carried  by  insects  or  the 
wind,  and  may  then  appear  to  have 
grown  wild.  There  is  no  end  to  what 
we  may  do  by  cultivating  plants  and 
flowers.  Men  used  to  try  only  to  make 
beautiful  forms,  but  lately  they  have 
tried  to  make  useful  ones,  and  have 
succeeded,  especially  in  making  from 
old  kinds  of  corn  new  kinds  which  are 
far  more  valuable  for  human  food. 
Does  a  worm  breathe  under 

GROUND? 

Every  living  thing  breathes,  whether 
in  earth,  or  on  the  earth,  or  in  the  sky, 
or  in  w  ater.  If  it  cannot  get  air  it  dies. 
The  worm  really  has  no  trouble  at  all, 
for  there  is  plenty  of  air  and  to  spare 
in  the  earth  anywhere  near  the  sur- 
face. Of  course,  if  you  dig  deeply 
into  the  earth,  there  will  not  be 
enough  air  for  a  thing  like  a  worm, 
which  needs  a  good  deal;  and  you  will 
find  only  living  creatures,  like  some 
microbes,  or  tiny  plants,  which  need 
very  little  air.  Further  down  still  you 
will  find  no  living  things  at  all.  There 
is  no  life  at  all  in  the  inside  of  the 
earth. 

Do   SEEDS    BREATHE? 

Seeds  are  no  exception  to  the  rule 
that  every  living  thing  must  breathe. 
The  seed  gets  its  air,  or,  rather,  its 
oxygen  from  the  air,  just  as  the  worm 
does.  So  you  must  not  plant  the  seed 
too  deeply,  or  it  will  not  get  enough 
air,  and  then  it  will  die.  You  may 
wonder  that  a  seed  should  breathe, 
but  that  is  because  we  always  think  of 
breathing  as  if  the  only  kind  of  it  were 
our  breathing,  w  ith  ribs  and  lungs. 


The  air  in  the  earth,  which  enables 
plants  to  grow  from  seeds  and  trees 
from  acorns,  and  keeps  alive  worms 
and  insects  and  many  microbes,  is 
known  as  ground-air,  and  as  its 
warmth  depends  on  the  warmth  of 
the  earth,  it  is  very  different  at  dif- 
ferent times  of  the  year.  That  is  one 
reason  why  certain  illnesses  attack 
us  at  certain  times  of  the  year — be- 
cause the  warmth  of  the  ground-air  is 
just  right  for  the  growth  of  the 
microbes  that  cause  those  illnesses. 
Remember,  there  is  air  in  the  earth  as 
there  is  in  water. 
Where  the  snail  finds  its  shell 

The  snail  makes  its  shell  from  its 
own  skin.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
shell  of  the  oyster,  or  that  of  the 
lobster.  Our  own  skins,  we  know,  can 
make  things  which  are  fairly  hard, 
such  as  our  nails;  and  it  is  also  true 
that  the  hardest  things  in  our  bodies, 
our  teeth,  which  are,  or  should  be,  even 
harder  than  the  shell  of  the  snail,  are 
really  made  from  our  skin,  which  has 
been,  so  to  speak,  turned  into  our 
mouths  so  as  to  line  them.  There  are 
really  few  things  more  wonderful  than 
the  way  in  which  soft,  living  creatures, 
mostly  made  of  w  ater,  are  able  to  make 
the  hardest  things,  like  teeth  and  wood 
and  shells  and  pearl,  and  so  on.  If  we 
look  very  carefully  at  the  skin  of 
creatures  like  the  snail,  we  can  see 
how  its  outside  cells  are  specially 
made  so  that  they  can  gradually  get 
harder  and  harder,  until  they  cannot 
be  called  skin  at  all,  but  are  really 
nothing  else  than  shell.  We  can 
watch  very  much  the  same  thing  if  we 
look  at  the  cells  at  the  base  of  our  nails 
or  the  cells  that  make  the  horiK  of 
animals,  and  see  how  the  soft  skin  is 
gradually  changed. 
How  Flies  walk  on  the  ceiling 

The  reason,  no  doubt,  is  that  the 
fly's  feet,  besides  being  just  the  least 
little  bit  sticky,  are  made  like  suckers. 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK  31 

and  hold  on  to  whatever  the  fly  walks  shown  in  the  spider's  web  or  the  bird's 

upon.     Then,  of  course,  we  have  to  nest,  or  a  thousand  other  things,  is 

remember  that  the  fly's  body  itself  is  quite  different.     There  is  no  learning 

very  lightly  made,  just  as  a  bird's  body  at  all.     Many  animals  have  to  do  a 

is,  because  both  are  meant  to  fly;  and  most  difficult  thing  only  once  in  their 

this  makes  it  easier  for  a  very  little  whole  lives,  and  after  doing  it  they 

force  to  prevent  the  fly  from  falling  die;  and  we  know  for  certain  that  they 

even  when  it  is  upside  down.  have  never  seen  any  other  animal  do 

Why  spiders  do  not  get  caught  in  't.     They  have   never  learned,   they 

THEIR  OWN  WEB  havc  Dcvcr  practiced,  and  yet  they  do 

It  is  the  strength  of  the  spider  that  it   perfeclty.     That   is   the   power   of 

prevents  him  from  getting  caught  in  instinct;  but  the  weakness  of  it  is  that 

his  web,  which  is  only  made  for  catch-  it  can  do  only  what  it  is  made  to  do, 

ing  creatures  much  weaker  than  him-  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  intelli- 

self.     We  know  for  certain  that  the  gence  is  so  vastly  superior  to  the  best 

spider  can  cut  his  web  when  he  pleases,  instinct. 

so  that  there  is  no  fear  of  his  getting  Why  fishes  cannot  live  on  land 
caught  in  it.     The  spider  is  a  wonder-  Every  living  thing  must  have  air  or 

fully  clever  animal,  but  he  is  not  brave,  die.     The  fish  comes  out  of  the  water. 

If  an  insect  that  is  too  big  for  his  taste  where  there  is  very  little  air,  into  the 

comes  against  his  web,  he  will  sit  quite  air  itself,  and  there  it  dies  for  lack  of 

still  in   one  corner   and   never   move  air.     It  is  drowned  on  land  for  lack  of 

until  it  goes  away,  and  sometimes  he  air,  and  dies  of  what  is  called  suffoca- 

is  so  frightened  that  he  simply  cuts  his  tion,  just  as  you  or  I  would  be  drowned 

web  rather  than  get  into  difficulties  in  the  water. 

with  something  that  is  more  likely  to  But  why  cannot  the  fish  help  itself 

eat  him  than  the  other  way  about,  to  the  air  around  it  when  it  is  put  on 

In  this  he  is  cleverer  than  some  men,  earth?     Why  should  it  starve  in  the 

who  make  nets  to  catch  other  people  midst  of  plenty,  like  a  rich  man  who 

and  get  caught  in  them  themselves,  has  something  the  matter  physically? 

In  proportion  to  his  size,  the  spider  is  The  reason  is,  that  in  order  to  breathe 

a  very  strong  animal,  and  it  is  really  air  you  must  have  lungs,  or  something 

wonderful  that  he  can  cut  his  own  like  lungs,  and  the  fish  has  none ;  while 

web,  for  they  say  that  in  proportion  in  order  to  get  the  air  which  is  dis- 

to  its  weight  it  is  one  of  the  strongest  solved  in  water,  which  the  fish  does, 

things  known.  you  must  have  something  quite  dif- 

How    birds    know    how    to    build  ferent   from   lungs,   which   are   called 

THEIR  nests  gills.     The  fish  has  no  lungs,  but  only 

It  is  by  the  power  of  what  we  call  gills.     We    have    no    gills,    but    only 

instinct.     We  human  beings  do  very  lungs.     Therefore,  we  die  in  the  water 

little  by  instinct;  we  have  to  learn  for  and   the   fish   dies   out   of   it.     If   an 

ourselves  almost  everything  that  we  animal  had  both  gills  and  lungs,  then 

do.     We    cannot    write    or    read    in-  it  would  be  able  to  get  air  from  the 

stinctively,  and  if  we  are  to  learn  well  air  or  to  get  the  air  which  is  in  water, 

we  must  practice,  and  we  must  have  as  it  pleased ;  and  it  could  live  both  on 

help  from  older  people  to  teach  us.  the  land  and  in  the  sea. 

Only  we  have  this  advantage,  that  How  we  can  tell  the  age  of  a  tree 
there  is  no  limit  to  what  we  can  learn.  In  the  case  of  some  trees  you  can 

The  instinct  of  animals,   however,  only  guess  at  this,  but  in  the  case  of 


32 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


many  you  can  tell  exactly,  because 
the  tree  makes  a  fresh  growth  every 
year  under  the  bark,  and  as  this  differs 
rather  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year 
from  the  kind  of  wood  which  is  made 
later,  you  can  easily  distinguish  be- 
tween one  year's  growth  and  the  next. 
So  when  the  tree  is  cut  across — but 
that,  of  course,  means  killing  it — you 
find  that  it  shows  a  number  of  rings, 
one  inside  the  other,  and  each  of  these 
rings  corresponds  to  a  year  of  the 
tree's  life. 

In  the  case  of  a  man  or  a  woman, 
the  number  of  years  he  or  she  has 
lived  need  not  make  any  difference 
or  leave  any  mark.  Some  people  are 
far  younger  at  eighty  than  other 
people  at  thirty,  for  we  do  not  live 
by  the  changing  seasons  of  the  year. 
But  all  plants  do  this  in  some  degree 
or  other,  and  thus  thev  show  the 
marks  of  their  age.  Another  way  in 
which  trees  differ  from  us  is  that,  as 
long  as  they  are  alive,  they  go  on 
growing,  while  we,  of  course,  are  quite 
different,  and  after  the  earlier  part  of 
our  lives  is  past  we  never  grow  any 
more.  Some  trees  live  to  be  many 
hundreds  of  years  old.  even  1000 
years  or  more. 
Why  the  bark  grows  on  a  tree 

If  the  bark  did  not  grow  on  the 
tree,  the  tree  would  not  grow.  The 
bark  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  tree,  and 
if  you  strip  the  bark  off  you  will  kill 
the  tree.  In  the  first  place,  the  bark 
does  one  or  two  things  which  are  use- 
ful but  not  very  important.  The 
outside  of  it  is  usually  pretty  tough, 
and  has  become  more  or  less  dead 
so  that  things  do  not  hurt  it,  and  it 
protects  the  living  part  of  the  tree 
inside.  Often  many  animals  and 
plants  live  on  the  outside  of  trees 
without  doing  them  any  harm,  but 
that  is  really  a  very  small  thing.  The 
inside  of  the  bark  is  the  most  living 
part  of  the  tree,  we  may  say;  not  only 


so,  but  it  actually  makes  the  tree. 
All  the  growth  of  the  tree  in  thickness 
is  due  to  the  making  of  the  wood,  and 
it  is  the  bark,  the  soft  living  part  of 
the  inside  of  the  bark,  that  has  made 
all  the  hardest  wood  of  the  biggest  and 
hardest  tree-trunk.  Also,  there  are 
channels  in  the  bark  through  which 
the  sap  of  the  tree,  its  food  and  water, 
run,  in  much  the  same  w^ay  as  the 
blood  runs  in  our  own  blood-vessels. 
What  makes  a  cat  purr 

The  noise  a  cat  makes  when  it  purrs 
is  really  a  kind  of  talking,  for  it  tells 
you  that  the  cat  has  a  certain  feeling. 
It  feels  pleased  and  happy,  and  it  says 
so  in  its  own  way,  and  no  doubt 
another  cat  would  know  and  under- 
stand what  it  felt,  and  very  likely 
would  feel  pleased  and  begin  to  purr 
too,  just  as  the  company  of  happy 
people  usually  makes  us  happy.  ^Yhen 
a  cat  purrs,  if  you  put  your  hand  on 
it  you  can  feel  its  whole  body  trem- 
bling. But  when  anyone  speaks  or 
sings — especially  if  he  be  a  man  with 
a  voice  low  in  pitch — if  you  put  your 
hand  on  his  chest  you  can  feel  him 
vibrate,  or  tremble,  just  like  the  eat. 
In  the  case  of  the  man,  we  know  that 
it  is  his  vocal  cords  in  his  throat 
which  he  has  set  trembling,  and  they 
have  set  the  whole  of  his  chest  vibrat- 
ing. Whether  anyone  is  sure  what 
it  is  that  the  cat  purrs  with  is  doubt- 
ful, but  the  cat  has  vocal  cords  just 
as  we  have,  and  we  may  be  sure  it 
uses  them. 
How  a  dog  knows  a  stranger 

A  dog  has  wonderfully  good  eyes, 
but  it  has  a  still  more  wonderful  sense 
of  smell.  Our  own  sense  of  smell  is 
so  very  feeble  and  unimportant  that 
only  after  we  have  made  a  long  study 
of  animals  can  we  realize  how  useful 
and  delicate  this  sense  may  be.  Thus 
a  dog  "knows  a  stranger"  chiefly  be- 
cause the  stranger  has  a  strange  scent. 
If  the  stranger  wore  the  clothes  of  the 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


33 


dog's  master,  then  the  dog  would  take 
him  for  his  master,  even  though  the 
stranger  looked  very  different.  After 
a  time,  very  likely  the  dog  might 
begin  to  feel  uncomfortable,  and  act 
as  if  he  thought  something  was  wrong 
somewhere. 

But,  you  see,  every  creature  forms 
its  judgments  mainly  by  means  of  the 
particular  sense  which  is  best  devel- 
oped in  it,  and  which  it  has  therefore 
learned  to  trust  best.  We  know 
people  by  our  eyes,  and  though  some- 
times a  man's  voice  may  be  exactly 
like  the  voice  of  a  friend,  yet  we  do 
not  think  that  it  is  our  friend  if  our 
eyes  do  not  tell  us  so.  Just  in  the 
same  way  the  dog  trusts  his  nose 
rather  than  his  ej' es,  because  his  sense 
of  smell  is  his  best  sense.  Lastly,  do 
not  forget  that  it  is  because  the  dog 
has  the  wonderful  thing  called  memory 
that  he  "knows  a  stranger."  It  is  as 
if  he  said  to  himself,  "This  is  not  a 
smell  I  remember" — that  is  to  say,  it 
is  a  strange  smell. 
Why  the  leaves  change  color 

In  the  autumn  the  beautiful  green 
color  made  by  the  sunlight  in  the  plant 
changes  and  goes.  It  is  not  that  the 
plant  is  dying,  but  that  it  is  going  to 
rest  for  the  winter,  when  the  air  is  cold 
and  the  days  are  short.  After  all, 
many  animals  go  to  sleep  all  the 
winter,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Hibernus  is  the  Latin  word  that  has 
to  do  with  winter,  and  so  we  say  that 
some  animals  hibernate.  Well,  we 
might  just  as  well  say  that  many  trees 
hibernate,  and  since  they  are  not 
going  to  use  their  leaves,  they  take 
out  of  them  everything  that  will  be 
useful.  In  doing  this  the  tree  changes 
the  green  in  the  leaf,  and  so  we  get 
various  colors  produced  in  the  autumn. 

Why    certain    seeds    come    up    at 
certain  times 

Young  creatures  come  up,  if  they 
are  plants,  or  are  born,  if  they  are 


animals,  usually  at  the  time  of  year 
which  is  best  suited  for  their  particular 
way  of  life.  That  is  the  general  rule 
throughout  the  whole  world,  both  of 
plants  and  of  animals;  and  the  case  of 
the  seeds  which  come  up  in  spring, 
some  sooner  and  some  later,  according 
to  the  way  they  are  made,  is  really 
only  the  same  thing.  One  exception 
to  it  is  ourselves.  All  the  year  round, 
babies  are  born — Christmas  Day  and 
Midsummer's  Day  alike.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  it  does  not  matter  what 
time  of  the  year  it  is  when  a  baby  is 
born,  because  it  depends,  unlike  a 
plant,  not  upon  the  weather  and  the 
particular  amount  of  sun  that  is  shin- 
ing or  the  particular  amount  of 
warmth  in  the  earth,  but  upon  the 
love  of  its  mother,  and  that  it  is  the 
same  all  the  year  round.  While,  like 
all  other  living  creatures,  we  depend 
partly  upon  the  sun,  and  so  on,  yet, 
more  than  all  other  things,  we  depend 
upon  the  care  of  those  who  love 
us. 

Why    ANIMALS     IN    SNOWY    COUNTRIES 
WEAR    WHITE    COATS 

The  use  of  the  white  coat  is  to  pro- 
tect the  animal  from  its  enemies  by 
making  it  difficult  to  see.  If  the 
animal  keeps  still  it  can  scarcely  be 
seen  at  all  when  its  coat  is  the  same 
color  as  the  snow.  But  if  it  had  a 
white  coat  in  summer,  when  the  snow 
goes,  it  would  be  easily  seen,  and  so 
often  its  coat  changes  in  summer,  and 
the  fur  takes  other  tints,  more  like 
the  color  of  the  ground  and  the  plants 
among  which  it  lives.  This  is  called 
protective  coloring,  and  is  very  useful 
to  many  animals.  But  sometimes  it 
happens  that  an  animal  which  lives 
by  catching  others  is  also  white  in 
winter  snow,  so  that  it  can  get  near  its 
prey  without  being  seen.  Some  in- 
sects do  the  same  thing,  and  when 
they  sit  quietly  among  the  leaves  of 
certain  plants  no  one  can  tell  which 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


is  insect  and  which  is  leaf,  so  the  birds 

cannot  find  them. 

What  brings  life  out  of  dry  seeds 

We  may  be  sure  that  the  hfe  is 
there,  or  it  would  not  come  out  of  the 
seeds.  The  seeds  are  the  children  of 
plants  that  were  alive  before  them, 
and  part  of  their  parents'  life  is  in 
them.  But  it  is  quite  true  that  a 
dried  seed  is  very  different  from  one 
which  is  sprouting,  and  it  is  fair  to  say 
that  its  life  is  resting  or  passive  or 
suspended  for  the  time.  It  is  alive, 
we  know  very  well,  for  it  can  be  killed 
by  boiling  it  or  by  a  poison  or  in  many 
other  ways,  and  a  dried  seed  may  be 
dead  or  alive,  as  an  egg  may  be  dead 
or  alive. 

You  will  never  be  able  to  get  a 
chicken  out  of  a  dead  egg,  or  a  plant 
out  of  a  dead  seed,  but  you  will  get  a 
dried  seed — provided  it  has  not  been 
killed — to  sprout  if  you  add  water  to 
it.  It  is  because  it  is  dried  that  it 
seems  to  stop  living,  which  is  not  the 
same  thing  as  to  die.  We  know  that 
it  is  not  the  same  thing,  for  when  it 
gets  water  it  shows  us  that  it  is  not 
dead.  The  chemical  changes  which 
are  necessary  for  all  active  life  must 
have  water,  if  they  are  to  go  on.  The 
water  does  not  make  the  life  come  out 
of  the  dried  seed,  but  reveals  it.  If 
you  have  injected  a  drop  of  poison 
into  the  seed  first,  then  the  water  will 
fail  to  make  it  sprout,  for  it  is  killed. 
Why  some  plants  are  always  green 

Though  it  is  the  common  rule  that 
green  plants  lose  their  leaves  in  the 
winter,  when  there  is  less  sun  for  them 
to  use,  yet  we  must  remember  that  the 
variety  of  life  is  infinite,  and  that  one 
plant  has  one  way  of  living  which 
suits  it,  and  another  has  another. 
Thus,  some  plants,  which  we  call  ever- 
green, develop  a  strong  kind  of  leaf 
which  lasts  all  through  the  winter, 
in  spite  of  the  wind  and  the  wet,  and 
uses  the  winter  sun  whenever  it  shines. 


Probably  we  shall  find,  at  any  rate  in 
some  of  these  cases,  that  the  plant 
really  belongs  to  a  part  of  the  world 
where  there  is  plenty  of  sun  in  the 
winter,  so  that  it  is  quite  worth  the 
plant's  while  to  keep  its  green  leaves 
all  the  year  round.  We  must  not 
think  that  evergreen  plants  are  neces- 
sarily stronger  or  better  than  those 
whose  leaves  fall  in  the  winter,  for  we 
know  that  the  change  and  the  fall  of 
the  leaf  is  not  really  a  process  of  decay 
or  of  death,  but  a  living  process, 
meant  to  serve  the  life  of  the  plant. 

Why  birds  eggs  are  of  different 
colors 

We  know,  of  course,  that  the  dif- 
ferences in  color  depend  upon  the 
presence  in  the  various  shells  of 
various  coloring  substances  or  pig- 
ments, and  it  is  interesting  to  see  how 
a  particular  kind  of  bird  always  pro- 
duces the  same  kind  of  color  in  its 
eggs,  just  as  it  produces  a  particular 
kind  of  color  in  its  own  feathers. 
The  particular  kind  of  food  the  birds 
feed  on,  nor  yet  the  particular  sur- 
roundings it  lives  in,  have  likely 
much  to  do  with  the  special  color  of 
its  eggs.  This  must  really  depend 
upon  the  particular  chemistry  of  the 
body  of  the  bird.  I  do  not  mean 
that  you  cannot  change  the  color  of 
hens'  eggs,  for  instance,  by  food,  but 
you  will  never  get  a  hen  to  lay  a 
speckled  green  egg.  The  color  of 
the  shell  is  really  as  special  to  the 
particular  bird  as  any  of  the  things 
by  which  we  know  one  bird  from 
another. 
Use  of  the  different  colors  of  i 

BIRDS'  eggs 

If  we  compare  the  colorings  and 
markings  of  a  great  number  of  birds' 
eggs  with  the  places  in  which  they  are 
found,  we  discover  that  in  a  large 
number  of  cases  the  eggs  are  so  like 
their  surroundings  that  they  are 
difficult  to  see  at  all  unless  we  look 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


35 


quite  closely.  For  instance,  a  ringed 
plover's  egg  has  the  same  general 
coloring  as  the  sand  on  which  it  lies, 
and  it  is  spotted  over  with  black  dots 
which  look  like  tiny  shadows.  This 
makes  it  difficult  to  see  the  egg  at  all. 
In  other  cases  the  blotches  or  markings 
on  the  eggs  look  like  an  irregular  piece 
of  dark  material  lying,  perhaps,  on 
the  beach.  Thus,  the  eggs  of  the 
tern  or  gull  sometimes  look  like  stones 
or  spotted  pebbles,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  stones  themselves  look  so  like 
eggs  as  to  be  easily  mistaken  for  them 
at  a  slight  distance;  so  that  the  reason 
for  the  coloring  of  eggs  is  no  doubt 
to  help  them  to  be  hidden  from  sight. 

Why  a  bad  egg  floats  and  a  good 
egg  sinks 

A  fresh  eggs  consists  of  a  mass  of 
yolk,  together  with  what  we  call  the 
white  of  the  egg,  and  this,  being 
heavier  than  water,  will  cause  the  egg 
to  sink  when  it  is  placed  in  water. 
But  in  an  egg  which  has  become 
addled  or  rotten,  the  yolk  and  white 
have  split  up  into  other  things,  and 
produce  gases  which  cause  the  egg  to 
be  much  lighter  than  it  was  before. 
In  fact,  such  an  egg  does  not  weigh  as 
much  as  an  equal  bulk  of  water  does, 
so  that  if  placed  in  water  it  will  float 
and  not  sink. 
Can  a  fish  hear? 

Although  fishes  are  like  some  other 
animals  in  having  no  visible  signs  of 
ears,  yet  they  have  ears  which  con- 
duct sound  to  the  brain.  Their  organ 
of  hearing  consists  simply  of  an 
internal  ear  placed  inside  a  gristly 
capsule.  In  some  fishes — as,  for  in- 
stance, the  dog-fish — there  is  a  fold 
known  as  the  false  gill,  which  is  no 
doubt  the  remains  of  a  real  gill,  but  is 
now  used  for  transmitting  sounds  to 
the  internal  ear.  In  the  wall  of  the 
capsule  which  contains  the  internal 
ear  there  is  a  thin  spot,  and  it  is 
through  this  thin  part,  corresponding 


with  what  we  call  the  drum  of  our 
own  ear,  that  the  sound  is  conducted. 
Thus,  we  see  that  in  the  case  of  some 
of  the  fishes  there  has  been  a  change 
of  function  of  an  organ  which  was  in 
the  first  place  a  gill,  but  has  now  be- 
come part  of  the  hearing  apparatus. 
In  other  words,  it  is  a  structure  at  one 
time  used  for  breathing,  but  now  used 
for  hearing. 
Why  fishes  do  not  drown 

All  animals  and  plants  must  get  air 
in  some  way  or  other  in  order  to  live; 
or,  to  be  more  strictly  accurate,  they 
must  have  a  supply  of  oxygen,  which 
is  one  of  the  gases  in  the  air.  Should 
this  supply  of  oxygen  fail,  death  must 
come,  no  matter  whether  it  be  from 
drowning  or  from  any  other  cause. 
When  a  man  is  drowned,  what  really 
happens  is  that  on  account  of  his 
being  so  long  under  the  water,  his 
supply  of  life-giving  oxygen  has  run 
short,  and  as  he  can  only  get  it  when 
he  is  in  the  air,  he  dies. 

But  this  is  not  because  there  is  no 
oxygen  to  be  had  in  the  water,  for,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  quite  a  large 
amount  of  this  life-giving  gas  dis- 
solved in  water,  only  human  beings 
and  animals  breathing  by  lungs  can- 
not make  use  of  it.  Their  organs  are 
only  adapted  for  breathing  air.  The 
fishes,  on  the  other  hand,  breathe  by 
gills,  not  lungs,  and  the  wonderful 
way  in  which  gills  are  made  enables 
them  to  extract  the  oxygen  from  the 
water.  Being  able  to  do  this,  they 
can  live  under  water  perfectly  well. 
But  if  anything  should  happen  to  pre- 
vent the  fish  from  getting  oxygen  from 
the  water,  or  if  something  should 
happen  to  the  water  to  deprive  it  of 
its  oxygen,  then  the  fish  would  be 
drowned,  as  would  any  other  animal. 

Why  a  moth  flies  round  and  round 

A  candle 

No  one  can  say  what  it  is  in  the 
brain — or   beginnings   of   a   brain — of 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  moth  that  decides  it  to  hke  the 
light;  and  it  is  quite  clear  to  everyone 
that  this  liking  does  the  moth  no  good 
— at  any  rate,  in  the  case  of  such  a 
Ught  as  the  candle.  It  may  possibly 
be  that  it  benefits  the  moth,  and  other 
creatures  that  behave  like  it,  to  fly 
towards  light  from  darkness;  and  per- 
haps we  should  find  this  to  be  so  if 
we  knew  enough  of  the  lives  of  these 
creatures.  But  much  study  has  lately 
shown  that  animals  and  plants  can  be 
divided  into  those  which  go  naturally 
from  darkness  to  light,  and  those 
which  go  naturally  from  light  to 
darkness.  Learned  names  have  been 
applied  to  these  habits — names  which 
mean  that  the  creature  turns  sunwards 
or  away  from  the  sun.  Different 
plants  and  different  parts  of  the  same 
plant  behave  in  similar  ways;  and  if 
we  notice  the  behavior  of  a  baby 
towards  a  bright  light  we  shall  see 
that  it  is  really  like  the  moth.  We 
find  also  that  different  creatures  tend 
to  move  towards  or  away  from  other 
things  besides  light — such  as  heat, 
gravitation,  electricity,  and  all  sorts 
of  chemicals  and  smells.  Some  grown- 
up people  are  like  the  moth — they 
move  to  the  sunny  side  of  the  street; 
and  others  are  like  insects  that  usually 
live  in  darkness  and  fly  towards  it — 
they  move  to  the  shady  side  of  the 
street. 
Where  plants  get  their  salts 

The  salts  of  plants  are  necessary 
for  their  own  fives,  and  are  very 
valuable  for  us  when  we  eat  the 
plants,  or  when  we  eat  other  animals 
which  eat  the  plants.  There  are  very 
few  salts  in  rain-water;  but  the  rain- 
water, when  it  becomes  what  is  called 
soil-water,  melts,  or  dissolves,  into 
itself  everything  that  can  be  melted 
from  the  earth  around  it.  Exactly 
what  these  salts  are  must  depend,  of 
course,  upon  the  particular  kind  of 
soil,  and  this  is  very  important,  for 


some  plants  require  some  salts  and 
some  require  others;  so  the  quality  of 
the  soil  in  various  places  decides  what 
kinds  of  plants  can  or  cannot  grow 
there.  The  plaat  gets  all  its  water 
and  all  its  salts  by  its  roots;  and  it  can 
get  no  salts  in  the  solid  state,  but  only 
those  that  are  dissolved  in  the  soil- 
water.  If  we  want  certain  plants  to 
grow — such  as  grass  or  wheat,  or  even 
trees — we  may  often  supply  salts  to 
the  soil,  so  that  they  may  be  dissolved 
by  the  soil-water,  and  taken  into  the 
body  of  the  plant. 

Why  wood  rots  away 

Well,  there  are  kinds  of  wood  that 
will  not  rot  away,  even  though  they 
are  kept  in  water.  The  ancient  city 
of  Venice  is  actually  built  on  wooden 
piles  buried  in  the  shallow  sea;  and 
these  have  lasted  for  many  centuries 
already.  This  wood  does  not  rot 
because  the  things  that  make  wood  rot 
cannot  attack  it,  and  wood  does  not 
rot  without  a  cause. 

We  shall  begin  to  guess  what  it  is 
that  makes  wood  rot  when  we  learn 
what  is  done  to  wood  that  must  be 
exposed  to  wet  and  yet  must  not  rot — 
for  instance,  the  wood  of  which  railway 
ties  are  made.  These  are  often  soaked 
with  a  chemical  substance  called  creo- 
sote; and  the  particular  property  of 
creosote  which  makes  it  so  valuable  is 
that  it  is  poisonous  to  microbes.  So 
the  answer  to  the  question,  in  one 
word,  is  microbes;  and  wood  will  not 
rot  if  it  is  charged  with  something  that 
kills  microbes,  or  if  it  is  made  of  stuff 
so  hard  and  tough  that  even  microbes 
cannot  digest  it ;  or  if,  as  in  the  case  of 
Venice,  it  is  very  good  wood,  and  also 
protected  from  the  kinds  of  microbes 
that  can  rot  wood  by  being  kept  in 
salt  water. 

The  age  of  animals 

The  prize  for  the  land  animals  has  to 
be  given  to  the  tortoise.     This  animal 


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S7 


lives,  under  favorable  conditions,  for 
between  300  and  400  years.  One 
died  in  London  in  1906  which  was 
stated  to  be  at  least  350  years  of  age. 
Another  reptile  is  the  crocodile,  which, 
given  fair  play  in  its  native  wilds,  can 
live  for  300  years. 

It  takes  an  elephant  a  long  time  to 
grow  up,  and  it  takes  him  a  long  time 
to  wear  out.  Well  treated,  he  should 
live  to  be  a  hundred.  That  is  the 
age  to  which  the  eagle  is  supposed  to 
live,  but  some  people  put  down  the 
age  he  may  reach  as  200  years.  Even 
that  is  young  compared  with  the  life 
of  the  whale.  This  can  be  shown  to 
last  for  500  years. 

In  the  following  tables  the  extreme 
ages  of  things  like  the  whale  and  eagle 
and  tortoise  are  not  given.  The 
tables  merely  set  out  the  ages  to  which 
certain  animals  often  live. 

THE  NUMBER  OF  YEARS  THAT  BIRDS  LIVE 


Wren 

Thrush.  .  .  . 

Robin 

Blackbird.  . 

Hen 

Goldfinch.  . 
Partridge.  . 
Pheasant .  .  . 

Lark 

Nightingale 

Pigeon 

Linnet 


3  Canary 24 

10  Crane 24 

12  Peacock 24 

12  Skylark 30 

14  Sparrow 40 

15  Goose 50 

15  Pelican 50 

15  Parrot 60 

18  Heron 60 

18  Crow 100 

20  Swan 100 

23  Eagle 100 


THE  NUMBER  OF  YEARS  OTHER  ANIMALS  LIATE 

Rabbit 5     Horse 27 

Sheep 12    Camel 40 

Cat 13    Lion 40 

Dog 15     Elephant 100 

Goat 15     Crocodile 300 

Cow .  25     Tortoise 350 

Pig 25     Whale 500 

Why  birds  cast  their  feathers 

Feathers  become  worn,  torn  and 
broken,  and  must  be  replaced.  The 
moulting  of  birds  is  similar  to  what 
takes  place  in  other  forms  of  animal 
life.  Horses  grow  long  coats  of  hair 
in  winter  which  they  shed  in  summer. 
Dogs  cast  their  coats.  Snakes  cast 
their  skins;  crabs  and  other  shell-fish 
cast  their  shells.  If  a  crab  lived  al- 
ways in  one  shell  his  body  could  never 
grow  any  bigger.  At  a  certain  time 
in  the  year  his  flesh  becomes  very 
watery,  so  he  can  draw  his  great 
claws  through  the  narrow  opening  at 
the  top  of  the  shells  in  which  they  are 
enclosed,  and  he  comes  out  of  his 
shell  almost  as  soft  and  pulpy  as  an 
egg  in  its  skin  with  its  shell  removed. 
Birds  are  never  left  bare  like  this. 
They  moult  gradually.  Some  are  so 
completely  robbed  of  their  strong 
feathers  that  they  are  glad  to  go  into 
hiding  until  the  new  ones  grow.  They 
are  then  as  defenceless  as  is  the  stag 
which  has  shed  its  mighty  antlers. 


WONDERS       OF       LIGHT       AND       SOUND 


Where  music  comes  from 

MUSIC  is  simply  a  special  kind 
of  sound.  Other  kinds  of 
sounds  we  call  noise.  All 
kinds  of  sound  are  really  the  same,  and 
they  simply  consist  of  waves  in  the  air. 
If  you  say  you  can  scarcely  believe 
this,  because  you  have  never  seen  them, 
the  reply  is  that  they  are  not  meant 
to  be  seen  but  to  be  heard,  and  you 
have  certainly  heard  them.  These 
waves  in  air  that  we  hear,  though  we 
cannot  see  them,  are  really  wonder- 
fully like  waves  in  water,  which  we  can 
see,   though   we   cannot   hear   them. 


The  air,  after  all,  is  not  so  very  difiFer- 
ent  from  a  great  ocean  of  water.  If 
there  were  two  fishes  living  in  the  sea 
or  in  a  lake,  you  can  understand  that 
if  one  of  them  flapped  his  tail  he  would 
make  a  wave  of  water  which  the  other 
fish  might  feel. 

When  we  speak  or  sing,  or  clap  our 
hands,  we  make  a  wave  of  air  very  like 
that  wave  of  water,  and  other  people 
feel  it  in  a  particular  kind  of  way, 
which  we  call  hearing.  After  all, 
hearing  is  just  feeling  with  our  ears. 
These  waves  in  the  air  move  very 
quickly,  and  are  very  tiny,  but  they 


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are  of  many  different  sizes,  even 
though  they  are  all  very  small.  The 
different  kinds  of  waves  make  different 
kinds  of  sounds.  If  you  make  a  wave 
in  the  air  which  is  jerky  and  not  regu- 
lar, but  just  comes  along  "anyhow," 
then  the  ear,  when  it  feels  or  hears  that 
wave,  does  not  like  it,  and  that  is  the 
kind  of  wave  that  makes  a  noise.  But 
if  someone  is  singing,  or  if  you  strike  a 
note  on  the  piano,  then  the  wave  that 
is  made  is  a  regular  and  even  one,  and 
the  ear  likes  it,  and  calls  this  a  musical 
sound. 

How  THE  PIANO  PLAYS 

The  simplest  way  of  understanding 
this  is  to  take  a  piece  of  string  and 
stretch  it  tight  at  its  two  ends.  This 
piece  of  string  is  just  like  the  wire 
inside  a  piano,  which  you  hit  when 
you  strike  a  note;  and  the  wire  is 
stretched  just  as  the  string  is  stretched. 
When  the  piano-tuner  comes,  he  goes 
over  all  the  wires  inside  the  piano  to 
see  that  they  are  stretched  just  as 
much  as  they  ought  to  be.  Well,  if 
you  take  this  string  and  twang  it,  you 
can  see  it  moving  backwards  and  for- 
wards, and  can  hear  a  low  sound. 
When  anything  moves  backwards  and 
forwards  like  this,  we  say  that  it  is 
vibrating,  which  simply  means  trem- 
bling. Every  time  it  moves  it  makes 
a  little  wave  in  the  air.  If  you  make 
the  string  shorter,  or  if  you  stretch  it 
tighter,  it  vibrates  more  quickly,  and 
the  musical  note  it  gives  out  is  a  higher 
note,  more  like  the  treble  of  the  piano. 
When  we  speak  or  sing,  we  make  two 
cords  in  our  throats,  called  the  vocal 
cords,  vibrate,  or  tremble,  just  like 
this  cord  or  string  that  we  can  see 
vibrate  for  ourselves. 

Why  we  see  ourselves 
IN  the  glass 

The  glass  is  made  with  a  layer  of 
quicksilver  behind  it.  If  that  were 
not  there,  we  should  see  through  the 
glass  as  we  see  through  the  window. 


But  the  quicksilver  prevents  the  light 
from  going  through  and  sends  it  back 
again.  The  glass  and  the  quicksilver 
are  both  perfectly  smooth  and  flat. 

Now,  we  can  see  ourselves  in  any 
thing  that  is  perfectly  smooth  and 
flat,  and  that  is  able  to  throw  the  light 
from  our  faces  back  to  us.  Of  course 
we  cannot  see  ourselves  in  what  we 
call  dull  surfaces,  because  they  keep 
the  light;  nor  can  we  see  ourselves 
in  things  with  rough  surfaces,  because 
they  do  not  throw  the  light  back 
fairly,  but  scatter  it  in  all  directions. 
If  you  throw  a  ball  against  a  perfectly 
smooth  wall,  and  throw  it  straight, 
it  will  come  straight  back  to  you.  If 
you  throw  it  sideways,  you  know  that 
it  will  come  off  the  wall  in  a  certain 
way.  You  could  easily  throw  it  to 
the  wall  so  that  it  would  bounce  off  to 
a  friend  standing  further  along  the  wall. 

But  if  instead  of  a  smooth  wall  you 
had  a  heap  of  loose  stones  to  bounce 
the  ball  against,  you  could  never  tell 
where  the  ball  would  go  after  you  had 
thrown  it. 

Now,  when  you  stand  opposite  a 
good  glass,  the  light  from  your  face 
hits  the  glass  and  comes  straight  back, 
just  as  if  it  were  made  of  a  lot  of  little 
balls;  but  if  you  stand  opposite  some- 
thing that  is  rough,  the  light  comes 
back  this  way,  and  that,  and  the 
other,  just  as  if  you  threw  a  handful 
of  marbles  against  a  heap  of  stones — 
and,  of  course,  you  cannot  see  your- 
self. The  glass  throws  your  image 
back  to  you  as  your  body  throws  its 
own  image  on  the  ground  in  the  sun- 
shine. But  on  the  glass  your  image 
comes  back  light,  and  your  shadow 
on  the  ground  is  dark,  because  it  is 
made  by  your  standing  in  the  way  of 
the  light. 

What  makes  the  colors  of  the 

sunset 

Now,  when  the  sun  is  setting,  its 
light  does  not  come  so  straight  down 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


39 


upon  us  as  it  does  when  the  sun  is  high 
in  the  sky,  but,  in  order  to  reach  our 
eyes,  it  has  to  pass  through  a  long 
layer  of  air,  just  as  if  you  stick  a  needle 
straight  into  an  orange  it  does  not  have 
to  go  far  through  the  peel  before  it  gets 
inside,  but  if  you  stick  it  sideways  in 
the  orange  it  has  a  long  journey 
through  the  peel  before  it  gets  inside. 
So  the  light  from  the  setting  sun  passes 
through  so  much  air,  and  all  the  dust 
and  smoke,  and  so  on,  that  is  in  the 
air;  and  all  these  take  something  out 
of  the  white  light,  and  throw  out  what 
they  do  not  take.  The  things  floating 
in  the  air  are  of  all  sizes,  and  so  we  get 
many  different  colors  in  sunset.  So 
it  comes  about  that  sunsets  are  often 


and  look  again.  Now  you  can  see  a 
good  many  more  of  the  houses,  but 
still  not  all  if  the  row  is  long.  Then 
go  to  the  far  side  of  the  road,  and  a 
good  many  more  will  be  found  to 
have  come  within  the  range  of  your 
eyes. 

To  look  for  the  horizon  is  much  the 
same  thing.  The  earth  is  round,  and 
the  farther  we  are  above  the  ground 
along  which  we  are  looking,  the  farther 
we  can  see. 

How  FAR  OFF  IS  THE  HORIZON? 

The  word  horizon  is  Greek,  and  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  a 
boundary,  which  is  horos.  Of  course, 
we  understand  that  the  horizon  is  not 
really    the    boundary    between    earth 


finer  when  the  air  is  not  pure,  but  has 
much  dust  in  it. 

Why  we  see  farther  if  we  are 
higher  up 

The  scientific  explanation  of  this 
would  be  that  "range  of  vision  is  de- 
termined by  the  altitude  of  the  ob- 
server." In  simple  language,  this 
means  that  the  higher  up  we  are,  the 
farther  we  can  see.  That  is  because 
our  world  is  a  globe.  Perhaps  you 
can  understand  better  how  this  is  if 
you  stand  in  front  of  a  row  of  houses 
that  form  a  bulging  crescent.  Stand 
close  to  one  of  the  houses,  and  turn 
your  head  first  to  the  right,  and  then 
to  the  left.  You  cannot  see  much  of 
the  row  of  houses — perhaps  only  a 
little  bit  of  the  house  on  each  side  of 
the  one  of  which  you  stand  in  front. 
Step  back  into  the  middle  of  the  road. 


and  sky,  but  merely  the  boundary 
between  them  as  they  appear  to  our 
eyes. 

This  is  a  question  often  asked.  As 
we  stand  by  the  seashore,  the  sky  and 
the  sea  seem  to  meet.  We  can  see  a 
line  which  seems  to  be  the  end  of  the 
sea  and  the  bottom  of  the  sky.  That 
is  the  horizon.  Similarly,  if  we  stand 
upon  a  plain  of  land  we  can,  if  there 
are  no  trees  or  houses  in  the  way,  see 
where  the  end  of  the  land  seems  to 
touch  the  bottom  rim  of  the  dome  we 
call  the  sky.     That  also  is  the  horizon. 

Its  distance  depends  upon  how  high 
our  eves  are  from  the  level  of  the  sea 
if  we  are  looking  across  the  sea,  or 
from  the  level  of  the  land  across  which 
we  are  looking  if  we  are  looking  over 
a  plain.  The  picture  shows  clearly 
how  this  is  so.     The  boy  standing  by 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  seashore  is  looking  out  upon  the 
sea  from  a  distance  about  four  feet 
higher  than  the  level  of  the  sea — the 
height  of  his  eyes  from  sea-level.  He 
can  see  just  a  little  more  than  two  and 
one-half  miles  in  front  of  him,  and 
his  horizon  is  just  this  distance  away. 
The  eyes  of  the  boy  on  the  edge  of  the 
cliff,  on  the  other  hand,  are  100  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  he  can  see  about 
13|  miles  off,,  and  that  is  where  the 
horizon  is.  Again,  the  top  of  the 
lighthouse  is  150  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  if  a  boy  looked  out  on  the  sea 
from  this  point,  he  would  see  about 
16j  miles,  and  his  horizon  would  be 
the  same  distance. 
Why  we  cannot  jump  off  our 

SHADOWS 

Wherever  we  go,  our  shadows  will 
follow,  of  course.  We  all  know  what 
makes  shadows,  but  we  do  not  all 
know  what  wonderful  things  shadows 
make.  For  instance,  the  moon  is 
lighted  by  the  sun's  light;  and  some- 
times the  earth  "gets  in  the  light,"  as 
you  do  when  yoii  stand  in  front  of 
the  lamp  by  which  someone  is  read- 
ing. So  the  earth  prevents  the  sun- 
light from  reaching  the  moon,  and 
throws  a  round  shadow,  which  we  can 
see  across  the  moon  as  the  earth  gets 
in  the  way.  This  is  an  "eclipse  of 
the  moon." 

Then  shadows  make  strange  things 
when  they  are  thrown  far  away.  The 
shadow  of  your  hand  becomes  very 
big  if  it  is  thrown  on  a  wall  far  off. 
And  sometimes  the  shadow  of  a  man's 
body  may  look  like  a  strange  giant 
and  frighten  the  man  who  is  making 
it!  There  is  a  mountain'in  Germany, 
called  the  Brocken,  nearly  a  mile 
high,  where  a  man's  shadow  is  some- 
times thrown  on  the  clouds. 
Why  the  sky  is  blue 

This  was  found  out  last  century  by 
John  Tyndall.  You  would  never 
guess  the  reason.       The  sky  gets  its 


light  from  the  sun.  When  the  sun  is 
away,  the  sky  is  dark.  Therefore,  the 
blue  of  the  sky  must  be  somehow 
thrown  to  our  eyes  from  something  in 
the  sky  which  keeps  all  the  other 
colors  in  the  white  light  of  the  sun,  and 
throws  back  the  blue,  and  that  is  what 
happens. 

The  sky  is  filled  with  countless  tiny 
specks  of  what  we  may  call  dust. 
These  are  of  just  such  a  size  that  they 
catch  the  bigger  waves  of  light,  which 
make  the  other  colors,  but  throw  to 
our  eyes  the  shorter  waves  of  light, 
which  make  blue.  If  you  could  do 
away  with  all  the  solid  stuff  in  the  air, 
the  sky  would  be  dark,  and  all  the 
light  of  the  daytime  would  come 
directly  from  the  sun.  Skylight  is 
reflected  sunlight,  but  only  the  blue 
part  of  it. 
Why  it  is  dark  at  night 

If  you  take  a  ball  and  hold  it  near 
a  bright  light  the  half  of  the  ball  next 
to  the  light  is  shone  upon,  and  the 
half  of  the  ball  away  from  the  light  is 
dark.  If  you  mark  a  spot  on  the  ball, 
and  then  turn  the  ball  round  and 
round  like  a  top,  that  spot  will  be 
shone  upon  half  the  time  and  will  be 
in  the  dark  the  other  half  of  the  time. 
We  live  on  a  big  ball  called  the  earth, 
which  is  always  spinning  round  and 
round,  and  it  is  shone  upon  all  the 
time,  day  and  night,  by  a  bright  light 
called  the  sun. 

The  place  where  we  live  is  like  the 
spot  on  the  ball,  and  as  the  great  earth- 
ball  spins,  part  of  the  time  we  are  on 
the  side  next  to  the  sun  and  part  of 
the  time  we  are  on  the  side  away  from 
the  sun.  When  we  are  on  that  side 
it  is  dark  at  night,  but  while  it  is  our 
night  it  is  daytime  for  the  people  wdio 
live  on  the  other  side  of  the  ball. 
However  dark  it  is  where  we  live,  the 
sun  is  always  shining  somewhere,  and 
the  earth  is  always  traveling  towards 
it  or  away  from  it.     The  sun  does  not 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


^1 


come  to  the  earth,  but  the  earth  comes 
into  the  sunhght.  If  you  think  of  the 
ball  and  the  light  you  will  understand 
that,  however  dark  it  is,  the  earth  will 
soon  carry  us  round  into  the  light 
again.  Have  you  ever  heard  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  lines  in  all  poetry: 
"There  is  a  budding  morrow  in  mid- 
night," meaning  that  every  night  a 
day  is  being  born. 
The  noise  like  waves  in  a  sea  shell 

This  pretty  idea  is  only  just  a  poets' 
fancy,  and  nothing  more.  The  truth 
is,  we  only  imagine  a  likeness  between 
the  sound  of  the  shell  and  the  sound  of 
the  sea;  though  I  quite  admit  that 
it  is  easy  to  imagine,  and  that  we  may 
forgive  the  poet  who  said  that  the 
shell  is  "Murmurous  still  of  its 
nativity" — its  place  of  birth.  Murmur 
is  a  good  word  for  this,  made  on  pur- 
pose to  imitate  the  sound. 

Really,  then,  the  shell  is  one  of  those 
things  which  can  pick  up  and  make 
stronger  certain  kinds  of  sounds.  The 
wooden  part  of  a  violin  does  this:  if 
you  take  it  away  and  play  on  the 
strings  without  it  they  make  a  feeble, 
thin,  unpleasant  tone.  These  things 
that  make  sound  resound  are  called 
resonators.  The  body  of  the  violin  is 
one,  a  sounding-board  is  another,  and 
a  shell  is  a  third. 
The  sounds  which  the  shell 

PICKS  UP 

"The  shell,"  you  may  say,  "makes 
a  murmur  even  when  everything  is 
quiet;  surely  the  sound  is  made  within 
itself — it  murmurs  still  the  sounds  of 
its  birthplace."  The  answer  is  that 
really  it  is  never  quite  quiet,  and  that 
the  shell  picks  up  sound  so  slight 
that  we  do  not  hear  them  at  all  with- 
out the  shell.  This  has  been  shown 
in  a  new  way.  A  sound-proof  room 
was  built.  People  inside  it  heard 
their  own  hearts  beating,  and  so  on. 
But  there  were  cut  out  of  the  room 
all  the  tiny  noises  that  usually  go  on, 


and  when  a  shell  was  held  to  the  ear 
nothing  at  all  could  be  heard.  The 
shell  is  only  a  telephone,  and  if  no 
sounds  come  for  it  to  resound,  it  is 
silent.  But  the  beauty  of  the  poet's 
idea  remains;  and  it  is  true  as  a  picture 
of  what  happens  with  men  and  women, 
and  their  remembrance  of  the  places 
and  people  of  their  childhood. 
Why  a  noise  breaks  a  window 

Noise  is  an  irregular  wave  in  the 
air — which  is  a  real  thing,  and  has 
weight  and  power,  remember.  A  wave 
of  air  may  break  a  window  exactly  as 
the  wave  in  the  sea  will  break  a  break- 
water, though,  as  the  name  tells  us, 
the  breakwater  will  break  the  wave, 
as  long  as  that  wave  is  not  too  strong. 

If  you  think  a  moment,  you  will  see 
that  every  time  a  noise  gets  through 
a  shut  window  it  shakes  the  window. 
If  the  noise  is  coming  in  from  the 
street,  the  air  outside  is  thrown  into 
waves  which  pass  through  it  until  they 
strike  the  window,  and  shake  it;  then 
the  window  shakes  the  air  inside  the 
room  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
air  outside  shook  it,  only  perhaps  not 
quite  so  strongly.  And  so  the  noise 
reaches  you,  just  as  if  you  had  heard 
it  outside,  only  not  quite  so  loud. 
Well,  plainly,  the  noise  has  only  to  be 
loud  enough — that  is  to  say,  the  waves 
in  the  air  have  only  to  be  big  enough — 
to  shake  the  window  more  than  it  can 
stand,  and  then  it  breaks.  Now,  since 
air  is  a  real  thing  which  has  weight 
and  power,  the  truth  is  that  a  noise 
breaks  a  window  just  as  does  a  base- 
ball. 
Why  the  kettle  sings 

Everything  that  sings,  sings  really 
for  the  same  reason,  because  it  is  set 
vibrating.  When  you  sing  or  speak 
you  make  the  little  cords  in  your 
throat  tremble,  and  when  a  kettle 
sings  we  may  be  sure  that  something 
is  vibrating  somewhere.  This  sets 
the  air  round  it  vibrating,  and  if  it 


1^2  TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

vibrates  quickly  enough  we  can  hear  our  blood  were  green,  we  should  see 

it  sing.     If  you  only  had  a  stick  in  green, 

your  hand,  and  could  turn  it  quickly  Can  we  see  everything? 

enough  in  the  air,  you  could  make  the  ^j^^^^  ^^^  .^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^j  p^^pj^ 

stick  sing.  .in  the  world— the  foolish,  who  think 

Now,    kettles   do   not   always   sing  ^,        ^^^  ^jj  ^^^^^  .^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

quite  the  same  tune,  and  that  depends  ^.^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^      ^j^j^ 

upon  a  number  of  things;  but  at  any  ^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^j^^g  ^^-^^^  ^j^^  ^^^^  ^f  ^^^ 

rate  we  can  understand  that    as  the  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^.^^  ^,^^^  ^j^^  ^^^^  ^^ 

water  gets  hot  and  begins  to  boil.  It  is  ^^^    minds-which    you    mean    when 

turned  into  water-gas,  or  water-vapor,  ^^^^^^^  ^     j^ins  something  to  you, 

and  It  has  to  force  its  way  out  through  ^^^          ^^^ .    ,.q^   j  ^^^  ,„ 

the   spout,   and  past  the  lid  of  the  ^^^  ^^  ^j^;    ^^^^^^^  ^^;j  ^.^^^^  ^^^ 

kettle.     As  it  does  this  it  sets  various  ^^^  ^^^^  j.^,^^  ^^.^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^-^^^^^ 

parts  of  the  kettle  trembling,  and  so  knowledge  a  man  could  have  was  to 

the  air  is  made  to  tremble,  and  so  the  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  nothing-nothing, 

drum-head,  or  window,  in  j^our  ear  is  ^^^^  j^^  compared  with  all  that  there 

made  to  tremble,  and  your  bram  feels  .^  ^^  ^^^^      p^^  ^^-^^  ^^^  ^^1^^^  g^^^^ 

this,  and  you  say  the  kettle  is  singing.  .         ^^.^  ^.^^^^  ^^  men-his  name 

It  IS  the  pressure  of  the  gas  coming  ^^^   Socrates-was   executed   by   his 

out   that    sets   the   kettle   trembling,  f^n^^.^itizens  over  2000  years  ago. 

When  you  speak  or  sing  you  nearly  ^^^^  ^,^^^  ^^^^^^j  ^^^-^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

close  your  throat,  and  then  squeeze  ^^^^  ^^^  brightest  eves,  we  see  only  a 

the  air  in  your  lungs  through  the  small  j. ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  j^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^y  ^^^ 

opening;  and  it  is  the  pressure  of  the  ^^^    j^^  ^^^^^^^      ^j^^^  -^  ^^^  j^^jgj^^ 

gas  that  sets  your  vocal  cords  trem-  .^  ^^^j^  ^     ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  wisdom:  it 

bhng^     So    the    kettle    sings    ]ust    as  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^^,^  ^^-^^ 

y^^  ^^-  see  into  a  thing.    Then  our  eyes  see 

Why  light  seems  red  when  we  qj^j^  certain  kinds  of  hght.     There  are 

SHUT    OUR    EYES  .111           1  •    i               j      i               * 

^     ,.  ,                               11  1-  1      p  other  kinds,  which  are  darkness  to  us. 

Eyelids  cannot  stop  all  light  from  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  by 

coming  through  to^  the  eyes-that  is  ^^^           ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^1^^  ^^^^  ^^^  be 

to  say,   they  are,  in  a  small  degree.  ^^^^  ^y  the  lifeless  eye  of  the  camera, 

transparent,   and   enough   so   for  the  ^^^.^^   has   seen   for   us   hundreds   of 

sunrise    to    waken    the    birds,    even  thousands  of  stars  that  our  eyes  have 

though    their    eyes    are    shut.     Yet  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^ 
when  vou  look  at  the  window  with 

*^            1      t         u    4-                               ^  „  Do  WE  SEE   WHAT  IS  NOT  THERE? 

your  eyes  shut,  what  you  see — very  "^ 

faintly,  but  still  you  see  it— is  a  red  Besides  not  seeing  most  of  what  is 

color.     Can  you   guess   why  this  is?  "there,"  our  eyes  often  see— or  think 

It  is  because  the  light  that  is  able  to  they  see— what  is  not  there.  ^  Some  of 

pass  through  your  eyelids  has  to  pass  the  most  remarkable  events  in  history 

through     the    red    blood    which,    of  have   been   due   to    mistakes   of   this 

course,     is    always    in    your    eyelid,  kind.     One  of  the  great  duties  of  the 

Now,    this    red   blood    keeps    all    the  reason  is  to  judge  of  what  the  senses, 

other  colors  that  go  to  make  up  the  like  eyes  and  ears,  tell  us,  so  that  we 

white  light,  but  lets  the  red  color  come  shall  not  be  deceived,  or  so  that  we 

through  it,  and  that  is  Vv'hy  we  see  red  shall    learn    all    the    more    from    our 

with  our  eyes  shut  in  the  light.     If  mistakes. 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK  43 

Does  light  weigh  anything?  ing  with  water,  and  yet,  instead  of 

If  light  were  made  of  a  shower  of  being  transparent,  which  means  that 
Httle  sparks  or  specks,  as  Newton  it  lets  the  light  through,  it  is  white, 
thought,  then  each  of  those  must  We  understand  at  once  when  we  find 
weigh  something.  Light,  however,  out  what  snow  and  foam  are  made  of, 
we  know,  is  not  matter  at  all,  but  a  or  rather,  what  is  the  state  of  the 
wave  in  the  ether.  So  it  has  no  water  that  makes  them.  In  the  case 
weight.  But  that  is  not  the  whole  of  snow,  the  water  is  frozen  and  forms 
story.  Our  study  of  light  teaches  us  tiny  little  crystals  of  beautiful  shape, 
that  it  ought  to  have  the  power  of  These  all  lie  loosely  together,  form- 
pressure,  which,  in  its  results,  comes  ing  the  snow,  and  though,  if  you  could 
to  the  same  thing  as  weight.  Thus,  take  one  of  them  by  itself,  light  would 
if  you  have  a  balance,  and  equal  go  through  it  just  as  it  will  go  through 
weights  on  each  side,  and  then  make  a  piece  of  clear  ice,  or  many  other 
a  beam  of  light  play  down  on  one  side,  crystals,  yet  when  you  have  a  heap  of 
it  ought  to  press  down  that  side  of  the  crystals  lying  together,  all  turned 
balance,  just  as  if  a  weight  had  been  different  ways,  they  throw  the  light 
added.  back  in  all  directions,  just  as  salt  does. 

This  is  what  was  taught  by  a  noted  They  do  not  keep  any  part  of  the 
scientist,  Clerk-Maxwell,  many  years  white  light  that  falls  on  them,  but 
ago,  before  this  pressure  of  light  had  throw  it  all  back,  and  so  snow  is  white, 
been  proved.  He  foretold  not  only  But,  of  course,  if  you  have  colored 
that  there  must  be  such  pressure,  but  light  falling  on  the  snow,  then  the 
how  much  it  must  be.  We  can  now  snow  throws  back  that  same  color, 
show  that  pressure  by  experiment,  and  this  gives  some  of  the  most 
and  have  found  that  his  prediction  of  wonderful  sunset  effects  upon  snow- 
its  amount — though  he  had  never  seen  covered  mountains, 
it  at  all — was  right.  What  causes  a  light  to  be  yellow 

It  is   possible   to   prepare   what   is  What  we  call  white  light  is  made  up 

really  a  balance  delicately  hung  on  a  of  a  vast  number  of  lights  of  different 

thread  of  quartz,  and  to  see  that  when  colors  all  mixed  together  in  just  such 

a  ray  of  light  plays  on  one  side  of  it,  a    proportion    that    our   eyes    call    it 

at  once  the  balance  turns  as  if  you  had  white.     It  is  almost  as  if  every  note 

touched  it  with  your  finger,  or  thrown  on  the  piano  were  played  at  once — 

something  against  it.     This  pressure,  with  the  difference  that  if  this  were 

which  is  so  like  weight  in  its  results,  done  our  ears  would  call  the  sound 

though  it  is  not  weight,  is  sometimes  unpleasant;   whereas,   when  our  eyes 

called  light  pressure.     But  it  is  com-  see  all  these  different  kinds  of  light  at 

mon  not  only  to  the  light  that  we  can  once,    the    result    is    pleasant.     The 

see,  but  also  to  the  other  radiations  reason  why  it  is  pleasant  is  that  this 

or  rays  in  the  ether  which  we  cannot  is  the  kind  of  light  which  the  sun  gives, 

see.     The  proper  name  for  it,  there-  and  so   through   long   ages   our  eyes 

fore,  by  which  it  is  now  known  every-  have    become     suited    to    it.     Now, 

where,  is  not  light  pressure,  but  radia-  yellow  is  just  one  of  the  colors  that  go 

tion  pressure.  to  make  up  white  light.     The  waves 

Why  the  snow  is  white  that  make  it  are  quite  well  known,  and 

You  might  have  asked  also  why  is  are  rather  low  down  in  the  scale  of 

foam  white  when  a  wave  breaks.     In  color,  like  a  low  note  on  the  piano; 

both  cases  we  know  that  we  are  deal-  while  blue,  for  instance,  is  high  up  in 


4-4 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  scale,  like  a  high  note.  Though 
we  say  that  the  sun  gives  white  light, 
yet  really  there  is  rather  too  much 
yellow  light  in  sunlight  for  the  result 
to  be  quite  white. 
What  makes  the  rainbow 

The  rainbow  is  made  by  drops  of 
rain;  it  is  due  to  the  reflection  of 
sunlight  from  drops  of  water  hanging 
in  the  sky.  As  the  sunlight  passes 
through  the  raindrop,  and  is  reflected 
from  the  inside  of  the  back  of  the 
raindrop,  it  is  broken  up  into  its 
various  parts,  which  correspond  to  the 
various  colors  of  the  rainbow. 

White  light,  we  know,  is  a  mixture 
of  many  colors.  The  light  waves 
corresponding  to  these  colors  differ  in 
the  extent  to  which  they  are  bent  by 
passing  through  such  a  thing  as  a  rain- 
drop, and  so,  when  they  come  out  of 
it,  they  are  sorted  out,  so  to  speak; 
and  what  was  white  light  on  going  in, 
comes  out  as  a  band  of  several  colors. 
Thus,  what  we  see  in  the  rainbow  is 
really  a  natural  spectrum  of  sunlight — 
the  light  spread  out  in  a  band  of  the 
various  colors  that  make  it  up. 
Where  the  rainbow  ends 

As  we  trace  the  rainbow  down 
on  each  side  it  seems  to  touch  the 
earth,  and  there  are  stories  of  children 
who  have  set  out  to  find  the  end  of  the 
rainbow.  But  the  rainbow  ends  no- 
where, for  it  is  a  mere  appearance  in 
the  sky,  due  to  tiny  drops  of  water, 
and  it  "ends,"  if  we  are  to  use  that 
word,  simply  where  the  drops  of  water 
end  that  are  so  placed  as  to  reflect  the 
sunlight  in  this  way  to  our  eyes. 
Really  no  two  people  see  exactly  the 
same  rainbow.  Thev  could  not  do  so, 
unless  their  eyes  were  in  the  same 
place.  And  as  we  move,  the  bow  we 
see  moves  with  us. 
Why  spinning  lights  make  rings 

When  black  and  white  have  an 
equal  chance,  the  white  conquers  the 
black,  because  the  white  is  something 


and  the  black  is  nothing;  black  is 
simply  no  light. 

The  disk  of  a  black  and  white  top 
looks  all  white  when  you  spin  it  under 
a  bright  light,  because  your  eye  remem- 
bers the  white  when  the  black  comes 
round,  and  remembers  it  till  the  white 
comes  round  again!  And  the  black 
lines  make  black  circles  because  they 
catch  the  eye  and  the  eye  remembers 
them  in  the  same  way.  It  is  the  eye's 
way  to  see  a  thing  for  about  one- 
fortieth  part  of  a  second  after  it  has 
gone!  If  you  spun  the  disk  in  the 
dark  as  fast  as  ever  you  pleased,  and 
then  had  a  sudden  light  that  came  and 
went  very  quickly,  you  would  see  the 
spinning  disk  exactly  as  if  it  were  still 
— half  white,  half  black,  and  with  bits 
of  circles  instead  of  whole  ones.  In 
some  lights,  too,  we  see  colors,  probably 
because  the  eye  gets  confused  and 
invents  them. 

A  whole  roomful  of  people  may  be 

astonished  at  this  experiment.     The 

eye  sees  what  is  really  there,  and  then 

the  light  goes  out,  and  so,  though  the 

eye  goes  on  seeing  for  a  little  after  the 

light  goes,  it  gets  no  chance  to  have 

another  look,  and  so  do  what  it  does 

when  the  light  stays  on.     This  proves 

that  nothing  happens  at  all  to  the  disk 

to  make  the  change  when  it  is  spun. 

It  is  the  way  the  eye  sees  that  deceives 

us.     The  eye  goes  on  seeing  one  color 

even  when  another  has  come;  it  mixes 

them — and  then  we  see  a  new  color 

made  of  the  mixture! 

Why  the  center  of  a  gas  flame  is 
blue  and  the  outside  yellow 

The  color  of  a  burning  or  a  hot 
thing  depends  largely  on  the  tempera- 
ture of  it.  A  white-hot  poker  is  hotter 
than  a  red-hot  one;  and  a  white-hot 
star  like  Sirius  is  hotter  than  a  red-hot 
one  like  Aldebaran  or  the  sun.  The 
outside  of  a  flame  is  far  hotter  than 
the  inside,  and  gives  out  a  brighter 
light  in  consequence — like  a  hot  staf 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK                            45 

or  a  hot  poker.     The  color  is  due  to  sunlight  reflected  from  the  sky — that 

"red-hot"  particles  of  carbon.  is  to  say,  from  the  air.     When  a  storm 

Now  you  will  ask  why   the  inside  is  coming  on,  clouds  gather,  and  these 

of  the  flame  is  colder  than  the  outside,  clouds  are  thick  and  dense,  so  that 

and  the  answer  is  easy.     The  outside  they  cut  off  the  light  of  the  sky,  and 

of  the  flame  is  the  part  next  the  air—  so  we  say  that  the  sky  is  dull.     If  we 

next   the    oxygen — which   causes   the  went  up  in  a  balloon  above  the  clouds, 

burning.     The  inside  of  the  flame  has  we  should  find  ourselves  in  brilliant 

to   be   content   with   the   very   small  sunshine,  even  when  it  was  almost  as 

amount  of  oxygen  w^hich  gets  to  it,  dark  as  night  to  the  people  on  the 

still  unused,  through  the  outer  part  earth  below. 

of  the  flame.     Where  the  burning  is  why    we   have  to   develop    photo- 
fastest  and  most  complete,  there  the  graphs  in  a  red  light 
heat   is   greatest,    and   therefore   the  We  know  that  white  light  is  a  mix- 
outside  of  the  flame  is  hottest.  ture  of  light  of  all  sorts  of  colors — red. 
Why  Telegraph  Lines  Hum  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  so  on.     Some 

Anything  that  is  stretched  is  apt  to  of  these  lights  of  various  colors  have 
be  thrown  into  vibration,  or  made  to  one  kind  of  power,  and  some  another, 
tremble,  by  the  force  of  the  air  blowing  For  instance,  red  light  has  far  more 
against  it.  If  it  vibrates  so  fast  as  to  heating  power  than  violet  light,  which 
produce  the  air-waves  that  our  ears  has  practically  none  at  all,  while  red 
can  hear,  then  that  is  what  we  call  light  will  soon  show  its  power  on  a 
sound.  This  is  what  happens  to  the  thermometer.  Now,  the  kind  of  light 
telegraph  wires  when  they  hum;  and  that  has  the  power  of  causing  chemical 
if  we  put  our  hand  on  the  telegraph  changes,  which  is  the  light  we  see  by, 
pole  we  shall  feel  that  the  wires  and  the  light  we  photograph  by,  is 
vibrate  strongly  enough  to  set  the  mainly  violet  light,  or  the  violet  part 
whole  pole  trembling,  too.  If  we  of  white  light.  We  can  see,  in  a  way, 
think  of  the  way  in  which  our  own  by  red  light;  but  red  light  has  practi- 
voices  are  produced  we  shall  see  that  cally  no  influence  on  photographic 
the  telegraph  lines  hum  in  exactly  the  plates.  We  may  say  that  photo- 
same  way  as  we  hum  ourselves,  graphic  plates  cannot  see  red  light, 
Something  stretched,  in  each  case,  is  and  so  we  can  use  it  to  develop  them 
made  to  tremble.  When  the  air  is  by,  without  fear'ng  that  the  photo- 
quite  still,  you  will  not  hear  the  graph  of  our  faces  or  the  walls  of  the 
telegraph  lines  humming.  room  will  be  printed  on  the  plates. 
Why  the  sky  is  dull  when  a  storm  What  colors  stagnant  water 

IS  COMING  ON  When  water  becomes  stagnant  vari- 

The  light  of  day  is  almost  all  due  to  ous  forms  of  life  grow  on  its  surface, 

the  sun.     The  stars   are   shining,   of  Pure  water  alone  will  not  support  life; 

course,  as  they  do  all  the  time,  but  there  must  be  some  other  things  in  the 

they  are  so  far  away  that  the  light  of  water,   and  perhaps  a  fatty  or   oily 

all  of  them  put  together  counts  for  layer  on  the  surface  of  it,  before  these 

nothing  compared  with  the  sun;  nor  things — mainly   microbes — will   grow, 

does  the  light  of  the  moon  count  for  Their  growth  covers  the  surface  of  the 

anything  when  it  happens  to  be  up  water  with  very  thin  layers  of  matter 

during  the  day.     Thus  we  may  say  from  which  the  light  is  reflected  to  our 

that  the  light  of  day  is  due  to  direct  eyes    when    we    look   at   it.     But    it 

sunlight    and    to    skylight,    which    is  happens,  as  in  many  other  cases,  such 


^6  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

as  a  soap-bubble  or  mother-of-pearl,  that  is  compressed  and  then  allowed  to 

that  the  light  is  partly  broken  up  as  expand  is  air  which  already  exists  as 

it  is  reflected  from  these  thin  layers,  or  air.     But  there  is  no  air  or  any  other 

as  it  passes  through  them  if  we  were  to  gas  in  a  cartridge,  and  the  question  is: 

see  the  water  from  below;  and  so  the  Where  does  the  gas  come  from  that 

colors  are  produced.     The  reason  is  makes  the  noise  and  fires  the  bullet 

that  the  waves  of  light,  as  they  return,  when  a  gun  is  fired? 

some  from  one  layer  of  the  surface,  What  happens  is  that  we  suddenly 

some  from  another,  interfere  with  each  burn  a  powder  which  we  have  prepared 

other,  and  the  proper  name  for  this  is  of  materials  such  that  when  they  are 

the  interference  of  light.  burned  a  large  quantity  of  gas  will  be 

Why  a  pop-gun  pops  produced,   and  it  must  be  produced 

The  "pop"  of  a  pop-gun  is  a  sound,  very   suddenly,   if  the  full   explosive 

and  all  sounds  are  waves  of  a  particu-  power  is  to  be  obtained.     We  have 

lar  kind  produced  in  air  or  in   other  another  great  advantage  in  trying  to 

things.      If  they  are  to  be  what  we  call  make  this  kind  of  explosion,   as  w^e 

sounds  they  must  be  the  kind  of  waves  have   not   when   we   fire   a   pop-gun. 

that     our     ears    are    able    to    hear,  That  is  that  the  gases  produced  are 

and  these    are   special,  differing  from  exceedingly  hot,  for  they  are  heated 

waves    of    wind,    because    they    are  by   the  burning  which   makes   them. 

very  short  and  quick.  A  hot  gas  naturally  occupies  a  great 

The  question,  then,  really  is:  How  deal  of  space — far  more  than  a  cold 
does  the  pop-gun  cause  the  kind  of  gas,  and  so  when  we  fire  a  gun  we 
air-waves  that  we  can  hear.^  And  suddenly  produce  a  great  quantity  of 
the  answer  is  that  air  inside  the  gun  hot  gas  in  a  tiny  space,  which  is  not 
is  compressed  and  then  suddenly  re-  nearly  sufficient  to  hold  it.  If  this 
leased,  when  the  gun  goes  off.  As  it  were  done  in  a  closed  box  it  would 
is  released,  it  naturally  expands  or  burst  the  box,  but  in  the  case  of  the 
spreads  itself  out  again  to  fill  the  gun  we  have  prepared  a  way  out  for 
space  it  filled  before  it  was  compressed,  it — only  that  we  put  a  bullet  in  the 
This  means,  of  course,  that  it  gives  a  wayo  Out  comes  the  gas,  driving  the 
quick  push,  as  it  expands,  to  the  air  bullet  before  it,  and  as  it  expands  it 
on  all  sides  of  it,  and  so  it  starts  the  starts  the  wave  of  sound  we  hear, 
wave  of  air,  which  spreads  out  in  all  why  houses  seem  crooked  when  we 
directions,  from  the  point  where  it  look  above  a  street  fire 
started,  and  reaches  our  ears.  The  Light  is  always  bent  in  some  degree 
kind  of  wave  is  one  which  our  ears  by  the  various  things  through  which 
hear  as  a  very  short,  sharp  sound.  It  it  passes — as  when  it  passes  through 
is  short  because  the  cause  of  it  acts  the  air  to  our  eyes  from  a  star,  or  as 
for  only  a  very  short  time,  and  the  when  a  stick,  half  in  water,  seems  to 
sound  of  it  is  best  represented  by  the  be  bent.  Now  so  far  as  light  is  con- 
word  "pop."  cerned  the  air  is  different  according  to 
What  makes  the  loud  noise  when  its  warmth.  Warm  air  is  less  dense 
a  gun  is  fired  than  cold  air,  and  when  light  passes 

This  noise  also  is  due  to  an  explo-  from  one  to  the  other,  in  either  direc- 
sion,  the  sudden  expansion  of  a  com-  tion,  its  path  is  more  or  less  bent.  So 
pressed  gas,  as  it  escapes  into  the  air  when  we  look  at  the  houses  through 
from  the  space  in  which  it  was  con-  the  hot  gases  that  rise  from  a  watch- 
fined.     Now,   in   a  pop-gun,   the  gas  fire,  the  fight,  as  it  travels  from  the 


REMARKABLE    SPECTACLE    OF    A    FROZEN   CATARACT 


This  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  things  ever  done  by  Jack  Frost.  It  is  a  picture  of  Niagara  In  winter.  No  man's 
hand,  no  machine  ever  made  by  man's  hand,  could  stop  the  mighty  rush  of  Niagara  over  the  cliffs;  but  winter  does  it, 
and  silently  ends  the  roar  of  the  waters.  When  winter  comes  parts  of  the  great  Niagara  Falls  are  often  frozen  over,  and  then 
the  sight  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world.  Part  of  the  frozen  falls  Is  shown  in  this  photograph.  Imagine  enormous 
Icicles,  far  thicker  and  taller  than  the  pillars  in  any  cathedral,  all  sparkling  like  diamonds  in  the  sunshine.  The  frozen 
spray  covers  all  the  rocks  and  trees  near  the  falls  with  wonderful  hoarfrost,  looking  like  beautiful  moss  and  ferns  of  sUtteriag 
wliite 

47 


48 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


houses  to  our  eyes,  is  bent  in  passing 
from  the  cold  air  through  the  hot  gases, 
and  is  bent  a  second  time  in  passing 
from  the  hot  gases  through  the  cold 
air  again. 

Also,  as  the  fire  does  not  give  off 
the  same  quantity  of  gas  at  every 
moment,  the  light  is  bent  in  different 
ways,  and  not  only  do  we  see  the 
houses  crooked,  but  they  seem  more 
or  less  crooked  as  we  keep  on  looking 
at  them.  This  bending,  or  breaking, 
of  the  rays  of  light  as  they  pass  from 


one  thing  to  another  is  called  refrac- 
tion, which  simply  means  breaking, 
and  is  very  important  in  every  way. 
Just  as  you  see  the  houses  crooked 
when  you  look  at  them  through  the 
gases  from  a  fire,  so  we  see  all  the  stars 
crooked  when  we  look  at  them  through 
the  air.  The  light  from  the  stars  is 
bent  as  it  passes  through  the  air,  and 
so  we  do  not  see  stars  where  they  really 
are,  but  always  a  little  distance  from 
the  real  place,  because  of  the  refraction 
of  their  light. 


WONDERS     OF     AIR,     FIRE     AND     WATER 


Why  we  cannot  see  the  air 

THE  reason  why  we  cannot  see 
the  air  is  that  it  is  transparent, 
I'ke  glass — that  is  to  say,  it  lets 
light  go  through.  It  affects  the  light 
in  some  ways;  for  instance,  light  com- 
ing to  the  earth  from  a  star  is  bent  a 
little  as  it  travels  through  the  air,  so 
that  we  never  see  the  star  where  it 
really  is.  But  directly  we  change  one 
part  of  the  air  as  compared  with  the 
air  around  it,  so  that  it  bends  the  light 
a  little  more  or  a  little  less,  then  we 
notice  something. 

In  a  sense  you  can  see  the  air  moving 
sometimes  above  a  hot  gas-jet  or  a 
field  on  a  hot  summer  day.  Also  it  is 
quite  easy  to  change  air  so  that  you 
can  see  it  in  another  way.  We  can 
make  it  cold  so  that  it  becomes  like 
water,  we  can  see  it  as  you  see  water, 
and  we  can  even  freeze  it  so  that  it 
looks  and  can  be  seen  just  like  ice. 
The  air,  fortunately,  has  no  color  in 
itself,  so  it  does  not  alter  the  color  of 
the  light  passing  through  it — which 
would  mean  altering  the  color  of 
things. 
What  the  air  is  made  of 

The  air  is  a  mixture  of  several  gases, 
and  these  are  all  colorless  and  trans- 
parent. Among  the  gases  in  the  air 
are  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  we  give 


off  when  we  breathe — and  which  is 
food  for  plants — and  also  a  small 
amount  of  various  other  gases  found 
only  a  few  years  ago.  Most  air  also 
contains  not  a  little  water  in  the  form 
of  a  gas  or  vapor.  But  all  these  taken 
together  do  not  amount  to  very  much. 
Very  nearly  the  whole  of  the  air  is 
composed  of  two  gases  only;  about 
four-fifths  are  made  by  a  gas  called 
nitrogen,  wdiich  is  very  valuable  to 
plants  and  therefore  to  us,  and  the 
remaining  fifth  is  made  by  the  won- 
derful gas,  oxygen,  by  which  we  live 
every  moment  of  our  lives. 

The  air  of  crowded  indoor  places, 
or  the  air  that  you  will  find  in  a  bed- 
room in  the  morning  if  only  a  single 
person  has  been  sleeping  in  it  all  night 
with  closed  windows,  is  very  different 
from  fresh  air  or  open  air.  It  has  the 
same  things  in  it,  but  it  has  a  great 
many  other  things;  it  has  too  much 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  too  little  oxj^gen, 
and  it  has  all  sorts  of  poisonous  gases 
which  the  sleeper  has  given  off  in  his 
breath  and  from  his  skin. 
What  a  dewdrop  is 

At  night  when  the  dew  comes,  great 
dewdrops  frequently  hang  upon  a 
spider's  web  stretching  across  the 
trees.  Those  tiny  beads  of  water  look 
very   simple,   but   it   took   wise   men 


THE  EVERYDAY  WOhWER  BOOK  49 

hundreds  of  years  to  find  out  what  when   the   sun   draws   up   the   water 

they  are.     Then   they  found  that   a  again  and  makes  the  rain  it  does  not 

dewdrop   is   part   of   something   very  suck  up  the  salt  with  it. 
important  indeed.     There  is  in  the  air         You  have  just  learned   that   it   is 

a  great  deal  of  moisture,  which  cools  the  water  drawn  up  by  the  sun  that 

the  rays  of  the  sun  so  that  we  are  not  makes  the  rivers,  and  so  the  rivers 

burned  on  a  hot  summer's  day.     At  start   with  fresh  water;   but  by  the 

night,  when  the  earth  passes  out  of  the  time  they  have  reached  the  sea  they 

sunlight,  the  earth  lets  out  the  heat  have  taken  quite  a  lot  of  salt,  which 

that  it  has  stored  up  by  day,  and  the  they  add  to  the  salt  already  in  the 

moisture   causes   the   heat   to   escape  sea.     So  from  day  to  day,  and  from 

slowly.     If  it  did  not  the  earth  would  age  to  age,  the  sea  gets  Salter  and 

suddenly    become    so    cold    that    we  Salter;  and  we  guess  the  age  of  the  sea 

should  be  frozen  to  death  in  a  single  by  noticing  how  much  salt  the  rivers 

summer's  night.  carry  into  it  every  day. 

Well,  in  the  evening,  when  the  Why  a  soap-bubble  rises  and  falls 
earth  begins  to  give  off  its  rays  of  It  is  quite  true  that  if  a  soap- 
heat,  the  moisture  in  the  air  drinks  bubble  lasts  long  enough,  and  does 
in  the  rays,  so  that  the  moisture  not  burst  too  soon,  it  will  begin  to 
becomes  warmer  than  the  earth  and  come  down  again  after  a  little.  The 
the  grass  and  the  flowers,  from  which  simplest  explanation  of  this  would  be 
the  heat  rays  have  come.  The  grass  to  remember  the  case  of  a  balloon 
and  the  flowers  become  very  cold  after  filled  with  hot  air.  It  goes  up,  for  a 
losing  their  heat,  and  as  they  grow  time,  and  then  it  comes  down  again, 
cold  they  chill  the  moisture  near  It  goes  up  because  the  hot  air  inside 
them.  The  moisture,  when  it  becomes  it  is  lighter  than  the  air  around  it,  and, 
cold,  turns  to  real  water  and  falls  being  lighter,  must  rise,  just  as  hydro- 
towards  the  ground  like  rain,  and  the  gen  would  have  to  rise.  When  it 
blades  of  grass,  or  the  leaves  of  trees,  cools,  then  the  weight  of  the  covering 
or  the  spider's  web,  catch  the  drops  of  the  balloon  brings  it  down  again, 
as  they  fall,  and  the  water,  trying  to  Now,  a  soap-bubble  is  really  a  little 
keep  itself  together  as  much  as  it  can,  hot-air  balloon,  for  the  air  that  fills  it 
gathers  into  tiny  beads.  is  warm  air  from  our  lungs,  and  the 

These  are  the  dewdrops.  air  is   so  much  lighter  than  the  air 

Why  the  sea  is  salt  outside   that   it   goes    up    with   force 

It  is  the  rivers  that  make  the  sea  enough  to  carry  the  weight  of  the 
salt.  The  sea  was  first  made  by  the  water  that  makes  the  skin  of  the  soap- 
water  that  was  in  the  air  falling  into  bubble.  But  this  cannot  last  long, 
all  the  deep  places  on  the  earth.  That  for  water  is  a  very  good  conductor  of 
was  the  first  rain  that  ever  fell,  and  heat,  and  the  skin  of  a  soap-bubble  is 
it  was  quite  fresh — that  is  to  say,  very  thin,  and  so  the  heat  from  our 
there  was  no  salt  in  the  water,  but  breath  that  is  inside  the  soap-bubble 
the  first  salt  in  the  sea  was  taken  soon  escapes,  and  the  bubble  becomes 
directly  from  the  crust  of  the  earth,  as  cool  as  the  air  around  it.  Then 
and  later  added  to  by  rivers.  There  there  is  nothing  to  hold  up  the  water 
are  all  sorts  of  salt  in  the  earth,  and  of  the  bubble,  and  it  begins  to  come 
as  the  rivers  run  into  the  sea  they  down.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that 
take  the  salt  out  of  the  earth  they  run  the  early  experiments  for  ballooning 
over  and  carry  it  into  the  sea,  although  were  actually  made  with  soap-bubbles. 


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TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


How  A  SOAP-BUBBLE  HOLDS  TOGETHER 

The  soap-bubble  is  really  a  bubble  of 
water — the  soap  merely  helps;  but,  as 
the  bubble  is  made  the  water  is  spread 
out  into  a  sort  of  skin,  and  for  a  time, 
at  any  rate,  that  skin  holds  together 
because  the  particles  of  which  the 
water  is  made  hold  on  to  each  other 


what  men  of  science  call  surface 
tension.  Tension  simply  means 
stretching,  and  so  the  name  hints  at 
the  forces  of  stretching  and  holding, 
which  are  shown  when  the  matter 
that  makes  up  one  surface  meets 
another.  This  question  is  very  dif- 
ficult. 


THE  WONDERFUL  WAY  IN  WHICH  A  SOAP-BUBBLE  IS  MADE  TO  HOLD  TOGETHER 

This  picture  shows  us  how  a  soap-bubble  holds  together.  There  are  millions  of  tiny  molecules  of  water,  like  a  won- 
derful net  of  beads,  blown  out  into  ball  shape  by  the  hot  air  inside.  Of  course,  no  microscope  could  show  us  a  bubble  like 
this,  but  the  picture  gives  us  an  idea  of  how  a  bubble  is  made.  The  molecules  of  water  should  really  be  infinitely  smaller 
and  greater  in  number  than  they  are  here,  and  the  lines  between  the  molecules  are  merely  drawn  to  suggest  the  way  in 
which  cohesion  draws  the  molecules  together.     There  are  not  really  any  lines. 


and  avoid  the  air  on  both  sides  of 
them.  Of  course,  the  bubble  cannot 
last  long,  for  the  water  which  makes 
it  runs  down  by  the  force  of  the 
earth's  attraction  until  it  becomes 
too  thin,  and  then  it  bursts. 

The  point  for  us  to  remember  just 
now  is  that  the  soap-bubble  merely 
raises  a  question  as  to  the  way  in 
which  the  surface  of  a  thing  behaves 
when  it  is  next  to  the  surface  of  some- 
thing else.     It  is  really  a  question  of 


Why  water  quenches  fire 

Water  puts  out  fire  for  two  good 
reasons.  First,  if  a  thing  is  covered 
with  water,  the  oxygen  of  the  air  can- 
not get  at  it  to  burn  it.  But  that  is  not 
nearly  the  mostimportant  reason  why 
water  puts  out  fire.  It  is  that  water 
has  a  great  capacity  for  heat,  and  can 
hold  a  great  deal  of  it.  It  takes  so  much 
heat  into  itself,  and  so  quickly,  that  it 
lowers  the  temperature  of  the  burning 
thing  so  that  it  can  no  longer  burn. 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


51 


Why  a  river  runs  into  the  sea 

The  surface  of  the  earth  is  not  level. 
It  has  mountains  and  hollows,  and 
hills  and  valleys.  Now,  everything  is 
always  drawn  towards  the  center  of 
the  earth,  because  the  earth  pulls  it, 
as  the  earth  pulls  a  ball  if  you  drop  it 
from  your  hand,  or  stops  the  ball  and 
pulls  it  back  again  when  you  throw  it 
up.  So  all  the  water  in  the  world  is 
always  trying  to  run  to  the  lowest 
places  to  get  as  near  to  the  middle  of 
the  earth  as  it  can.  The  very  lowest 
of  all  places  are  the  great  basins  of  the 
oceans  and  the  seas,  and  that  is  why 
they  are  full  of  water.  A  river  runs 
to  the  sea  for  the  same  reason  that 


it  up  into  the  air  from  the  sea,  and  the 
wind  carries  it  over  the  land,  and  it 
makes  clouds  and  falls  as  rain  on  the 
hills  and  the  high  places,  where  it  is 
gathered  into  little  streams  and  makes 
the  rivers  again,  doing  useful  work  all 
the  time  as  it  flows.  That  is  why  the 
sea  is  not  too  full  and  does  not  rise 
and  wash  away  the  land  even  though 
all  the  rivers  in  the  world  are  always 
running  down  into  it.  Did  you  ever 
think  that  a  river  might  be  tired  of 
running  down  such  a  long  way  to  the 
sea.f*  A  poet  thought  so  once,  and 
said: 

"Even  the  weariest  river 
Winds  somewhere  safe  to  sea" 


HOW  THE  RAIN  RISES  FROM  THE  SEA,  AND  HOW  THE  RIVERS  CARRY  IT  BACK  TO  SEA 


I 


The  sun  draws  up  the  water  from  the  sea  as  moisture,  which  mixes  with  the  clouds  and  is  carried  overland  by  the 
wind,  as  the  arrows  in  this  picture  show.  When  the  air  cools  the  moisture  becomes  water  again  and  falls  as  rain.  The 
rain  on  the  hills  runs  down  into  the  valleys  and  along  the  rivers  back  to  the  sea,  because  all  water,  like  everything  that 
can  run,  tries  to  find  the  lowest  place  on  the  earth,  which  is  the  bed  of  the  sea. 


drops  of  water  run  down  a  window- 
pane.  All  rivers  run  downhill  all  the 
time,  even  when  to  our  eyes  they 
seem  to  be  running  on  the  level. 

But  the  next  thing  you  will  ask  is, 
where  does  all  the  water  come  from, 
and  also  why  does  the  sea  not  get  too 
full?  You  will  find  that  a  wise  man 
in  the  Bible  long  ago  said:  "All  the 
rivers  run  into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea 
is  not  full ;  unto  the  place  from  whence 
the  rivers  come,  thither  they  return 
again."  Now,  that  is  the  true  answer, 
though  perhaps  you  cannot  under- 
stand it  at  first.  The  water  returns 
to  the  places  where  the  rivers  came 
from  because  the  heat  of  the  sun  sucks 


What  makes  the  water  boil 

To  understand  this  you  must  know 
what  it  is  that  forms  the  bubbles  when 
water  boils.  If  you  hold  a  cold  plate 
over  boiling  water  you  will  find  drops 
of  water  form  upon  it,  though  you  can 
see  no  water  passing  upwards  between 
the  surface  of  the  boiling  water  and 
the  plate. 

The  truth  is  that,  though  we  always 
think  of  water  as  something  liquid  and 
wet,  just  as  we  think  of  air  as  some- 
thing that  is  always  a  gas,  we  have  no 
right  to  do  so.  Air  and  water,  and 
everything  else,  can  exist  in  three  dif- 
ferent forms,  either  solid,  or  liquid,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  gas.     Air,  for  instance. 


62  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

is  usually   a  gas,  but  it  is  not  very  so  much  air  above  you.     If  now  you 

difficult  to  make  air  liquid,  so  that  it  heat  the  water,  it  begins  to  boil  when 

looks  just  like  water,  or  to  make  it  it  is  nothing  like  so  hot  as  it  needs  to 

solid,   so  that  it  looks  just  like  ice.  be  made  before  it  will  boil  at  the  bot- 

Water  happens  to  be  usually  fluid,  but  tom  of  the  mountain;  because  on  the 

we  all  know  that  when  it  is  cold  it  mountain  there  is  less  pressure  of  air 

becomes  solid,  ice  being  simply  solid  squeezing   the  water,   and   so   it   can 

water;  and  we  must  now  learn  that,  more  easily   expand  into   bubbles   of 

when  it  is  hot  enough,  water  becomes  gas.     So  if  you  put  an  egg  in  the  water 

a  gas  just  like  air.     Indeed,  the  air  at  the  top  of  a  mountain,  you  may  boil 

contains  a  quantity  of  water-gas,  or  and  boil  as  long  as  you  please,  but  you 

water- vapor,  as  it  is  usually  called,  and  will  never  boil  the  egg  hard,  simply 

when  we  find  the  weather  close  and  because,  however  long  you  boil,  you 

"muggy,"  as  we  say,  it  is  usually  be-  can  never  make  the  water  hot  enough 

cause  there  is  more  of  this  water- vapor  to   make   the   egg   hard.     The   water 

in  the  air  than  we  like.  simply  floats  away  as  gas  long  before 

When  water  boils,  then,  the  bubbles  you   can   do   so !     You   might   almost 

are    bubbles    of   water-gas    or    water-  drink  boiling  water  if  you  were  on  a 

vapor,  and  if  this  vapor  strikes  a  cold  very  high  mountain, 

surface  like  a  cold  plate,   it  becomes  Why  air  is  fresher  after  rain 

liquid  or  wet  again.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this. 

One    of    the    things    that    decides  For   one   thing,    the   rain   washes   the 

whether   anything    shall    be    solid    or  air,  as  water  will  wash  anything  else, 

liquid,  or  a  gas,  is  heat;  and  so,  of  If  the  air  has  contained  a  number  of 

course,     the    simple    answer    to    the  smoke   particles,   as   it   does   in   large 

question,    "What    makes    the    water  cities,  the  rain  has  reduced  their  num- 

boil.?"    is    heat.     We    apply    heat    to  bers  by  carrying  them  down  with  it 

water,  and  it  begins  to  turn  into  gas,  as  it  fell  through  the  air.     Thus  the 

which  makes  the  bubbles.  rain  helps  to  rid  the  air  of  the  sul- 

Why  water  boils  away  phurous   and   other   gases   which   are 

If  we  go  on  boiling  the  water,  of  given  off  by  these  smoke  particles, 
course  we  boil  it  all  away  as  gas,  Then  again,  it  now  seems  that  the 
until  there  is  none  left.  In  an  falling  of  rain  often,  or  always,  de- 
ordinary  way  water  always  begins  to  pends  in  part  on  electrical  charges  in 
boil  when  it  is  at  a  certain  temperature,  the  air,  and  these  charges  may  help 
and  this  is  called  the  boiling-point  of  to  produce  small  quantities  of  the  gas 
water.  It  is  not  possible  in  an  ordi-  called  ozone,  a  variety  of  oxygen, 
nary  way  to  have  water  any  hotter  which  has  a  fresh  smell  of  its  own. 
than  this  point,  no  matter  how  much  Then  rain  cleans  the  roads  and  washes 
heat  you  apply  to  it.  The  result  will  away  all  sorts  of  things  which  give  ofif 
be  not  to  make  it  any  hotter,  but  unpleasant  odors.  We  do  not  realize 
simply  to  turn  it  into  gas  until  it  is  all  the  extent  to  which  rain  is  a  cleanser 
gone.  in  cities;   and  we  must  remember  that 

One  of  the  things  that  decides  the  our  noses  are  usually  only  a  few  feet 

boiling-point  is  the  pressure  of  the  air,  above  the  surface  of  the  street,  so  that 

at  the  bottom  of  which  we  live.   Now,  they  are  exposed  to  whatever  arises 

if  you  take  some  water  up  to  the  top  from     them.     A    few     hundred    feet 

of  a  high  mountain,  the  pressure  of  higher,    the    air    would    smell    very 

air  is  much  less,  because  there  is  not  different. 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


53 


Why  the  fountain  plays 

The  puzzling  thing  about  the  foun- 
tain is  that  the  water  comes  upwards, 
though  we  know  that  water  always 
tries  to  fall;  it  falls  because  the  earth 
pulls  it.  Now,  something  must  be 
pushing  the  water  up  more  than  the 
earth  is  pulling  it  down,  and  the 
question  is  what?  The  answer  is  that 
the  water   in  the  fountain  is  being 


pressed  upon  at  the  end  which  we 
cannot  see  by  the  air,  which  is  really 
very  heavy;  and  the  fountain  is  so 
made  that  the  air  pushes  one  end  of 
the  water  and  makes  the  other  end 
spout  up.  If  this  sounds  puzzling, 
you  have  only  to  look  at  a  syphon  of 
soda-water,  which  is  a  fountain.  If 
the  spout  turned  upwards  instead  of 
downwards,  it  would  be  just  the  same 


^4iat  the  water  runs  until  it  finda  the  air  again,  when  the  pressure  is  released. 


A  fountain  plays  because  the  water  comes  to  it  from  a 
great  height,  or  because  the  heavy  pressure  of  the  air  upon 
it  pushes  it.  In  the  fountain  shown  in  this  picture,  the 
water  falls  from  the  reservoir  through  the  water-course,  so 


5i  THE  HU3IAX  LXTEREST  LIBRARY 

as  any  other  fountain.     The  air,   or  rule.     If  you  pour  hot  and  cold  water 

gas,   inside  the  syphon  presses  hard  into  a  bath  or  into  a  tumbler,  the  hot 

on  the  soda-water  below  it,  and  directly  water  will  lie  at  the  top  and  the  cold 

it  gets  a  chance  the  soda-water  rushes  at  the  bottom,  because  water  is  less 

up  the  tube  in  the  middle  of  the  bottle  dense,  and  therefore  less  heavy,  when 

and  out  at  the  spout.     When  you  make  it  is  hot  than  when  it  is  cold.     Gases 

the  soda-water  run,  you  do  just  the  behave  in  exactly  the  same  way.    Hot 

same  as  the  gardener  when  he  makes  air  behaves  in  the  midst  of  cold  air 

the  fountain  play.  just  as  hot  water  behaves  with  cold 

Why  raindrops  are  round  water  — it  goes  upwards. 

First,  why  does  the  rain  form  drops  Now,  if  you  put  the  hot  air  into 
at  all?  We  know  now  that  there  is  al-  something  very  light,  the  hot  air,  as  it 
ways  something  which  we  may  call  a  goes  upwards,  will  take  that  something 
particle  of  solid  stuff  in  the  inside  of  a  with  it.  The  first  balloons  were  made 
raindrop,  and  when  the  drop  was  in  this  way.  Two  Frenchmen,  broth- 
made  it  was  made  by  the  water-gas  ers,  made  balloons  of  silk  and  linen  and 
or  water- vapor  in  the  air  turning  filled  them  with  hot  air  and  smoke,  and 
liquid  upon  this  solid  speck,  as  steam  after  making  balloons  which  carried 
from  boiling  water  turns  liquid  on  a  animals,  they  persuaded  some  men  to 
cold  plate  held  above  it.  be  carried  in  this  way.     You  under- 

But  you  want  to  know  not  merely  stand  that  this  was  simply  because  hot 

why  the  raindrop  forms  at  all,  but  air  is  less  dense  than  cold  air,  and 

also  why,  when  it  is  formed,  it  is  so  therefore  lighter, 

nearly    round.     The    answer    is    the  What  makes  the  balloon  go 

same  as  the  answer  to  the  qviestion  But,  of  covu-se,  hot  air  gets  cold,  and 

why  water  forms  in  round  drops  on  a  then  your  balloon  will   come  down, 

plate,  and  the  question  why  it  runs  So   we  ought  to  fill   our  balloon,   if 

in  drops  down  the  window-pane  when  possible,  with  some  gas  or  other  which, 

it  rains.     When  water  turns  liquid  it  even  when  it  gets  as  cold  as  the  air 

really  consists  of  tiny  parts,  each  of  around  it,  is  still  lighter  than  the  air. 

which  is  itself  a  part,  or  particle,  as  Nowadays  balloons  are  filled  with  such 

we  say,  of  water,  just  as  a  human  a  gas.     Its  name  is  hydrogen,  and  it  is 

crowd  is  made  of  men  and  women.  extremely  light;  indeed,  it  is  quite  the 

How  A  BALLOON  KEEPS  UP  lightest  thing  we  know.     Oxygen,  for 

This  question  is  really  the  same  in  instance,   is  sixteen  times  as  heavy, 

its  explanation  as  the  question  why  and  nitrogen  fourteen  times  as  hea\'y, 

does  a  stick  float.     If  there  were  no  and  as  the  air  is  a  mixture  of  these, 

air,    the   balloon   would   drop   like   a  hydrogen,  if  let  loose  in  the  air,  will  fly 

stone,   just  as    if  the  water    all   dis-  upwards   at  once,   and,   if  you  have 

appeared    from    the    sea,    the    fishes  enough  of  it,  it  will  carry  not  only  a 

would  drop  to  the  bottom.     Things  covering  to  keep  it  together,  but  also 

float  in  the  sea,  or  on  the  surface  of  it,  many  people  in  a  car  hung  from  the 

because  the  amount  of  stuff  in  the  covering.     The  interesting   thing   for 

space   they   occupy   is  less  than   the  us  now  is  simply  that  it  is  so  very  light 

amount  of  stuff  in  the  same  space  of  and  therefore  is  more  useful  than  any- 

water.     The  less  dense  thing  always  thing  else  for  filling  balloons, 

tends  to  lie  above  the  more  dense,  and  What  makes  a  kite  fly 

if  the  things  in  question  are  gases  or  The  case  of  the  kite  proves  to  us 

liquids,  they  always  will  follow  this  that   the   air   has   a   great   power   of 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


55 


holding  things  up,  since  the  kite  has 
no  wings,  and  yet  it  does  not  fall.  The 
air  supports  it.  If  you  took  all  the 
material  of  which  a  kite  is  made  and 
rolled  it  into  a  tight  ball,  it  would  drop 
like  a  stone. 

So  it  is  not  that  the  kite  is  made  of 
something  lighter  than  the  air.  A 
balloon  flies,  we  know,  because  it  is 
filled  with  something  lighter  than  air 
but  the  kite  has  no  light  gas  inside  it, 
and  yet  it  does  not  fall.  The  reason 
is  that  it  is  spread  out  as  wide  as  can 
possibly  be,  so  that  it  may  have  a 
large  surface  for  the  air  to  support  it. 
But,  of  course,  if  there  were  no  air  at 
all  the  kite  would  drop  at  once,  just 
as  the  bird  would,  whether  it  were 
flying  or  not.  Neither  the  kite  nor 
the  bird  could  rise  or  swim  in  nothing. 
Now,  the  Latin  word  meaning  empty 
is  vacuus,  and  a  place  that  is  quite 
empty,  even  of  air,  is  called  a 
vacuum. 
What  clouds  are  made  of 

One  of  the  reasons  why  we  know 
that  there  is  no  water,  or  scarcely  any 
water,  on  the  moon  is  that  we  never 
see  the  slightest  hint  of  a  cloud  when 
we  look  at  it.  If  there  were  people  on 
the  moon  looking  at  the  earth,  they 
would  constantly  be  finding  that  the 
face  of  the  earth  was  hidden  from  them 
by  clouds.  One  of  the  things  which 
we  are  studying  now  in  the  wonderful 
planet  Mars  is  as  to  whether  there  are 
any  clouds  to  be  seen  there,  because, 
if  there  were,  that  would  help  to  show 
that  there  is  water  on  Mars.  Hence, 
clouds  are  made  of  water;  or,  rather, 
a  cloud  is  made  of  many  drops  of 
water,  which,  when  they  fall,  we  call 
drops  of  rain.  Men  who  study  these 
things  are  now  beginning  to  learn  how 
it  is  that  sometimes  these  drops  stay 
in  the  cloud,  and  sometimes  they  fall 
and  make  rain.  The  water  has  come 
from  the  seas  and  great  lakes,  and  has 
been  drawn  up  by  the  sun. 


Why  coal  burns  and  stone  does  not 

The  simple  answer  to  this  is  that 
stone  is  burned  already  and  cannot  be 
burned  twice;  but  that  answer  wants 
explaining.  What  happens  when  a 
thing  burns  is  that  it  combines  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  When  it  has 
taken  up  all  the  oxygen  that  it  pos- 
sibly can  and  has  combined  with  it, 
then  it  is  completely  burned,  and  can 
burn  no  more. 

We  watch  a  candle,  let  us  say,  burn- 
ing, and  we  are  deceived  because  we 
do  not  see  the  result  of  the  burning. 
The  result  in  the  case  of  the  candle  is 
a  number  of  gases  which  we  do  not 
notice,  real  though  they  be;  but  when 
various  other  things  are  burned  the 
result  is  not  a  gas  at  all,  but  sometimes 
a  liquid  and  sometimes  a  solid. 

When  the  hydrogen  gas  is  burned  or 
combined  with  oxygen,  it  forms  water. 
When  the  element  silicon  is  burned  or 
combined  with  oxygen,  it  makes  a 
solid,  and  most  rocks  and  sand  are 
made  of  this.  An  ordinary  stone  or 
sand  is  really  silicon  which  is  already 
burned.  But  coal  is  made  mainly  of 
carbon  which  is  not  yet  burned. 
Burned  carbon — that  is  to  say,  carbon 
combined  with  oxygen — makes  the  gas 
called  carbonic  acid,  and  that  gas 
cannot  be  burned  any  more  than  a 
stone  can,  and  for  the  same  reason. 
Both  are  burned  already. 
Why  asbestos  does  not  burn 

Asbestos  is  alre&dy  burned,  like 
stone  or  sand,  and  can  be  burned  no 
more.  It  is  also  very  difficult  to  melt, 
and  will  not  melt  with  the  heat  of  an 
ordinary  flame;  and  so  it  can  be  used 
for  many  purposes — to  line  safes,  for 
gas-stoves,  and  so  on.  The  very 
word  is  simply  taken  from  the  Greek, 
and  means  "unburnable."  Of  course, 
both  in  this  case  and  in  the  case  of 
stone  and  sand,  we  cannot  doubt  that 
long  ages  ago  all  these  things  were 
made  by  being  burned  or  combined 


56 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


with  oxygen  when  the  earth  was  a  very 
different  place  from  what  it  is  now. 
What  smoke  is  made  of 

Smoke  is  the  result  of  imperfect 
burning.  Most  of  the  things  from 
which  we  get  so  much  smoke — like 
coal — if  they  were  properly  burned, 
would  form  nothing  but  gases,  which 
we  could  not  see,  and  which  would  very 
soon  fly  away  and  do  no  harm  to  any- 
body. But  in  order  to  burn  coal 
properly  some  trouble  and  care  are 
required.  When  we  burn  coal  in  an 
ordinary  fire,  we  do  not  supply  enough 
air  to  it.  We  put  the  fresh  coal  on  at 
the  top  instead  of  at  the  bottom,  as 
we  should,  and  so  we  only  parth'  burn 
the  coal,  and  small  specks  of  it,  un- 
burned,  are  carried  up  in  the  draft, 
and  make  smoke.  The  chief  stuff  in 
smoke  is  simply  coal,  in  specks  of 
various  sizes.  But  the  trouble  is  that 
a  great  deal  of  oily  stuff'  comes  out  of 
the  coal,  and  covers  the  specks  of  it 
in  smoke,  so  that  these  stick  to  things. 

At  present  the  smoke  makes  black 
fogs  in  many  cities,  and  cuts  off  a 
great  quantity  of  the  daylight  by 
which  we  live,  besides  making  every- 
thing dirty,  destroying  plants  and 
trees,  and  filling  our  lungs  with  dirt 
which  we  ne^'er  get  rid  of.  There  are 
few  things  about  which  we  are  more 
careless  than  smoke,  and,  besides,  we 
waste  a  great  deal  of  our  fuel. 
Why  flames  never  go  down,  but  up 

We  might  think,  if  we  had  not  no- 
ticed, that  this  question  was  not  true, 
and  that  flames  only  go  upwards 
because  "a  gas-jet,  for  instance,  is 
always  directed  upwards.  But  the 
question  is  quite  true,  even  in  the  case 
of  a  gas-jet  that  is  directed  down- 
wards, for  we  find  that  then  the  flame 
turns  upwards.  If  we  must  have  a 
flame  going  downwards  or  sideways, 
then  we  must  have  a  draft  to  blow  it, 
just  as  the  wind  will  blow  the  flame 
of  a  match  in  any  direction. 


But  even  where  there  is  no  draft 
at  all  in  any  direction,  and  when  we 
burn  something  without  sending  any 
gas  in  any  particular  direction  through 
a  hole,  flames  always  go  up,  and  never 
down,  as  the  question  says.  And  the 
reasons  are:  First,  that  the  gases 
made  in  the  flame  are  very  hot,  and, 
as  hot  gases  are  always  much  lighter 
than  the  cold  gases  that  make  up  the 
air  around  them,  the  hot  gases  of  the 
flame  tend  to  rise;  and,  secondly, 
every  flame,  as  the  hot  gases  go  up- 
wards because  they  are  so  light,  makes 
a  draft  for  itself.  As  the  hot  gases  go 
up,  the  space  they  leave  is  filled  from 
below,  and  this  goes  steadily  on,  and 
so  makes  a  draft. 
Why  hot  gases  rise 

A  gas-jet,  proi)erly  used,  may  actu- 
ally help  to  ventilate  a  room  by  mak- 
ing a  draft;  and  every  fire  does  the 
same  thing,  by  increasing  the  natural 
draft  going  up  the  chimney.  The 
gases  which  are  produced  when  any- 
thing burns  are  themselves  burned, 
once  and  for  all;  they  can  neither  be 
burned  again,  nor  can  they  help  to 
burn  anything  else. 

These  gases  consist  chiefly  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  and  water- vapor.  They 
are  both  of  them  completely  oxidized 
— the  carbon  of  the  one  and  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  other  are  combined  with 
all  the  oxygen  they  can  hold.  Nor 
will  either  of  them  give  up  its  oxygen 
for  the  burning  of  anything  else. 
Thus,  if  hot  gases  did  not  rise,  and  so 
make  room  for  fresh  air — which  really 
means  fresh  oxygen — nothing  could 
burn  for  long;  for  nothing  can  burn 
in  an  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid  and 
water- vapor,  and  such  an  atmosphere 
would  at  once  surround  every  burning 
thing  if  hot  gases  did  not  rise. 
Why  the  sea  looks  sometimes  blue 

AND  sometimes  GREEN 

On  a  black  night,  when  there  is  no 
light  for  the  sea  to  reflect,  the  sea  looks 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


57 


black.  When  the  sky  is  gray,  the  sea 
reflects  the  hgiit  that  falls  upon  it,  and 
looks  gray.  The  color  we  usually  think 
of  as  the  color  of  the  sea  is  blue,  be- 
cause the  sky  is  blue,  or  ought  to  be; 
and  if  it  be  blue  light  that  falls  upon 
it,  it  is  blue  light  that  the  sea  reflects. 
Yet  sometimes  the  sea  is  green, 
though  the  sky  is  never  green.  Parts 
of  the  sea  are  shallow,  especially  near 
the  shore,  and  may  be  so  shallow  that 
some  of  the  light  from  the  sky  may 
pierce  the  water,  reach  the  bottom, 
and  be  reflected  from  it  to  our  eyes. 
So,  of  course,  the  light  will  be  changed, 
partly  according  to  the  color  of  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  and  partly  because 
of  the  greenish  tinge  of  sea-water  it- 
self. Besides  all  this,  we  have  to 
remember  that  the  same  part  of  the 
sea  on  a  coast  we  know  well  may  be  of 
a  different  color  on  different  days,  even 
though  the  water  is  the  same  and  the 
color  of  the  bottom  is  the  same,  be- 
cause the  sun  is  in  a  different  part  of 
the  sky,  and  so  the  light  strikes  the 
bottom  differently,  or  because  the 
sky  is  clouded,  and  so  the  light  which 
reaches  the  sea  from  the  sky  is  differ- 
ent. Thus,  there  are  many  different 
things  which  will  affect  the  color  of  the 
sea,  and  that  is  why  its  color  changes 
so  often  and  is  so  beautiful  to  see. 
What  changes  the  course  of 

THE  WIND 

Like  almost  everything  else,  the  air 
is  always  moving,  more  or  less,  and  the 
changes  in  the  direction  of  its  move- 
ments are  due  to  many  different  things. 
There  is,  for  instance,  the  movement  of 
the  earth  on  itself,  and  also  its  chang- 
ing position  in  regard  to  the  sun  as  it 
goes  round  the  sun.  These  move- 
ments mean  that  different  parts  of  the 
earth  are  exposed  to  the  sun  at  differ- 
ent times;  and  that  means,  of  course, 
that  different  parts  of  the  air  are  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  at  different  times. 
When  the  sun  shines  on  the  air  it 


makes  it  warm,  and  warm  air  is  lighter 
than  cold  air,  and  will  rise,  while  cold 
air  will  flow  in  to  take  its  place. 

But  there  is  a  great  deal  more  in  it 
than  this.  Besides  the  fact  that  the 
surface  of  the  earth  is  not  smooth, 
but  has  mountains  and  hills  that  turn 
the  wind  as  the  earth  turns,  and  tracts 
of  water  which  cool  hot  air  as  it  passes 
over  them,  there  are  all  sorts  of  elec- 
trical changes  always  going  on  in  the 
air,  and  these  probably  affect  its 
weight — perhaps  even  the  proportions 
of  the  various  gases  in  it — even  as 
much  as  the  heat  of  the  sun  affects  it. 
You  can  scarcely  ask  more  difficult 
questions  than  these  about  wind,  rain, 
and  weather. 
Why  flowers  smell  sweeter  after 

RAIN 

Where  there  is  any  vegetation  rain 
has  a  great  influence  in  making  the 
air  smell  fresher,  for  water  has  a  spe- 
cial power  upon  the  activity  of  many 
kinds  of  vegetable  life  that  produce 
pleasant  scents.  We  say  that  the 
rain  brings  out  the  fragrance  of  the 
flowers,  and  that  is  true.  All  life 
requires  water,  and  all  the  processes  of 
living  creatures  are  helped  by  a  good 
supply  of  water.  When  rain  falls  on 
flowers,  and  on  many  kinds  of  leaves, 
it  sets  going  the  chemical  changes 
which  result  in  the  production  of 
many  pleasant  odors  which  are  added 
to  the  air,  and  so  help  to  make  it 
smell  "fresh." 
Could  we  live  without  rain? 

The  good  of  rain  is  that  it  soaks  into 
the  soil  and  is  sucked  up  by  the  roots 
of  plants,  which  must  have  it  if  they 
are  to  live.  If  there  were  no  rain 
there  would  be  life  only  in  the  sea. 
In  parts  of  the  world  where  there  is  no 
rain  there  is  little  life.  In  this  country 
we  have  no  idea,  just  because  we  are  so 
well  off,  how  rain  is  loved  and  treasured 
and  prayed  for  in  other  countries 
where  there  is  not  enough  of  it,  or 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


where  it  falls  only  at  certain  seasons 
of  the  year.  We  must  think  of  rain 
then  as  something  that  cleanses  the 
air,  nourishes  the  vegetable  life  upon 
which  our  own  life  depends,  and  in- 
sures a  supply  of  fresh  water  all  the 
year  round  in  every  part  of  the  world 
where  sufficient  rail  falls. 

WHY  THE  BEDS  OF  RIVERS  CHANGE 

The  earth's  crust  is  shrinking  all  the 
time,  as  the  interior  cools  and  shrinks 
beneath  it.  This  means  that  the  land 
changes  from  age  to  age,  and  one  con- 
sequence of  this  is  that  often  the 
water  of  a  river  finds  that  its  steepest 
and  quickest  course  to  the  sea  is 
different  from  what  it  used  to  be,  and 
so  the  river-bed  changes;  the  old  one 
is  deserted  by  the  waters,  and  a  new 
one  is  formed. 

But  the  water  itself,  as  it  flows,  rubs 
and  melts  aw^ay  the  earth  it  flow\s  over, 
and  so  grinds  a  deeper  and  ever  deeper 
bed  for  itself.  Thus  it  gets  less  and 
less  likely  to  desert  its  old  bed  the 
longer  it  flows  there. 

Why  it  is  easier  to  swim  in  salt 
water  than  in  fresh 

Swimming  really  has  two  parts — 
one  is  to  keep  up  in  the  water,  and  the 
other  is  to  move  along  in  it.  The 
question  is:     Why  is  it  easier  to  keep 


up,  or  to  float,  in  salt  water  than  in 
fresh?  The  answer  depends  wholly 
on  the  heaviness  of  our  bodies  as  com- 
pared with  the  heaviness  of  the  water. 
Our  bodies  are  more  than  three- 
fourths  water,  but  most  of  the  rest  is 
heavier  than  water.  The  fat  of  our 
bodies  is  lighter  than  water,  and  so 
helps  us  to  float. 

Now,  fresh  water  is  less  heavy  than 
salt  water,  and  so  our  bodies,  though 
only  a  little  heavier,  tend  to  sink  in  it. 
Ordinary  sea  water  is  heavier  than 
fresh  water,  because  it  contains  a  lot 
of  salts,  just  as  the  water  of  our  own 
bodies  does;  so  we  find  it  easier  to 
float  and  swim  in  sea  water.  But  in 
some  parts  of  the  world  there  is  water 
that  is  much  salter  than  even  sea 
water;  this  is  the  case,  for  instance, 
in  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  in  Utah.  There  is  so  much  salt 
in  the  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  that  it  is 
actually  heavier,  on  the  whole,  than 
our  bodies  are,  so  you  cannot  sink  in 
the  Dead  Sea!  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  some  liquids  much  lighter 
than  water,  and  if  a  man  were  to  fall 
into  a  lake  of  one  of  them  he  could  not 
swim  at  all,  however  good  a  swimmer 
he  might  be;  his  body  would  sink  like 
a  stone  in  such  a  light  liquid. 


WONDERS  OF  EARTH,  SUN  AND  STARS 


Why  an  apple  falls 

NO  one  in  the  world  knows  why 
an  apple  falls  to  the  ground. 
We  simply  know  that  the 
earth  and  the  apple  pull  each  other 
together — the  apple,  being  small,  mov- 
ing a  long  way,  and  the  earth,  being 
large,  moving  a  very  little  way — no 
one  knows  why  they  pull  each  other. 
But  everything  in  the  wide  world  pulls 
everything  else  in  this  way,  as  was 
proved  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  It  may 
be  that  as  a  boy  while  lying  under  an 
apple  tree  in  his  father's  garden,  saw  an 


apple  fall,  and  thought.  "The  earth 
pulls  the  moon  and  keeps  it  running 
round  her,  just  as  it  pulls  the  apple," 
he  said.  If  the  moon  stopped  moving 
round,  it  would  rush  to  the  earth  as 
the  apple  does.  So  he  discovered  the 
law  of  universal  gravitation. 

Now,  the  more  stuff  there  is  in  a 
thing  the  more  strongly  it  is  pulled 
by  everything  else.  So  the  earth 
should  pull  a  big  weight  more  strongly 
than  it  pulls  a  small  one,  and  it  does. 
Then  the  big  weight  will  fall  ciuicker 
than    the    small    one,    men    thought. 


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59 


They  forgot  that  it  takes  a  stronger 
pull  to  pull  a  heavier  weight;  the 
heavier  it  is,  the  stronger  the  pull, 
but  the  more  the  pull  has  to  do. 
Therefore,  a  heavy  weight  and  a  small 
one  fall  at  the  same  rate. 

How  THE  LEANING  TOWER  OF 
PISA  STANDS 

In  the  town  of  Pisa,  in  Italy,  is  a 
famous  leaning  tower,  which  has  stood 
for  hundreds  of  years. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  whole  world 
quite  like  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa. 
Its  building  was  begun  more  than  800 
years  ago,  since  the  people  who  lived 
in  Pisa  wanted  to  have  a  tower  as  fine 
as  the  great  bell  tower  of  Venice.  Yet, 
though  the  tower  of  Pisa  met  with  a 
strange  accident  that  might  have 
ruined  it,  it  still  stands,  and  the  tower 
at  Venice  fell  down  a  few  years  ago! 
We  know  now  that  the  tower  was  not 
meant  to  lean,  though  it  is  13  feet  out 
of  the  straight  line! 

The  tower  was  built  on  wooden 
piles,  driven  into  ground  so  soft  that 
when  the  tower  was  little  more  than 
begun  it  began  to  sink  on  one  side. 
There  is  no  other  tower  iii  the  world 
that  leans  so  much  as  this  at  Pisa. 
The  tower  does  not  fall  because,  as 
they  went  on  building  it,  they  made  it 
in  such  a  way  that  if  you  dropped 
a  straight  line  down  from  a  certain 
point  in  the  tower,  called  the  center 
of  gravity,  which  is  eciually  balanced 
on  all  sides,  by  the  weight  of  the  tower, 
that  line  would  touch  the  ground 
within  the  foundations  of  the  tower. 
If  the  line  reached  the  grovmd  some- 
where outside  the  tower,  it  would  fall. 

But  the  tower  is  very  interesting  for 
another  reason,  and  the  reason  is  that 
its  peculiarity  was  used  by  one  of  the 
greatest  men  who  ever  lived,  in  order 
to  make  one  of  the  most  famous  ex- 
periments. This  man  was  the  great 
Italian  astronomer  Galileo,  who,  more 
than  300  years  ago,  was  a  professor  in 


Pisa,  and  was  thinking  for  himself. 
The  great  Greek  thinker  Aristotle, 
nearly  2000  years  before  the  time  of 
Galileo,  had  declared  that  if  you  took 
two  balls  of  the  same  material,  one 
small  and  the  other  large,  and  dropped 
them  at  the  same  moment,  the  large 
one  would  reach  the  ground  first.  If 
it  was  ten  times  as  heavy  as  the  small 
one,  he  said,  it  would  fall  ten  times  as 
ciuickly. 

Nowadays,  when  anyone  says  any- 
thing like  this,  we  always  make  the 
experiment  at  once,  and  let  Nature 
decide.  But  in  the  old  days  very  few 
men  thought  about  this;  they  chose 
some  great  man,  and  made  him  their 
authority.  So  for  nearly  2000  years 
everyone  believed  and  taught  what 
Aristotle  had  said  about  falling 
weights,  and  no  one  made  the  experi- 
ment to  find  out  the  truth. 

At  last,  however,  came  Galileo,  and 
he  was  thinking  for  himself.  He  said 
that  the  two  weights  would  fall  in  just 
the  same  time,  even  though  one  was 
heavy  and  the  other  light,  and  every- 
body laughed  at  him.  It  is  always  a 
hopeful  sign  when  everyone  laughs  at 
you — at  least,  no  one  has  ever  done 
anything  in  the  world  who  has  not 
been  laughed  at.  "Very  well,"  said 
Galileo,  "come  and  watch  me  make 
the  experiment."  So  one  morning, 
before  the  assembled  university,  pro- 
fessors and  students,  he  ascended  the 
leaning  tower,  taking  with  him  a  ten- 
pound  shot  and  a  one-pound  shot.  He 
let  them  go  together.  Together  they 
fell  and  struck  the  ground. 

And  so,  you  think,  everyone  praised 
Galileo  for  having  found  out  a  new 
truth,  and  he  was  famous  ever  after- 
wards. But  one  of  the  lessons  we  have 
to  learn  is  that  that  is  not  what  men 
usually  do  in  cases  like  this.  What 
really  happened  was  that  everybody 
abused  the  young  man  for  daring  to 
differ  from  Aristotle. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


They  started  hissing  at  GaHleo's 
lectures,  and  in  a  very  short  time  he 
had  to  leave  Pisa — turned  out  for 
finding  a  truth.  The  same  thing 
happened  to  many  great  men  before 
Galileo,  and  has  happened  to  many 
since. 
Where  the  stars  stay  in  daytime 

The  stars  in  the  daytime  are  just 
where  they  are  at  night,  and  if  some- 
thing could  be  put  over  the  sun  we 
should  see  them  again.  Something  is 
put  over  the  sun  sometimes,  for  the 
moon  comes  in  the  way,  so  that  for  a 
time  it  cannot  be  seen,  even  though 
it  is  daytime  and  there  are  no  clouds 
in  the  sky.  When  that  happens,  one 
of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  the 
world  is  to  see  the  stars  "come  out 
again."  They  were  there  all  the 
time,  shining  as  brightly  as  ever,  but 
the  sun  is  so  very  much  brighter  to 
us — because  it  is  very  much  nearer — 
that  we  could  not  see  them. 

When  you  are  listening  to  thunder, 
or  to  a  cannon,  you  do  not  hear  the 
quiet  sound  of  your  own  breathing, 
although  the  thunder  is  far  away  and 
the  breathing  is  near;  and  just  as  the 
great  noise  swallows  up  the  little 
sound,  so  the  great  light  of  the  sun 
swallows  up  the  little  light  of  the  stars. 
There  is  another  way  of  cutting  out 
the  light  of  the  sun  so  that  the  stars 
may  be  seen  in  the  daytime.  Men 
who  work  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit  or  a 
well,  and  look  up  at  the  little  bit  of 
sky  above  them,  see  the  stars  almost  as 
brightly  in  the  day  as  in  the  night. 
What  keeps  the  sun  bright 

You  would  think  that  the  sun  is 
bright  because  it  is  burning — that  it  is 
an  enormous  fire.  But  when  a  thing 
burns,  the  stuff  of  which  it  is  made 
joins  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in 
which  it  burns.  The  sun,  however,  is 
actually  so  hot  that  nothing  can  join 
with  anything  else  in  it;  nothing  could 
burn  in  the  sun.     There  are  plenty  of 


things  which  would  burn  there,  and 
plenty  of  oxygen  to  burn  them  with, 
but  they  are  kept  apart  by  the  heat. 
Also,  even  if  things  could  burn  in  the 
sun,  that  would  not  keep  it  alight,  but 
it  would  have  burned  out  ages  ago, 
and  we  should  not  be  here. 

Last  century  we  found  out  to  what 
agency  the  sun  owes  its  heat  and  light. 
They  come  mainly  because  the  sun  is 
shrinking.  It  shrinks,  or  contracts, 
by  gravitation  —  the  power  which 
makes  every  piece  of  stuft'  in  the  world 
attract  all  other  stuff  to  itself.  The 
sun  has  been  shrinking  for  many  ages, 
just  as  the  earth  has  been  shrinking. 
Indeed,  long  before  the  earth  was 
formed,  the  sun  was  stretched  out  as 
far  as  the  earth's  present  distance,  and 
even  as  far  as  the  earth's  farthest 
brother,  the  planet  Neptune.  As  the 
sun  shrinks  its  parts  strike  each  other, 
and  their  motion  is  stopped,  and  heat 
and  light  are  produced,  just  as  when 
one  piece  of  flint  is  struck  by  another. 

So  it  is  gravitation  that  really  gives 
us  the  heat  and  light  which  keep  us 
alive.  Astronomers  have  also  come  to 
attribute  the  presence  of  radium  as  a 
cause  of  heat.  Probably  the  sun  is 
also  kept  warm,  as  the  earth,  we  know, 
is  kept  warm,  by  having  in  it  some  of 
the  wonderful  element  radium,  which 
produces  heat  from  within  itself. 

How  BIG  THE  WORLD  IS 

The  world  is  nearly  round.  From 
the  North  Pole  to  the  South  Pole, 
straight  through  the  earth,  the  dis- 
tance is  about  7899  miles.  A  pole 
thrust  through  the  center  of  the  earth, 
from  side  to  side,  would  measure  about 
7925  miles.  The  distance  right  round 
the  outside  is  about  24,850  miles. 

The  round  world  is  a  vast  mass  of 
land  and  water,  surrounded  by  air. 
It  spins  like  a  top,  it  travels  round  the 
sun,  and  it  moves  forward  with  all  the 
stars  in  the  heavens — forward  and 
forward,    forever   and   ever.     So    tre- 


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61 


mendous  is  the  size  of  this  huge 
globe,  that  the  mighty  range  of 
mountains  wliich  we  call  the  Alps  are 
only  likely  the  burrowings  of  a  mole  on 
the  ground. 

Now,  if  the  Alps  are  so  small  in 
comparison  with  the  size  of  the  earth, 
how  much  smaller  must  man  appear? 

How  MAN  CONQUERED  THE  EARTH 

Man  conquered  the  earth,  on  which 
he  is  like  an  atom,  because  he  is  not 
content  to  stand  still  like  the  Alps. 
Though  he  is  so  much  smaller  than 
these  mountains,  he  has  a  brain  which 
enables  him  to  triumph  over  the 
weakness  of  his  body  and  the  small- 
ness  of  his  size.  He  can  move;  he 
can  think;  he  can  manufacture. 

You  can  imagine  how,  in  the  far 
past,  our  savage  ancestors  would 
watch  birds  sailing  through  the  air 
over  the  deep  waters,  and  long  with 
all  their  souls  to  have  that  power  of 
flight.  For  one  of  man's  chief  quali- 
ties is  curiosity.  Man  is  always 
wanting  to  find  out  things.  And 
naturally  the  first  thing  he  most 
wanted  to  find  out  was  the  kind  of 
earth  on  which  he  lived.  So  our 
early  ancestors  looked  across  the 
waters,  and  dreamed  of  lands  on  the 
other  side  of  the  globe. 

The  curiosity  of  men  is  the  be- 
ginning of  geography,  for  curiosity 
led  men  to  look  about  them  and 
observe  the  earth.  When  they  had 
learned  to  build  ships,  they  sailed 
across  the  seas,  visited  many  foreign 
lands,  and  returned  with  descriptions 
of  those  places  and  the  people  they 
had  lived  among.  These  descriptions 
we  call  geography. 

Do  PEOPLE  LIVE  ON  THE  MOON? 

We  have  seen  only  one  side  of  the 
moon,  because,  as  it  goes  round  the 
earth,  it  turns  slowly  on  itself,  so  as 
always  to  keep  the  same  side  turned 
towards  us.  But  we  are  quite  sure 
that  there  are  no  people  on  the  moon, 


either  on  this  side  of  it  or  on  the  other 
side,  which  we  have  never  seen. 
People  could  not  live  on  the  moon 
because  the  moon  has  no  air  and  no 
water.  Even  if  people  could  live 
there  without  air  or  water,  they 
would  probably  be  burned  to  death 
in  the  daytime,  having  no  air  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  heat  of  the  sun, 
and  they  would  be  frozen  to  death  at 
night,  having  no  air  to  keep  in  the 
sun's  heat. 

But  possibly  at  one  time  there  may 
have  been  humble  forms  of  plant  life 
on  the  moon,  and  some  people  sup- 
pose that  there  may  be  a  little  of  this 
even  now,  for  it  is  possible  that  there 
may  be  a  tiny  amount  of  air  and  water 
still  left  at  the  bottom  of  some  of  the 
deepest  valleys  in  the  moon.  If  there 
were  a  building  on  the  moon  as  big  as 
the  Capitol  at  Washington,  we  should 
easily  be  able  to  see  it  through  our 
biggest  telescope,  but  there  is  not  the 
slightest  indication  that  intelligent 
beings  have  ever  made  a  mark  of  any 
kind  on  the  moon. 
What  the  stars  are  made  of 

Not  very  long  ago,  a  great  thinker 
declared  that  this  great  question  was 
one  which  men  would  never  be  able  to 
answer,  however  long  they  thought 
and  however  hard  they  worked.  Our 
telescopes  could  never  tell  us;  the 
biggest  telescope  that  could  ever  be 
made  would  never  tell  us. 

It  would  only  make  the  star  look 
nearer  and  brighter,  but  would  tell  us 
no  more  what  the  star  is  made  of  than 
our  eyes  can  tell  us  without  a  telescope. 
But  now  we  have  a  wonderful  instru- 
ment called  the  spectroscope  by  which 
we  can  study  the  kind  of  light  that  is 
given  out  by  any  star  that  we  can  see. 
And  since  we  find  that  the  light  of  the 
stars,  thus  studied,  is  exactly  the 
same  as  the  light  given  out  by  things 
we  know  on  the  earth  when  they  are 
made  hot,  we  now  know  that  those 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


same  things  are  found  in  the  stars. 

So,  the  answer  is  that  the  same  kind 
of  stuff  of  which  this  paper,  and  your 
eyes,  and  our  ink  and  pen  are  made 
are  to  be  found  in  the  stars.  The  stars 
are  made  of  the  very  same  kinds  of 
stuff  as  the  earth  is  made  of.  Of 
course,  all  the  stars  are  not  the  same. 
Even  with  our  own  eyes  we  can  see 
that  some  are  redder  and  some  whiter 
than  others.  Some  have  more  oxygen 
in  them,  and  some  less,  but  the  point 
is  that  it  is  oxygen,  the  same  element 
as  we  breathe  at  this  moment. 
Why  the  stars  twinkle 

This  sounds  a  very  much  easier 
question  than  the  last,  but  we  are  not 
yet  quite  certain  of  the  answer.  Of 
course,  you  know  that  it  is  stars  that 
twinkle,  and  not  the  other  wonderful 
things  looking  like  stars,  which  are 
called  planets,  and  which,  like  the 
earth,  belong  to  the  sun's  family. 

The  planets  shine  by  the  light  of  the 
sun,  which  they  throw  back,  or  re- 
flect, from  themselves,  as  the  moon 
does,  and,  like  the  moon,  they  shine 
steadily.  But  the  light  of  the  stars  is 
made  by  themselves,  and  comes  over 
immense  distances  to  us,  so  long  that 
the  light  by  which  we  see  the  nearest 
star  left  it  about  four  years  ago. 

It  is  likely  that  this  light  interferes 
with  itself  as  it  comes,  so  that  it  seems 
to  come  in  little  beats,  and  people  who 
have  studied  this  think  that  it  is  much 
the  same  as  what  sometimes  happens 
with  the  piano  or  an  organ  when  the 
sound  seems  to  get  louder,  and  then 
less  loud,  backwards  and  forewards. 
In  the  study  of  sound  this  is  called  a 
"beat,"  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
twinkling  of  the  stars  is  really  the  same 
kind  of  thing.  It  may  be  that  the  air 
has  something  to  do  with  disturbing 
the  light,  and  that  perhaps  starlight  is 
more  affected  by  the  air  than  the  sun- 
light by  which  we  see  the  moon  and 
the  planets. 


How  A  STONE  IS  MADE 

Stones  are  really  pieces  of  broken 
rock.  By  the  side  of  the  road  you 
can  see  stones  being  made  with  a 
hammer.  These  are  sharp,  as  they 
have  been  rudely  broken. 

But  rocks  are  broken  up  in  many 
other  ways.  Even  the  life  in  the  soil 
on  a  cliff,  for  instance,  may  gradually 
break  up  the  surface  of  the  rock.  If 
the  pieces  rub  against  each  other,  and 
are  open  to  the  wind  and  the  rain,  then 
they  get  rounded  and  dull;  but  if  you 
take  many  of  these  stones  and  break 
them,  you  will  find  the  unchanged  rock 
inside  them,  often  beautifully  smooth 
and  bright.  There  are  other  kinds  of 
stones  which  are  quite  soft.  Those 
we  have  been  speaking  of  are  made  of 
real  rock  which  long  ages  ago  was  made 
under  the  action  of  great  heat.  But 
you  may  pick  up  sometimes  a  soft 
stone  which  you  can  quite  easily  rub 
away — a  piece  of  soft  sandstone,  which 
is  really  very  much  the  same  as  the 
sand  on  the  seashore. 

Is     THE     MATTER     IN     EARTH    AND    AIR 
ALWAYS  CHANGING  PLACES? 

There  is  a  ceaseless  circulation  going 
on  between  the  surface  of  the  land  and 
the  water,  and  the  bottom  layers  of  the 
ocean  of  air  which  covers  them  both. 
Wherever  water  is,  for  instance,  it  is 
often  being  sucked  up  in  the  form  of  a 
gas  into  the  air,  of  which  it  then  forms 
part;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  water 
vapor  from  the  air  often  passes  from 
it  to  the  earth — as,  for  instance,  in  the 
form  of  dew.  Then  the  gases  of  the 
air,  especially  oxygen  and  carbonic 
acid,  are  ceaselessly  passing  between 
it  and  the  bodies  of  all  the  living 
creatures  on  the  earth;  then,  from 
moment  to  moment,  various  gases  are 
either  leaving  the  air  to  be  dissolved 
in  the  ocean,  or  are  leaving  the  ocean 
to  join  the  air. 

If  we  could,  it  would  be  well  for  us 
if  we  could  mark  an  atom  of  oxygen, 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


63 


and  watch  it  for  a  year  or  two;  and 
see  all  the  amazing  things  it  does: 
passing  in  and  out  of  the  bodies  of 
living  creatures,  in  and  out  of  the 
earth,  in  and  out  of  the  ocean.  Then, 
if  we  remembered  that  all  the  other 
atoms  of  oxygen  and  of  other  things, 
too,  were  doing  the  same  kind  of 
thing,  we  should  begin  to  understand 
how  wonderfully  alive,  the  whole  world 
is.  Perhaps  the  whole  world,  indeed, 
is  really  alive! 
What    keeps    the    stars    in    their 

PLACES 

The  stars  are  not  kept  in  position, 
but  are  all  in  movement,  and  some- 
times the  stars  do  fall  on  to  one 
another,  we  now  believe.  Astronomers 
now  think  that  they  can  find  in  the 
heavens  two  great  streams,  to  one  or 
other  of  which  all  the  stars  belong; 
and  these  two  streams  of  stars  are 
moving  through  and  past  each  other 
in  opposite  directions. 

No  one  has  any  idea  at  all  how  this 
process  started,  nor  what  the  results 
of  it  will  be,  but  at  any  rate  we  are 
quite  certain  that  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  what  for  so  long  has  been 
called  a  fixed  star,  anywhere.  Some 
people  have  thought  that  there  may 
be  a  center  somewhere,  which  all  the 
stars  move  round,  but  we  cannot  find 
any  proof  that  this  is  really  so. 
Why  EVERY  CLOUD  has  a  silver  lining 

The  reason  is  simply  that  at  its 
edge  the  cloud  is  thinner,  and  much 
more  light  can  get  through  it,  and  that 
gives  it  its  silver  lining.  Some  clouds, 
however,  are  very  thin,  just  like  a 
sheet  of  tissue-paper  in  the  sky,  and 
we  can  scarcely  notice  a  silver  lining 
to  them.  Of  course,  if  we  went  up  in 
a  balloon,  above  an  ordinary  cloud 
which  seemed  to  have  a  silver  lining 
to  us  when  we  were  on  the  earth,  we 
should  see  the  whole  cloud  bright  be- 
cause the  sun  would  be  shining  upon  it, 
and  it  would  throw  back  or  reflect  the 


sun's  light  to  our  eyes.  This  is  true 
of  the  darkest  and  blackest  clouds  all 
through  the  daytime.  The  sun  is 
always  shining,  and  the  darkest  cloud 
has  a  bright  side. 

The  trouble  for  us  is  that  we  see  the 
dark  side,  but  we  ought  to  know  and 
remember  that  the  bright  side  is  there. 
Of  course,  as  we  see,  all  this  may  have 
a  meaning  that  applies  to  the  troubles 
of  life,  big  and  little.  That  is  why 
people  remind  us  that  every  cloud  has 
a  silver  lining.  But  it  is  even  better 
than  that,  for  every  cloud  has  a  silver 
side  just  as  bright  as  the  other  is  dark. 
Some  people's  minds  are  always  like 
our  eyes  in  a  balloon.  They  seem  to 
see  every  cloud  on  its  silver  lighted 
side.  These  are  the  kind  of  people 
that  it  is  good  to  live  with. 
Why  all  the  worlds  are  round 

It  is  true  that  all  the  worlds  are 
round,  or  very  nearly  so,  and  that,  if 
they  are  not  quite  round,  there  is  a 
reason.  The  earth,  for  instance,  is 
not  quite  round,  but  bulges  a  little  at 
the  equator,  simply  because  it  revolves 
so  quickly  that  it  gets  a  little  out  of 
shape.  There  is  something  special 
about  roundness,  for  not  only  are  all 
the  worlds  round,  but  a  thing  like  a 
drop  of  water  tries  to  make  itself  as 
round  as  it  can;  and  if  you  drop  melted 
lead  from  a  height  you  get  round  shot. 
The  reason  is  that  in  all  these  cases 
you  have  some  force  trying  to  pull  all 
the  parts  of  the  world  or  of  the  drop 
towards  each  other.  That  shape  is 
the  sphere,  or  a  round  ball. 
What  makes  the  shadows  that  go  up 

AND  DOWN  hills 

The  shadows  that  we  see  crossing 
the  face  of  the  hills  are  the  shadows 
of  clouds.  They  can  be  seen  passing 
over  the  sea,  too,  or  running  across  the 
field  of  play  when  you  watch  a  game  of 
baseball.  They  are  best  seen  when 
there  are  small  clouds  quickly  moving, 
and  with  well-marked  edges,  passing 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


across  the  sun,  as  it  seems  to  us,  on  a 
bright  day.  Sometimes  they  move 
more  quickly  than  at  other  times. 
This  depends  partly  on  the  wind, 
which  varies  very  much  in  speed,  and 
on  the  height  of  the  clouds. 
The  biggest  shadow  that  we  can  see 
There  is  one  great  shadow,  thou- 
sands of  times  bigger  than  any  other, 
which  men  have  noticed  at  times  in 
all  ages,  and  which  has  often  made 


whole  moon  for  a  little  while,  and  we 
call  that  a  total  eclipse  of  the  moon. 
When  we  watch  this  shadow — one 
does  not  even  need  a  glass  to  see  it 
with — it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  shadow 
is  curved.  It  is  the  shadow  of  a 
round  thing,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
proofs  that  the  earth  is  really  round. 
In  olden  days  men  used  to  be  very 
much  afraid  of  eclipses  of  the  moon 
and  of  the  sun.     They  used  to  think 


THE  SHADOW  Ol    THE  MOON  BLOTTING  OUT  THE  FACE  OF  THE  SUN 

This  is  one  of  the  most  impressive  sights  that  men  have  ever  seen — the  moon  passing  across  the  face  of  the  sun.  It 
happens  sometimes  that  the  moon  gets  directly  in  the  way  of  the  sunlight  which  would  fall  upon  the  earth  if  the  moon 
were  not  there,  and  we  call  this  an  eclipse,  or  covering  up,  of  the  sun. 


them  very  much  afraid.  This  is  the 
shadow  of  the  earth  itself,  and  it  is 
thrown  upon  the  moon.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  the  earth  gets  in  the 
way  of  the  light  from  the  sun  which 
would  fall  upon  the  moon  if  the  earth 
were  not  there.  And  so  we  get  what 
we  call  an  eclipse  of  the  moon.  As  we 
watch  the  moon,  we  can  see  a  round 
shadow  begimiing  to  creep  across  it. 

Sometimes  it  passes  over  only  part 
of  the  moon;   sometimes  it  covers  the 


that  it  was  a  warning  of  something 
terrible  about  to  happen.  But  now 
we  know  that  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
is  nothing  more  than  just  the  throwing 
of  a  great  shadow  upon  the  moon's 
face,  and  that  is  the  shadow  of  the 
earth,  by  far  the  greatest  shadow  that 
anyone  can  ever  see. 
What  makes  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 

The  kind  of  eclipse  that  used  to 
frighten  people  most  is  an  eclipse  of 
the  sun.     It  does  not  often  happen 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK                            65 

that  the  sun  is  totally  eclipsed,  but  be  that  it  is  very  much  alone  in  the 

when  this  does  happen  on  a  bright  world  of  stars.     The  sun  has  no  near 

day,  the  effect  is  wonderful.     It  sud-  star  neighbor,  while  most  of  the  other 

denly  becomes  dark,  until  it  is  like  stars  are  much  more  neighborly,  es- 

night;    it  turns  cold;    the  dew  falls;  pecially  throughout  the  whole  circle 

the  birds  go  to  roost;    the  flowers  go  of  the  Milky  Way.     We  cannot  tell 

to    sleep;     all    this,    perhaps,    in   the  at  all  whether  the  whole  Milky  Way 

middle  of  the  day,  and  with  not  a  is  moving  through  space,  and  we  do 

cloud  in  the  sky.     Then,  just  as  sud-  not  know  whether  it  is  moving  round 

denly  the  daylight  returns.     An  eclipse  on  itself;  but  we  can  study  and  photo- 

of  the  sun  is  not  due  to  a  shadow,  but  graph  it  now,  and  long  years  after- 

happens  when  the  moon  gets  between  wards  our  successors  may  compare  our 

the  earth  and  the  sun,  and  we  see  the  photographs  with  what  they  then  see, 

moon  pass  across  the  sun.  and  may  be  able  to  learn  about  these 

This  happens  quite  often,  but  it  is  things, 

not  often  that  the  moon  passes  across  Look  closely  at  the  Milky  Way  on  a 

in  such  a  way  that,  for  a  little  while,  bright  night,  and  you  will  see  that  it 

it  exactly  fits  over  the  sun,  and  cuts  is  made  of  many  stars,  only  they  seem 

off  all  the  light.     Those  are  the  start-  so  closely  packed  together  that  their 

ling     times.     We     know     beforehand  light   is   all   blended,   looking   like   a 

when  they  are  to  happen,  and  to  what  thin  cloud  or  a  milky  streak  spread 

parts  of  the  world  we  must  go  to  see  across  the  sky.     If  you  use  an  opera- 

thenij  and  exactly  how  long  the  period  glass  or  a  telescope,  you  see  the  sepa- 

of    real    darkness    will    last.     Great  rate  stars   more  clearly,   and   if  you 

preparations  are  made,   and  men  go  take    a   photograph   through   a   tele- 

with  telescopes  and  cameras  and  all  scope — which  is  quite  an  easy  thing  to 

sorts  of  other  instruments,  perhaps  to  do — you   find   that   the   stars   of  the 

Greenland,  perhaps  to  some  island  in  Milky  Way  are  to  be  counted  not  in 

the  Pacific  Ocean,  just  for  the  sake  of  thousands,    or   even    in   hundreds   of 

the  forty  seconds,  or  perhaps  it  may  be  thousands,  but  actually  by  the  million, 

as  much  as  four  minutes,  during  which  From  any  one  part  of  the  earth  we 

the  moon  will  exactly  fit  over  the  face  can  see  only  about  half  of  the  Milky 

of  the  sun.     For  we  can  see  things  Way,  but  this  great  streak  of  stars 

and  learn  things  about  the  sun  during  really  forms  a  mighty  circle,  the  differ- 

those  few  seconds  as  we  never  can  at  ent  parts  of  which  can  be  seen  from 

any  other  time.  different  parts  of  the  earth.     The  sun 

The  milky  way  and  the  earth  and  other  planets  with 

Students  of  the  stars  think  that  the  it  lie  somewhere  not  very  far  from  the 

Milky  Way  is  the  boundary  of  our  center  of  this  great  circle.     Now  every 

world    of    stars.     It    is    a    complete  one  of  these  millions  of  stars  is  a  sun 

closed  circle  where  the  sky  is  crammed  like  ours,  only  some  are  smaller  than 

with    stars;     yet    in  places  there    are  our  sun,  and  many  are  larger.     Any  or 

gaps  where  we  can  see  through  beyond  all  of  these  suns,  for  all  we  know,  may 

into  nothing.     We  can  begin  to  meas-  have    one    or    many    planets   circling 

ure  the  diameter  of  this  great  circle,  round    it,    just    as    the   earth    moves 

Our  own  sun  and  system  seem  to  be  round  the  sun.     We  cannot  see  these 

somewhere  near  the  center  of  it,  and  planets,  for  they  must  be  too  small, 

a  very   remarkable   thing   about   the  and  without  any  light  of  their  own, 

sun,  and  therefore  about  us,  seems  to  just  as  the  earth  is.     So  that  if  we 


66  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

were  to  allow  only  two  or  three  planets  November,  when  the  earth  crosses  the 
to  every  star  or  sun  that  makes  up  the  path  of  a  shoal  of  meteorites  called 
Milky  Way,  that  would  mean  hun-  the  Leonids, 
dreds  of  millions  of  worlds  of  varying  Is  the  earth  hollow  inside? 
sizes.  Though  no  one  has  ever  seen,  or 
What  the  streaks  of  light  are  that  ever  can  see,  the  inside  of  the  earth, 
SOMETIMES  SHOOT  ACROSS  THE  SKY  we  are  Certain  that  the  answer  to  this 
These  are  called  shooting  stars.  Of  question  is  "No."  We  know  that  the 
course,  they  are  not  stars,  but  quite  earth  has  a  solid  crust,  very  thin,  and 
small  things,  often  just  like  stones,  very  apt  to  crack  and  "buckle," 
though  some  of  them  are  made  of  producing  such  things  as  mountain 
iron.  They  look  bright  merely  be-  chains  in  consequence,  and  we  can 
cause,  as  they  rush  through  the  air,  prove  that  this  crust  must  be  utterly 
they  get  very  hot.  The  smaller  ones,  different  from  what  lies  underneath  it. 
no  doubt,  get  so  hot  that  as  they  Now  one  of  the  many  ways  in  which 
pass  through  the  air  they  burn  all  we  can  learn  about  the  inside  of  the 
away,  just  as  a  candle  does,  and  so  earth  is  by  weighing  the  earth,  and 
they  never  reach  the  earth  at  all.  noting  its  weight  in  comparison  with 
But  larger  ones  actually  reach  the  its  size.  This  teaches  us  what  the 
earth,  sometimes  making  big  holes  density  or  denseness  is  of  the  stuff 
where  they  fall.  You  may  have  seen  that  makes  the  earth,  and  the  result 
such  things  in  museums,  and  you  can  is  a  conclusive  answer  to  the  question, 
look  upon  few  things  more  interesting  If  you  have  a  small  ball  which 
if  you  think  of  their  history,  for  in  weighs  tremendously  heavy  —  far 
the  beginning  these  things  did  not  heavier  in  proportion  to  its  size  than 
belong  to  the  earth  at  all ;  only  they  any  ball  you  play  with — you  would  not 
were  rushing  through  space,  many  suspect  it  of  being  hollow,  but  rather 
parts  of  which  contain  large  numbers  you  would  wonder  how  it  came  to  be 
of  things  like  pebbles,  and  they  were  so  tightly  packed  and  squeezed  to- 
caught  by  the  air  of  the  earth  and  the  gether.  That  is  the  case  with  the 
earth's  gravitation.  ball  we  call  the  earth.  Its  denseness 
Many  of  these  meteorites,  as  they  is  very  high,  indeed,  and  the  material 
are  called,  are  believed  to  have  once  in  it  is  packed  together  with  more 
been  part  of  the  bright  things  called  tightness  than  we  can  imagine.  We 
comets.  Sometimes  an  accident  seems  have  just  scratched  the  surface  of  the 
to  happen  to  a  comet  and  breaks  it  earth,  and  already  in  going  down  even 
up,  and  in  the  path  where  this  comet  such  a  short  distance  we  find  the  den- 
used  to  travel  round  the  sun  there  is,  sity  increasing,  as  it  must,  if  we  think 
instead,  a  great  shoal  of  meteorites,  of  the  weight  that  lies  over  us  at  the 
When  the  earth,  in  her  path,  happens  bottom  of  a  mine. 
to  cross  the  path  of  the  meteorites.  What  causes  an  earthquake 
many  of  them  will  be  caught,  especially  The  first  reason  that  probably  ac- 
if  it  be  just  at  the  time  when  the  counts  for  all  earthquakes  is  simply 
thickest  part  of  the  shoal  is  passing,  that  the  earth  is  shrinking  as  it 
So  we  know  the  times  of  the  year  and  gradually  loses  the  heat  from  its  sur- 
the  special  years  when  we  may  expect  face.  We  know  that  the  earth  has  a 
to  see  a  large  number  of  streaks  of  light  thin  crust,  which  is  comparatively 
in  the  sky  at  night.  The  best  showers  cool,  and  hot  inside.  The  crust  rests 
of  shooting  stars  are  usually  seen  in  upon  the  inside  of  the  earth,  and  as  the 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


67 


inside  shrinks  it  is  bound  to  leave  parts 
of  the  crust  unsupported,  so  that  they 
are  apt  to  sink  or  crack.  This  will 
happen  especially  where  the  crust  of 
the  earth  is  thinner  and  more  liable 
to  crack  than  in  other  places.  It  is 
very  common  in  Japan,  for  instance, 
and  very  rare  in  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
But  when  an  earthquake  happens  at 
any  part  of  the  earth,  it  starts  a  wave 
of  disturbance  that  travels  right  over 
the  earth,  and  can  be  detected  any- 
where by  means  of  the  seismograph. 
Then,  if  we  notice  the  time  when  the 
wave  reached  a  place,  and  find  out 
what  the  time  was  when  it  started,  we 
can  learn  how  quickly  the  earth-wave 
travels.  But  sometimes  no  one  knows 
where  the  wave  started,  and  then  very 
often  we  can  guess  that  it  started  under 
the  sea;  for  earthquakes  may  start  in 
the  earth's  crust  where  it  forms  the 
beds  of  great  oceans  as  well  as  any- 
where else.  And  so  there  may  be 
earthquakes  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

How   THE    PLANETS   GOT   THEIR    NAMES 

The  names  of  most  of  the  planets 
are  very  old  indeed,  and  they  were 
given  to  them  for  interesting  reasons 
worth  knowing.  Mercury  moves  very 
quickly,  for  it  is  so  near  the  sun  that 
it  would  be  drawn  in  unless  it  moved 
quickly,  and  its  name — Mercury — is 
after  the  "messenger  of  the  gods," 
whom  the  Greeks  and  Romans  invented 
and  believed  in.  Then  Venus  is  very 
beautiful  and  gets  its  name  from 
Venus,  the  supposed  goddess  of  beauty. 
Mars  is  reddish  and  so  suggests  blood, 
and  was  therefore  called  Mars,  after 
the  god  of  war.  Jupiter  is  the  biggest 
of  the  planets,  and  is  called  after 
Jupiter  or  Jove,  the  greatest  of  the 
gods  whom  people  believed  in  long 
ago. 

Then,  to  take  one  more  instance  of 
the  way  in  which  the  planets  are 
named,  there  is  Uranus,  now  so  named, 
like  the  others,  after  an  ancient  god. 


It  was  discovered  by  a  German, 
William  Herschel,  who  lived  in  Eng- 
land, and  he  wanted  to  call  it  Georgi- 
um,  after  the  King  of  England.  Others 
wanted  to  call  it  Herschel,  after  the 
discoverer,  which  would  certainly  have 
been  wiser  than  to  name  it  after  a 
king  who  had  nothing  at  all  to  do  with 
it;  but  finally  it  was  agreed  to  give  it 
an  old  name  like  the  others. 

As  for  Earth,  the  good  mother  of  us 
all,  the  ancients  called  her  Ge,  and  so 
now  we  call  the  study  of  the  earth 
ge-ology;  while  what  we  call  the  moon 
they  called  Luna.  Hence,  we  have 
the  word  lunatic,  because  in  ancient 
times  it  was  thought  that  when  a  man 
lost  his  mind,  it  was  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  moon. 

Who  GAVE  THE  STARS  THEIR  NAMES 

Nowadays  we  know  an  enormous 
number  of  stars— about  100,000,000— 
and  the  smaller  ones  (or  rather  the 
fainter  ones,  for  they  may  only  seem 
small  because  they  are  distant)  simply 
get  numbers  or  letters,  for  all  the 
world  like  automobiles,  in  order  to 
identify  them.  But  the  brightest 
stars  have  been  known  for  many  ages, 
certainly  not  less  than  10,000  years, 
and  the  origin  of  their  names  is  lost, 
like  the  names  of  the  men  who  named 
them. 

Some  of  these  names  we  call  Latin 
and  Greek  and  Arabic,  but  certainly 
many  of  them  are  far  older  than  the 
Romans  or  the  Greeks  or  the  Arabian 
astronomers,  and  they  got  the  names 
from  those  who  went  before  them, 
just  as  we  have  got  the  names  from 
them.  A  star  with  a  specially  inter- 
esting name  is  the  Polar  star,  which 
gives  us  the  direction  of  the  north. 
No  one  can  say  how  many  millions  and 
millions  of  sailors'  eyes,  throughout 
thousands  of  past  years,  have  been 
gratefully  and  often  anxiously  fixed 
upon  that  star,  by  which  they  could 
steer  their  way  home  across  the  path- 


68 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


less  sea.  But  for  all  those  sailors  that 
star  has  doubtless  been  known  by 
whatever  word  stood  for  north,  in 
whatever  language  the  sailors  spoke. 
The  names  of  great  stars  like  Alde- 
baran  and  Sirius  must  be  older  than 
any  human  record. 

Where  the  day  begins 

The  world  is  full  of  mysteries  and  of 
wonders,  and  there  is  no  need  for  us  to 
puzzle  ourselves  by  making  any  that  do 
not  really  exist.  We  could  quite  easily 
make  all  sorts  of  puzzles  about  time 
and  the  way  in  which  it  is  reckoned; 
but  we  must  understand  that  these 
puzzles  are  not  real,  but  are  made  en- 
tirely by  ourselves — not  by  Nature. 

The  real  fact  is  quite  simple.  The 
sun  goes  on  shining  all  the  time,  you 
know — it  is  well  to  remember  that 
'"the  sun  is  always  shining  somewhere" 
— and  the  earth  is  spinning  all  the 
time.  So  the  sun  is  always  seeming  to 
rise  somewhere,  because  at  some  place 
or  other  the  earth  is  just  spinning 
round,  so  as  to  face  it,  and  the  sun  is 
always  seeming  to  set  somewhere,  be- 
cause at  some  place  or  other  the  earth 
is  just  spinning  away  from  the  sun. 
That  is  simple. 

And,  of  course,  whatever  we  call 
now,  whether  we  call  it  six  o'clock  or 
twelve  o'clock,  this  now  is  now  every- 
where. The  present  moment  is  the 
present  moment  here  and  on  the 
farthest  star.  Only  when  just  oppo- 
site the  sun  we  call  that  midday, 
whereas  the  people  on  the  other  side 
of  the  world  are  then  away  from  the 
sun,  and  call  it  midnight;  but  this 
present  moment  of  ours  is  their  pres- 
ent, too,  of  course,  and  the  difference 
is  merely  a  difference  of  name  to  indi- 
cate that  now  we  are  opposite  the  sun, 
and  they  are  away  from  it.  It  would 
be  foolish  for  us  to  make  a  mystery 
whei'e  none  really  exists,  or  to  forget 
that  now  must  be  now  everywhere. 


But,  simply  because  the  earth  goes 
on  spinning,  and  the  sun  is  always 
shining,  the  day  is  dawning  somewhere 
always,  and  really,  therefore,  the 
answer  to  the  question,  "Where  does 
the  day  begin?"  is  that  the  day  is 
always  beginning  somewhere. 

Two  DAYS  AT  ONCE 

Since  people  live  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  what  we  call  night  (when 
it  is  our  night)  will  be  someone  else's 
day,  and  our  midnight,  when  a  new 
day  begins  for  us,  as  w^e  reckon,  will 
not  be  the  midnight  of  other  people  in 
other  parts  of  the  world,  so  that  what 
we  call  Monday  they  may  call  Tues- 
day, yet  we  and  they  are  both  talking 
about  the  same  moment! 

Now,  it  would  be  very  inconvenient 
if  all  the  different  parts  of  the  world 
east  or  west  of  each  other  persisted  in 
talking  of  time  as  if  they  were  the  only 
people  on  the  earth,  and  as  if  their 
midnight  must  be  everybody's  mid- 
night— which  it  is  not.  So  we  reckon 
by  two  sorts  of  time.  One  is  local 
time — the  time  reckoned  by  what  is 
happening  at  the  particular  place 
whose  time  it  is;  the  other  is  standard 
time,  which  we  agree  upon,  so  that 
we  can  catch  trains,  and  so  on,  just  as 
if  midnight  in  one  place  were  mid- 
night everywhere.  Up  to  1883  people 
often  missed  trains  through  this  diffi- 
culty, and  then  "standard  time"  was 
invented. 
Where  the  day  changes 

A  clock  shows  that  it  is  never  mid- 
night at  the  same  time  at  any  two 
places  which  are  not  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  line  passing  through 
Greenwich — or,  indeed,  from  any  such 
line,  only  we  take  Greenwich  for  con- 
venience. Therefore  it  may  be  one 
day  at  one  place,  and  the  day  before 
or  the  day  after  at  another.  In  order 
that  we  shall  not  get  more  mixed  than 
we    can    help — and    we    cannot    help 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


69 


getting  rather  mixed  since  we  don't  all 
live  on  the  same  line,  and  the  earth 
will  keep  on  turning ! — we  have  agreed 
that  we  shall  take  a  line  exactly  on  the 
other  side  of  the  earth  from  the  Green- 
wich line,  and  this  we  call  the  "date 
line."  What  is  called  Sunday  on  one 
side  of  this  line  is  Monday  on  the  other 
side.  If  the  "date  line"  passed 
through  a  country  or  through  a  city, 
this  would  be  inconvenient.  People 
living  on  opposite  sides  of  the  same 
street  might  have  different  days  for 
Sunday.  They  would  have  no  doubt 
that  now  is  now  everywhere,  but  they 
would  call  now  by  different  names. 
Fortunately,  however,  the  date  line 
scarcely  touches  any  land  at  all,  and 
the  little  it  does  touch  is  very  unim- 


portant, 
ocean. 


The  line  passes  across  the 


»rjf^?:iKsr«.v- 


S   U    N   D   A,  > 


/ 


The  international  date  line,  with  Sunday  on  one  side  and 
Monday  on  the  other 


THE      CHILDREN'S 


WHYS 


AND       "HOWS 


J  > 


Why  we  count  in  tens 

YOU  may  w  ell  ask  why  we  count 
in  tens,  for  it  would  be  much 
more  convenient  if  we  counted 
in  twelves — if  we  had  a  duodecimal 
system  of  counting  in  twelves  instead 
of  a  decimal  system  of  counting  in 
tens.  If  we  should  invent  two  extra 
single  figures  for  ten  and  eleven,  and 
then  write  ten  to  mean  twelve,  and 
eleven  to  mean  thirteen,  100  to  mean 
144  (twelve  times  twelve  instead  of  ten 
times  ten),  and  so  on. 

Perhaps  we  will  do  this  some  day; 
and  the  reason  is  that,  while  ten  can 
be  evenly  divided  only  by  two  figures, 
two  and  five,  twelve  can  be  evenly 
divided  by  four  figures.  Thus,  for 
many  purposes  it  would  be  better  to 
count  in  twelves,  and,  indeed,  we  often 
do  so  when  we  can,  as,  for  instance,  by 
making  twelve  inches  to  the  foot 
instead  of  ten.  This  would  also  fit 
in  nicely  with  the  number  of  months 
in  the  year.  But  we  count  in  tens 
still,  as  a  rule,  and  we  shall  doubtless 
do  so  for  many  a  long  day  yet,  simply 


because    our    ancestors    have    always 
done  so. 

If  you  think  how  you  sometimes 
used  to  ■  reckon  when  you  started 
arithmetic,  you  will  guess  the  simple 
reason  why.  It  is  because  we  have 
ten  fingers.  When  we  count  on  our 
fingers,  as  childi-en  do,  and  as  the 
first  men  did,  it  is  natural  to  make  a 
fresh  start  after  ten,  because  then  we 
go  back  again  to  the  finger  we  began 
with.  So  all  over  the  world,  we  find 
men  counting  by  tens — using  a  decimal 
system — just  because  men  and  women 
everywhere  have  ten  fingers. 
Why  a  stone  sinks 

The  stone  sinks  because  it  is 
heavier,  or  denser,  than  an  amount  of 
water  occupying  the  same  amount  of 
room;  and  the  water  floats  on  top  of 
the  stone  just  as  the  stick  floats  on 
top  of  the  water.  It  all  depends  upon 
the  great  law  of  the  pull,  or  attraction, 
of  the  earth  for  everything  outside  it, 
and  the  heavier  the  thing  is,  the 
stronger  the  pull.  A  lump  of  iron 
sinks  in  just  the  same  way. 


70 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


HOW  A  MAGNIFYING  GLASS  MAKES  THINGS  BIGGER 


^  -"    ■«  *•- 


X  .IT 


These  pictures  how  us  how  a  magnifying  glass  makes  things  appear  larger  than  they  really  are.  What 
happens  when  we  look  at,  say,  a  leaf,  is  that  rays  of  light  are  thrown  off  by  the  leaf  and  brought  together 
to  our  eyes.     When  we  use  a  magnifying  glass  the  rays  of  light  pass  through  the  glass  and  bend — as  a  stick 

appears  to  bend  if  you  put  it  in  water,  or  as  the  pair  of  compasses  seems  to  bend 
in  the  glass  of  water  shown  on  this  page.  When  the  rays  of  light  reach  the 
eye,  the  eye  imagines  that  they  have  come  in  straight  lines,  and  it  appears 
to  the  eye  that  the  light  comes  in  lines  as  shown  by  the  dots  in  this  picture. 
What  we  really  see  are  rays  of  light.  These  rays  not  being  able  to  go  straight 
through  a  magnifying  glass  as  if  it  were  a  piece  of  ordinary  glass,  are  bent  in 
passing  through  the  glass,  and  what  happens  then  is  as  if  the  eye  having  col- 
lected all  these  rays  to  a  point,  throws  them  out  again  in  straight,  sloping 
lines,  at  the  end  of  which  we  see  the  image,  looking  much  bigger  than  it  really 
is.  So  that  what  we  see  through  a  magnifying  glass  is  not  the  actual  leaf 
but  the  rays  of  light  thrown  off  by  the  leaf,  first  bent  by  the  glass  and  then 
straightened  out  again  so  as  to  appear  to  cover  a  much  bigger  space.  A  curious 
thing  happens  if  the  rays  of  light  are  allowed  to  continue  beyond  the  eye  instead 
of  being  focused  by  the  eye.  We  can  do  this  with  the  aid  of  a  microscope,  as 
shown  in  the  bottom  picture.  In  this  case  we  see  the  leaf  upside  down.  This 
is  because  the  rays  of  light  meet,  and  then  as  the  rays  must  go  straight,  the  line 
of  light  coming  from  the  top  of  the  leaf  goes  down  while  the  line  coming  from 
the  bottom  of  the  leaf  goes  up.  In  the  top  picture  the  meeting  or  focusing  of 
the  lines  of  light  takes  place  inside  the  eye,  but  in  the  picture  below  we  see  the 
1  rays  focused  through  the  glass  instead  of  inside  the  eye,  and  we  see  them, 
therefore,  continuint;,  u:  '.il  LUey  are  reflected  in  the  looking  glass,  where  we  see  the  enlarged  picture  upside 
down.     This  helps  us  to  understand  what  happens  inside  the  eye,  as  explained  on  the  next  page. 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK  71 

HOW  THE   CAMERA  TAKES  YOUR  PHOTOGRAPH 


/k 

\ 

N'H 

\ 


\   "^ 


These  pictures  show  us  how  a  camera  takes  a  picture,  why  it  takes  the  picture  upside  down  and  also 
how  the  eye  is  like  a  camera  in  this  way.  The  boat  in  this  picture  gives  off  rays  of  light  which  strike  in  all 
directions.  Some  of  these  rays  go  out  towards  the  camera,  and  as  light  always  travels  in  straight  lines,  never 
crooked  ones,  all  the  rays  that  can  be  seen  from  the  lens  of  the  camera  travel 
straight  up  or  down  towards  the  lens.  Inside  the  lens  they  continue  traveling 
in  the  same  direction  and  at  last  they  meet  and  cross  so  that  the  lines  of  light 
given  off  by  the  top  of  the  boat  strike  the  bottom  of  the  photographic  plate 
and  the  lines  given  off  by  the  bottom  of  the  boat  strike  the  top  of  the  plate. 
The  small  picture  on  this  page  shows  a  way  in  which  any  boy  or  girl  can  find 
out  how  the  lines  of  light  cross  so  as  to  make  an  image  upside  down.  Take 
a  white  cardboard  box  without  the  lid  and  prick  in  one  side  a  small  hole  with 
a  pin  Hold  the  box,  say,  under  a  gas  jet  so  that  the  gas  will  reflect  through 
the  hole.  The  hole  will  then  act  as  a  focus  of  the  rays  which  will  enter  the 
box  through  the  hole  and  cross,  so  that  the  inside  of  the  box  where  they  fall 
will  reflect  the  gas  jet,  which  will  be  upside  down.  The  bottom  picture  shows 
us  that  the  eye  acts  in  the  same  way  as  the  cimera  but  a  very  wonderful  thing 
happens  in  the  eye,  that  no  man  quite  understands.  When  the  photographer 
finds  that  his  picture  is  upside  down  he  turns  the  plate  the  other  way  and 
everything  is  right.  But  what  wonderful  thing  is  it  that  turns  the  picture 
printed  inside  the  eye  the  right  way  up?  The  rays  of  light  stamp  themselves 
upon  the  retina  of  the  eye  as  seen  in  this  picture  and  the  nerve  of  the  eye  carries 
them  to  the  brain.  What  happens  there  nobody  knows  but  when  the  brain 
brings  together  these  rays  of  light  so  as  to  make  a  clear  picture,  the  picture  is  the 


right  way  up.    The  picture  is  printed  on  the  retina  of  the  eye  upside  down,  but  our  brain  puts  it  right  in  the  mil- 
lionth part  of  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  and  this  is,  perhaps,  as  great  a  miracle  as  anything  that  ever  happened. 


72  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

Why  a  wheel  stops  round  and  round  in  space,  but,  as 
One  of  the  reasons  why  a  wheel  space  is  almost  empty,  and  as  the 
stops  when  it  has  once  been  started  is  earth's  air  is  part  of  the  earth  and  goes 
the  resistance  of  the  air.  But  wheels  round  with  it,  and  as  the  earth  is  not 
also  stop  through  another  kind  of  re-  spinning  on  anything,  as  a  top  spins 
sistance,  which  is  called  friction.  The  on  a  plate,  the  earth  scarcely  slow^s 
w^heel  of  a  bicycle,  for  instance,  travels  down  at  all  throughout  the  ages, 
round  and  round  on  something  in  the  How  fast  a  wheel  can  go  round 
center  of  it,  which  we  call  the  axle,  and  You  might  think  that  if  you  applied 
as  the  wheel  rubs  against  the  axle  it  sufficient  force  to  a  w^heel — say,  the 
is  made  to  go  slower.  If  you  put  your  wheel  of  some  kind  oi  engine  that  was 
finger  on  your  arm  and  rub  it  along  driving  something — li.  would  go  round 
your  skin  and  press  a  little,  you  can  faster  and  faster,  and  there  need  be 
see  how  you  are  opposed  by  friction;  no  hmit  at  all  to  the  speed  at  wliich  it 
but  if  you  put  some  oil  on  the  tip  of  went  round.  But  that  is  not  true, 
your  finger  first,  the  finger  will  slide  and  sometimes  when  men  forget  it 
along  your  arm  quite  easily,  because  and  make  wheels  go  round  too  fast, 
the  oil  lessens  the  friction.  accidents  happen.  If  you  take  an 
For  exactly  the  same  reason  you  umbrella  that  has  been  out  in  the 
have  to  oil  the  bearings  of  a  bicycle,  rain,  and  twirl  it  round  very  gently 
Perhaps  you  know  that  a  special  way  and  slowly,  the  drops  of  rain  will  hold 
has  been  found  in  which  to  lessen  the  on  to  the  umbrella  tight  enough  to 
friction  of  a  bicycle,  so  that,  after  you  go  round  with  it,  but  directly  you  spin 
stop  pedaling,  the  wheels  will  go  on  the  umbrella  a  little  faster,  the  drops 
running  much  farther  than  they  other-  of  rain,  as  you  know,  fly  off  from  the 
wise  would.  A  number  of  tiny  steel  umbrella.  As  long  as  the  umbrella 
balls  are  put  between  the  axle  and  the  went  round  slowly,  the  force  of  stick- 
wheel,  so  that  the  wheel  really  runs  on  ing,  or  cohesion,  as  it  is  called,  was 
these  little  balls.  This  is  w^hat  is  sufficient  to  make  the  drops  stick  to 
called  'iiall  bearings,"  and  every  bi-  the  umbrella,  but  when  the  umbrella 
cycle  has  them,  both  for  the  wheels  went  round  a  little  faster,  the  force  of 
and  for  the  pedals.  cohesion  could  not  keep  the  drops 
Could  a  top  spin  forever?  sticking  to  the  umbrella,  and  so  off 
Friction  also  helps  to  stop  a  top,  they  fly.  But  now,  after  all,  it  is 
but  if  you  spin  the  top  on  a  perfectly  nothing  but  cohesion  that  makes  the 
smooth  plate,  so  that  there  is  very  parts  of  a  wheel  stick  to  each  other, 
little  friction,  it  will  spin  much  longer;  and  if  the  wheel  went  round  quickly 
and  if  you  could  spin  the  top  on  a  enough,  this  cohesion  would  not  be 
smooth  plate  inside  something  from  strong  enough  to  hold  the  wheel  to- 
which  you  had  taken  away  all  the  air,  gether,  any  more  than  it  is  strong 
it  would  not  be  difficult  to  get  the  top  enough  to  hold  the  drops  to  the  um- 
to  spin  for  hours,  because  things  which  brella  if  spun  quickly, 
have  once  started  moving  go  on  Could  a  wheel  fly  off  an  engine 
moving  until  something  stops  them.  Sometimes  when  an  engine  has  been 
If  the  top  could  be  spun  where  there  running  too  quickly,  a  great  wheel, 
is  no  air  at  all,  and  nothing  happened  perhaps  made  of  hea\'^'  steel,  has  flown 
to  hinder  the  spinning,  the  top  w^ould  to  pieces.  These  pieces  have  gone 
certainly  go  on  forever.  The  earth  flying  out  just  as  the  drops  do  from  a 
is  like  a  great  wheel  or  top  spinning  spun  umbrella,  and  sometimes  these 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK  73 

have  done  terrible  damage.  This  gas  that  acts  on  the  engine  in  this 
appUes  to  everything  that  spins — the  case,  just  as  the  gases  made  by  the 
earth,  or  a  wheel,  or  a  top.  There  is  burning  of  the  gasoline  act  upon  the 
a  limit  to  the  speed  at  which  it  can  engine  in  the  commoner  kind  of  auto- 
spin  without  flying  to  pieces,  because  mobiles.  Electricity  is  used  in  ordi- 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  power  of  cohesion,  nary  automobiles  to  set  the  gasoline 
or  holding  together,  and  directly  that  burning.  Each  time  the  spark  passes, 
limit  is  passed,  the  pieces  of  the  wheel,  a  little  gasoline  is  burned,  and  it  is 
or  the  top,  or  the  earth — if  the  earth  this  burning  that  makes  the  noise  that 
were  set  spinning  too  quickly — must  we  hear,  or  part  of  it.  The  car  is 
fly  away.  For  everything  that  is  made  to  go,  therefore,  by  a  very  large 
moving  tries  to  move  in  a  straight  line,  number  of  little  gas  explosions, 
and  the  reason  why  a  wheel  can  spin  Why  soap  takes  out  the  dirt 
at  all  is  that  the  parts  of  it  move  in  The  answer  to  this  question  has  been 
circles  instead  of  in  straight  lines,  a  great  deal  argued  by  chemists,  and 
because  they  are  held  by  cohesion;  but  it  is  a  very  important  thing,  for  clean- 
if  cohesion  is  not  strong  enough,  all  liness  is  necessary,  and  enormous 
parts  of  the  wheel,  like  the  drops  on  quantities  of  soap  have  to  be  used, 
the  umbrella,  will  start  moving  in  and  it  is  well  that  we  should  know 
straight  lines  instead  of  in  circles,  and  how  soap  does  its  work,  so  that  we 
the  wheel  will  fly  to  pieces.  can  make  the  soap  that  works  best. 
What  makes  an  automobile  go                    Now  it  is  fat  or  oil  that  especially 

The  mystery  of  the  automobile  is,  makes  things  dirty.     If  only  we  can 

of  course,   only   the   old   question   of  melt  or  get  rid  of  the  oil  on  things,  we 

using   natural   forces   for   power.     In  soon  make  them  clean,  and  the  real 

nearly  all  automobiles  it  is  a  gas  that  use  of  soap  is  that  it  disposes  of  oil. 

makes  them  move.     In  one  way  or  an-  It   does   this   in   at   least   two   ways, 

other  this  gas  is  made  in  the  engine  of  Most  soaps  have  in  them  a  great  deal 

the  car  or  is  sent  into  it,  and,  as  this  gas  of   alkali.     This    alkali    dissolves    the 

is  made  under  pressure,  its  atoms  fly  oil  that  gathers  on  things,  and  makes 

about  in  all  directions,  and  so  press  them  clean. 

upon  that  part  of  the  engine  which  is  But  soap  takes  the  dirt  from  things 

connected  with  the  wheels.     In  most  in  another  way,  as  we  know  when  we 

automobiles  gasoline  is  burned  with  use  soaps  that  have  no  alkali  in  them 

air,  which  is  admitted  to  the  inside  of  at  all.     It  has  the  power  of  breaking 

the  engine,  and  the  gases  which  are  up   oil   into   a   number  of  tiny   little 

produced  by  this  burning  make  the  car  drops,  which  are  easily  washed  away, 

move.     Gasoline  is  really  a  vegetable  together   with   all   the   dirt   that   the 

product,  and  has  in  it  the  power  which  oil  has  collected. 

poured  upon  the  earth  from  the  sun  A   collection   of  tiny   drops   of  oil, 

ages  ago.     It  is  really  the  sun,  then,  held  in  some  other  fluid,  is  called  an 

that  makes   the  car   move;    not   the  emulsion.     Water  alone  will  not  form 

sunlight  of  today,  but  the  stored-up  an  emulsion  of  any  oil,  because  oil  and 

sunlight  of  long  ages  ago.  water  will  not  mix.     That  is  the  reason 

In  steam  automobiles  the  power  is  why  we  cannot  wash  well  with  water 

produced  as  it  is  in  a  railway  engine  alone.     But  when  water  has  soap  dis- 

or  a  steamboat.     Something  is  burned  solved   in  it,   it  is   able  to   make  an 

■ — generally     gasoline — and     so     boils  emulsion  of  the  oil  on  anything  we 

water,  and  it  is  the  water-vapor  or  are  washing,  and  so  makes  it  clean. 


'Tk 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


WHY  DOES  A  STICK  FLOAT? 

We  must  remember  that  the  earth  is 
all  the  time  trying  to  pull  everything 
to  itself;  it  pulls  us,  it  pulls  the  air,  it 
pulls  a  balloon,  it  pulls  the  moon. 
Now,  the  heavier  the  thing  is  the  more 
it  is  pulled,  and  water  is  heavier  than 


'"I's^^ 


~^«s^*, 


WHY   WOOD   FLOATS  AND  IRON  SINKS 

Vvrod  floats  because  it  is  full  of  tiny  quantities  of  air, 
and  so  is  lighter,  or  less  dense,  tlian  the  water,  A  stone, 
or  a  iump  of  iron,  has  no  air  in  if.  it  is  denser  ttian  the 
water,  and  therefore  it  sinks.  An  iron  ship  floats  because 
it  is  hollow  and  full  of  air,  so  that  as  a  whole  it  is  lighter 
than  the  water.  If  we  filled  it  up  solid  with  iron  or  stone, 
or  if  It  cracked  and  so  let  the  air  escape  from  it  and  the 
water  come  in,  it  would  sink,  as  shown  in  the  second  of 
these  pictures. 

a  stick.  This  does  not  mean  that  all 
the  water  in  a  jiond  is  heavier  than  a 
stick,  because  we  know  that.  But  it 
means  that  if  you  have  a  cup  and  filled 
it  wnth  water,  and  had  another  cup 


WHY   AN   IRON   SHIP   FLOATS 


the  same  size  and  filled  it  with  stick, 
the  cup  with  the  w^ater  would  be 
heavier — that  is  to  say,  in  a  fixed 
amount  of  space  you  can  pack  a 
greater  weight  of  water  than  of  wood. 


That  is  what  we  mean  when  we  say 
that  the  water  is  heavier  than  the 
stick. 

Of  course,  a  pound  of  water  is  the 
same  as  a  pound  of  stick,  and  you  do 
not  need  to  answer  the  question — 
Which  is  the  heavier,  a  pound  of 
feathers  or  a  pound  of  lead?  They 
both  weigh  the  same,  only  the  lead 
takes  up  less  room,  and  so  we  say  that 
lead  is  heavier  than  feathers,  though  a 
pound  of  lead  weighs  the  same  as  a 
pound  of  feathers.  The  proper  name 
for  a  heavy  thing  is  dense,  and,  w^hen- 
ever  it  is  possible,  the  earth  always 
pulls  the  denser  things  further  down, 
and  the  less  dense  things  float  on  the 
top  of  it.  That  is  why  the  stick  floats; 
that  is  why  the  cold  air  is  found 
nearest  the  floor,  because  cold  air  is 
heavier,  or  denser,  than  warm  air,  and 
the  warm  air  floats  on  the  top  of  it  as 
the  stick  floats  on  water. 

WHY  AN  IRON  SHIP  FLOATS 

Men  used  to  think  that  a  ship  had 
to  be  made  of  wood  in  order  to  float, 
because  wood  floats  and  iron  sinks. 
But  now  all  big  ships  are  built  of  iron. 
Why  do  they  not  sink  like  a  stone  or 
an  anvil?  It  is  because  of  their  shape. 
When  they  are  hollowed  out  the  whole 
space  they  occupy  is  filled  with  air, 
which  makes  the  ship,  as  a  whole, 
lighter  than  water,  and  so  it  floats. 
You  can  even  put  things  into  it,  but 
the  more  you  put  in,  the  deeper  your 
ship  rides  in  the  water.  You  can  store 
iron  in  it,  but  if  you  packed  it  full 
of  iron,  or  anything  heavier  than 
water,  it  would  sink. 

One  brave  man  fought  for  years  for 
the  lives  of  sailors,  and  at  last  got  a 
law  made  that  a  line  should  be  painted 
outside  the  hulls  of  ships,  and  that 
the  ships  must  not  be  packed  so  heavily 
as  to  sink  that  line  below  the  surface 
of  the  water.  Like  everyone  who  does 
anything  worth  doing,  he  was  laughed 
at,  but  his  name  will  alwavs  be  remem- 


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bered,  and  that  line,  which  protects 
sailors,  will  always  be  called  Plimsoll's 
line,  in  his  memory. 
What  a  vacuum  is 
^  Vacuum  is  simply  a  Latin  adjective 
^  meaning  empty,  and  we  have  an 
English  word,  vacuous,  which  has  the 
same  meaning,  and  which  we  some- 
times apply  to  the  expression  of  a 
person's  face  when  it  seems  to  mean 
nothing — to  be  empty  of  meaning. 
In  the  study  of  Nature  we  often  talk 
about  vacuum,  meaning  by  that  an 
empty  space.  It  is  always  necessary 
to  remember  that  there  is  really  no 
such  thing  as  empty  space,  for  what 
we  call  the  ether  is  everywhere. 

But  when  we  speak  of  a  vacuum  we 
are  leaving  the  ether  out  of  account, 
and  are  simply  thinking  of  gases,  such 
as  the  air.  We  take  such  a  thing  as  a 
globe  of  glass,  which  cannot  collapse 
when  the  air  is  sucked  out  of  it  and  we 
attach  a  pump  to  it,  so  as  to  suck  out 
of  it  all  the  air  we  can.  When  we 
have  done  so,  we  call  the  space  inside 
the  glass  globe  a  vacuum.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  we  can  never  get  a  real 
vacuum,  but  only  a  space  which  con- 
tains comparatively  little  air.  No  one 
has  ever  made,  or  ever  will  make,  a 
perfect  vacuum. 

How  A  MACKINTOSH  KEEPS  US  DRY 

A  mackintosh  keeps  us  dry  because 
it  is  made  of  a  material  which  water 
cannot  get  through.  Our  ordinary 
clothes  are  full  of  tiny  little  holes,  or 
pores,  and  so  we  call  them  porous. 
The  water  runs  into  these  little  holes, 
and  so  will  make  our  clothes  wet,  just 
exactly  as  it  runs  into  a  sponge,  which 
is  also  full  of  holes,  or  pores — only 
these  are  so  big  that  we  can  see  them. 
But  if  you  take  a  thing  like  a  piece  of 
india-rubber,  you  find  that  water  can- 
not get  through  it  because  there  are 
no  holes  in  it  to  let  the  water  through ; 
or  you  can  take  a  piece  of  ordinary 
clothj  which  is  porous,  like  a  sponge, 


and  then,  if  you  melt  india-rubber  and 
put  the  cloth  in  it,  the  rubber  will  fill 
up  the  holes  in  the  cloth,  making  it 
waterproof. 

The  name  of  the  man  who  discovered 
how  to  do  this  was  Mr.  Macintosh, 
and  that  is  why  many  kinds  of  water- 
proof coats  are  called  mackintoshes 
now.  For  no  particular  reason  we 
have  put  a  "k"  into  the  word.  Now, 
there  is  another  kind  of  material 
which  also  keeps  water  out,  or,  at 
least,  in  its  natural  state  it  keeps 
water  out,  but  we  cut  it  up  and  put  it 
into  bottles  and  use  it  to  keep  water 
and  medicine  in.  There  is  a  special 
kind  of  tree  which  makes  this  cork, 
but  really  all  trees  have  a  layer  of 
cork  inside  the  bark,  and  this  makes 
them  waterproof.  India-rubber  is  also 
obtained  from  trees. 

And  so,  when  we  wear  a  mackin- 
tosh, we  first  of  all  take  something 
from  the  coat  of  a  sheep  to  make  wool- 
len cloth,  and  then  we  take  something 
from  the  world  of  plants  in  order  to 
make  the  cloth  waterproof. 
Why  ammonia  cleanses  things 

Ammonia  is  really  a  gas,  but  like 
other  gases  't  can  be  dissolved  in  water 
and  °s  more  soluble  in  water  than 
almost  any  otlier  gas.  The  solution  of 
ammonia  gas  in  water  is  what  we 
usually  call  ammonia,  and  it  is  largely 
used  for  cleansing  things.  Indeed, 
people  add  what  is  called,  not  quite 
correctly,  "liquid  ammonia,"  to  the 
water  of  their  bath,  for  they  find  that 
it  helps  to  make  them  clean.  "Liquid 
ammonia"  is  not  a  correct  name,  be- 
cause what  we  call  that  is  really  water 
containing  a  lot  of  ammonia  gas. 

Ammonia  cleanses  many  things  far 
better  than  even  strong  soft  soap,  but 
it  is  so  powerful  that  we  cannot  use 
it  for  everything.  The  reason  why 
ammonia  is  such  a  splendid  cleanser 
is  that  it  is  an  alkali,  and  so  dissolves 
fats  and  oils,  as  the  alkalies  in  ordinary 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


soap  do.  But  aniinonia  is  different 
from  all  other  alkalies,  because  it  is 
really  a  gas,  and  the  great  fact  about 
a  gas  is  that,  if  it  gets  "half  a  chance," 
it  goes  everywhere.  Ammonia  is  thus 
the  most  searching  of  cleansers. 

Why  houses  are  not  made 

OF  IRON 

We  are  doing  just  what  men  did  long 
ago  when  they  passed  from  the  "Stone 
Age,"  in  which  they  used  stone  for 
knives  and  weapons,  to  the  "Age  of 
Metals,"  when  they  used  brcnze  and 
copper  and  iron.  We  may  say  we  are 
passing  from  the  Stone  Age  to  the  Age 
of  Metals  in  buildings. 

Of  course,  in  the  case  of  a  bridge, 
we  simply  use  steel  and  do  not  think 
it  necessary  to  do  more.  One  of  the 
most  wonderful,  though  not  the  most 
beautiful,  bridges  in  the  world  is  the 
Brooklyn  Bridge,  which  is  made  of 
steel.  When  it  comes  to  ordinary 
buildings,  however,  the  builder  makes 
his  building  of  steel;  but  we  are  not 
accustomed  to  buildings  made  simply 
of  steel,  and  they  would  look  very 
unusual  to  our  eyes;  so  after  he  has 
made  the  steel  skeleton  of  his  house, 
or  whatever  it  is,  he  covers  it  all  up 
with  stone,  so  as  to  make  it  look  as  if 
it  were  really  the  stone  that  was  hold- 
ing it  up;  yet  really  you  might  take 
all  the  stone  away,  and  it  would  stand 
as  before.  The  real  reason  for  not 
making  steel  exposure  is  that  it  is  such 
a  good  conductor  of  heat  that  w^e  would 
roast,  whereas  stone  or  brick  is  a  poor 
conductor. 

How  A  BAR  STAYS  IN  ITS  PLACE 

All  solid  things  have  cohesion,  and 
we  can  almost  imagine  the  tiny  parts 
of  which  they  are  made  holding  on 
to  each  other,  as  if  they  had  little  arms 
or  hooks.  That  is  why  things  can  be 
solid;  that  is  why  they  can  have  a 
shape  and  keep  it.  You  see,  the  earth 
is  so  enormous,  compared  with  any- 


thing that  we  can  make  or  move,  that, 
if  there  were  nothing  else  to  act  against 
the  power  of  the  earth's  gravitation, 
everything  would  crumble  down  quite 
flat,  so  that  all  the  stuff  in  it  might  be 
pulled  as  near  as  possible  to  the  center 
of  the  earth. 

A  bar  holds  together,  because, 
though  gravitation  is  always  acting, 
and  is  very  powerful,  cohesion  is  very 
powerful  too.  You  know,  for  instance, 
the  horizontal  bar  in  the  gymnasium? 
How  does  this  stand.'*  How  does 
it  come  to  stand  so  firm  that  it 
will  support  your  weight?  The 
answer  is  that,  though  the  earth  is 
pullling  it  down  all  the  time,  the  earth's 
pull  is  balanced  by  the  cohesion  of  the 
bar.  If  you  tried  to  make  the  bar  of 
something  that  has  very  little  cohesion 
like  sand^well,  you  might  try  for  a 
very  long  time  before  you  succeeded! 
Of  course,  it  is  true  that  gravitation 
acts  between  everything  and  every- 
thing else.  It  acts,  for  instance,  be- 
tween the  tiny  parts  of  which  the  bar 
is  made,  or  of  which  the  bar  of  sand — 
if  such  there  could  be — is  made. 
What  the  first  buildings  were  like 

The  first  devices  men  ever  lived  in 
began  by  not  being  buildings  at  all; 
they  were  just  holes  or  caves  in  the 
earth.  We  have  found  some  of  these 
caves  with  bones  and  teeth  and  other 
things  which  tell  us  what  these  men 
ate  long  ago.  The  first  attempt  that 
man  made  to  build  was  simply  to 
make  the  caves  that  he  found  rather 
bigger  and  more  convenient;  and  so 
he  scooped  them  out  and  made  them 
deeper,  and  often  he  scooped  away 
much  of  the  roof  so  as  to  make  the 
cave  higher,  and  let  iiim  stand  and 
walk  upright  in  it.  And  when  at  last 
man  began  to  build  for  himself,  he 
made  huts,  such  as  many  peoples  live 
in  even  nowadays,  like  the  Eskimos. 
And  these  huts  are  really  very  like 
caves  if  you  come  to  think  of  it. 


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77 


Who  invented  arches  for  buildings 

One  of  the  remarkable  things  about 
the  great  buildings  of  Greece  is  that 
they  do  not  have  arches.  Their 
buildings,  indeed,  were  in  principle 
the  same  as  you  can  make  with  toy 
bricks.  Now,  it  is  a  curious  thing 
that  somehow  or  other,  though  the 
Greeks  learned  so  much  from  the 
Egyptians  as  regards  science  and  art 
and  many  other  things,  they  did  not 
know  about  the  arch.  Yet,  even  in 
very  early  Egyptian  buildings,  we 
find  various  kinds  of  arches,  including 
even  the  pointed  arch  which  you  must 
have  seen  in  many  churches.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  arches — one  built  up 
from  the  two  sides,  and  then  at  the 
very  top  of  the  arch  there  is  put  in 
last,  a  stone  called  the  keystone,  be- 
cause it  keys,  or  rather  locks  the 
two  sides  of  the  arch  together.  People 
who  study  buildings  say  that  the  kind 
of  arch  they  call  Gothic  does  not  have 
a  keystone,  the  two  sides  meeting  in 
a  straight  up  and  down  line. 
Who  the  best  builders  were 

Now,  you  know  that  the  Romans 
came  after  the  Greeks,  and  that  nearly 
everything  they  knew  and  could  do 
they  learned  from  the  Greeks.  Indeed, 
there  was  a  great  deal  which 
the  Greeks  knew  and  the  Romans 
forgot.  The  Romans  did  not  build 
beautifully  as  the  Greeks.  There 
never  was  any  building  in  Rome  so 
lovely    as    the    Parthenon.     But    one 


thing  the  Romans  had  which  the 
Greeks  had  not,  and  that  was  the 
arch.  No  one  appears  to  know 
whether  some  Roman  found  out  all 
by  himself  how  to  make  an  arch,  or 
whether  they  found  arches  in  Egypt 
or  somewhere  else;  but,  at  any  rate, 
the  Romans  had  the  secret  of  the  arch, 
and  they  seem  to  have  been  very 
proud  of  it,  and  used  it  whenever  they 
could. 

They  were  very  fond  of  building 
what  they  called  triumphal  arches  in 
honor  of  some  great  soldier  or  some 
great  event,  and  you  will  see  such 
arches  in  Rome  and  many  parts  of 
Italy. 

In  our  own  times  we  have  made  a 
great  discovery  as  regards  buildings. 
You  know  that  instead  of  building 
ships  of  wood  we  build  them  of  iron 
and  steel.  Well,  we  do  the  same 
thing  now  in  building;  instead  of  stone 
we  use  steel. 
Which   travels   quicker— heat   or 

COLD? 

Complete  cold,  if  we  could  get  it, 
would  only  be  complete  absence  of 
heat;  and  what  we  ordinarily  call  cold 
is  simply  less  heat  than  in  something 
else  with  which  we  are  comparing  it. 
When  a  thing  gets  cold,  it  really  gets 
less  hot.  So  we  cannot  speak  of  cold 
traveling,  unless  we  mean  that  it  is  a 
cold  wind  that  is  traveling,  or  cold 
water  traveling  through  hot  water,  as 
when  you  run  cold  water  into  a  hot 


A  GREAT  LINE  OF  ARCHES  BUILT  BY  THE  ROMANS.  WHO  WERE  FOND  OF  ARCHES  IN  BUILDING 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


bath.  But  we  can  say  how  fast  heat 
travels,  if  by  that  we  mean  the  rays 
of  heat  or  radiant  heat  that  we  feel 
near  a  fire  or  a  light.  This  kind  of 
heat  is  really  the  same  as  light,  and  it 
travels  at  exactly  the  same  speed, 
which  you  know.  But  cold  travels 
at  no  speed,  for  there  is  no  such  thing. 
What  holds  a  building  up 

We  all  know  that  mortar  holds  the 
bricks  together;  but  we  must  remember 
that  the  wise  builder  always  uses  the 
weight  of  his  bricks  to  make  his  build- 
ing strong;  and  since  it  is  the  earth, 
with  its  steady  pull,  that  gives  bricks, 
and  all  other  things,  their  weight,  we 
must  not  give  the  mortar  all  the  credit. 
No  bricks  and  mortar  would  ever  make 
a  strong  building  if  there  were  not  the 
earth's  pull  to  bind  them  all  together. 
Why  a  stick  holds  together 

Mortar,  as  you  know,  "sets  hard," 
like  many  other  things — jelly  and 
water  included — if  you  give  them  a 
fair  chance.  And  the  power  by  which 
it,  or  paste  or  glue,  holds  things  to- 
gether is  called  cohesion — a  word 
which  simply  means  sticking  together. 
We  cannot  see  what  really  happens, 
but  cohesion  is  one  of  the  commonest 
things  in  the  world.  When  you  move 
one  end  of  a  stick,  why  does  the  other 
end  move?  Because  of  cohesion  be- 
tween all  the  parts  of  which  the  stick 
is  made.  All  the  parts  of  the  stick 
hold  together  as  if  drawn  to  each  other 
by  a  magnet. 
Why  we  can'T  make  a  rope 

OF  SAND 

We  can't  make  a  stick  or  a  rope  of 
sand,  and  you  can't  build  with  bricks 
and  sand.  The  sand  has  no  cohesion, 
except  just  the  least  little  bit  when  it 
is  wet.  Have  you  ever  thought  why 
sealing-wax  melts  when  it  is  heated? 
The  truth  is  that  cohesion  is  one  of  the 
most  important  things  in  the  world, 
and  that  the  world  itself,  indeed,  could 


not  exist  as  it  is  without  cohesion. 
Everything  that  we  call  solid  is  solid 
because  the  tiny  parts  of  which  it  is 
made  stick  or  hold  together.  A  piece 
of  sealing-wax,  for  instance,  if  it  is  left 
alone,  is  held  together  by  cohesion.  It 
does  not  spill  itself  and  run  all  over 
the  table,  and  if  you  lift  it  up  by  one 
end  the  other  end  comes  too.  But  if 
you  apply  heat  to  the  sealing-wax  it 
begins  to  run — it  begins  to  lose  its 
stickiness,  or  cohesion.  This  shows  a 
second  state  in  which  anything  may 
be,  and  this  state  we  call  liquid. 
Running  water  is  liquid. 

Why  water  runs 

That  is  cohesion  again;  water  runs 
because  it  has  no  cohesion,  or  else  very 
litt'.e.  While  all  solids  have  a  great 
deai  of  cohesion — ^without  which  they 
could  not  be  solids — liquids  have  very 
much  less.  But  all  liquids  are  by  no 
means  the  same.  Liquid  water  has 
v^ery  much  less  cohesion  than  liquid 
sealing-wax  or  liquid  gum,  which,  in- 
deed, has  so  much  cohesion,  or  sticking 
together,  that  we  appropriately  call  it 
"sticky."  On  the  other  hand,  liquid 
alcohol  or  lic[uid  air — did  you  know 
that  air  could  be  liquid  like  water? — ■ 
has  very  much  less  cohesion  even  than 
liquid  water.  But  there  is  a  third  state 
in  which  anvthing  mav  be,  and  that  is 
the  state  of  a  gas — like  air  in  its 
ordinary  state,  and  like  the  gas  we  burn 
for  light.  Now,  the  thing  which  marks 
a  gas  is  that  it  has  no  cohesion  at  all — 
it  runs  wherever  it  can.  However  big 
the  space  that  it  is  in,  the  gas  always 
fills  it.  It  goes  under  doors,  out  at 
chimneys,  and  out  at  windows,  and  so 
on.     It  has  no  cohesion. 

Why  the  smoke  of  a  train  goes  the 
other  way 

When  the  smoke  leaves  the  funnel 
of  the  engine  it  is  really  moving  for- 
ward, like  the  engine  itself,  and  at 
exactly  the  same  rate.     If  we  could 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


79 


imagine  tliat  tlie  train  was  moving 
onwards  in  nothing,  then,  since  we 
know  that  moving  things  always  move 
on  in  a  straight  Hne  at  the  same  speed 
forever,  unless  something  outside  af- 
fects them,  the  smoke  would  move 
forward  with  the  train,  and  would 
actually  pass  on  in  front  of  it  as  soon 
as  the  driver  slowed  the  train.  But 
the  smoke,  we  know,  is  really  poured 
into  the  ocean  of  air  through  which 
the  train  is  pushing  its  way.  The  air 
tends  to  stop  the  train,  as  it  tends  to 
stop  everything  that  moves  through 
it,  and  every  engineer  knows  how 
important  this  air-pressure  is;  but 
though  it  retards  the  train  a  good  deal, 
it  retards  the  light,  hot  smoke  that  is 
poured  into  it  far  more.  The  question 
reminds  us  that  the  smoke  seems  to 
go  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
train;  but  really  it  simply  moves  for- 
ward so  slowly  and  for  such  a  little 
distance  that,  compared  with  the  train 
it  seems  to  go  the  other  way. 

But  if  a  strong  wind  is  blowing  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  train — and 
perhaps  this  is  oftenest  seen  in  the 
case  of  the  smoke  from  a  ship's  funnel 
— then  the  smoke  is  blown  forward  by 
the  wind  far  in  front  of  the  train  or 
ship.  In  this  case  and  the  last  the 
same  principle  works,  though  the 
results  are  so  different.  The  principle 
is  that  the  air  affects  the  smoke  more 
than  the  train  or  ship.  In  one  case 
it  holds  both  back,  but  it  holds  the 
smoke  back  most;  in  the  other  case  it 
blows  both  forward,  but  the  smoke 
most. 


Why  some  faces  in  pictures  seem  to 

FOLLOW  us 

You  are  discerning  to  have  noticed 
this,  and  perhaps  you  have  also  no- 
ticed that  in  other  pictures  there  are 
faces  which  are  not  looking  at  us; 
but  no  matter  where  you  walk,  even 
though  it  be  in  the  direction  in  which 
they  seem  to  be  looking,  you  will 
never  find  the  face  looking  at  you. 
Indeed,  faces  in  pictures  are  either 
looking  at  us,  from  wherever  we  look 
at  them,  or  else  they  are  never  looking 
at  us,  from  wherever  we  look  at  them. 
The  same  is  true  of  photographs. 

The  rule  is  very  simple.  If  the  per- 
son who  was  being  painted  or  photo- 
graphed was  looking  at  the  painter 
or  at  the  camera,  then,  wherever  you 
stand,  he  will  seem  to  be  looking  at 
you.  If  he  was  looking  on  one  side, 
then,  wherever  you  stand,  he  will 
seem  to  be  looking  on  that  side  of 
you.  This  works  very  queerly  if  you 
have  a  group  of  people  who  were 
all  looking  at  the  camera  when  they 
were  photographed.  If  you  look  at 
the  photograph  from  one  side,  they 
all  seem  to  turn  to  follow  you,  and 
then  to  turn  back  if  you  look  at  it 
from  the  other  side.  But  if  they 
were  not  looking  at  the  camera,  you 
can  never  get  them  to  look  at  you. 

How  BURGLARS  ARE  CAUGHT  BY  THEIR 
FINGER-PRINTS 

You  have  heard,  perhaps,  that  now- 
adays burglars  wear  gloves  in  order  to 
avoid  leaving  their  finger-marks  on  a 
window-pane  or  anywhere  else.  The 
fact  is  that  all  men  and  women  differ 


These  are  the  marks  of  men's  fingers  on  things  they  have  touched.    Finger-prints  lilje  these  help  the  police  to  catch 
burglars.     No  two  finger-prints  from  different  people  have  ever  yet  been  found  to  be  alike. 


80 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


from  each  other  in  little  things,  and 
there  is  nothing  in  which  they  differ 
more  certainly  than  the  pattern  of  the 
little  ridges  on  their  fingers.  Two 
patterns  exactly  the  same  from  two 
different  people  have  never  yet  been 
found.  These  patterns  cannot  change, 
for  they  are  formed  by  the  innumerable 
mouths  of  the  tiny  canals  which  con- 
vey the  sweat  from  the  deep-seated 
sweat-glands  to  the  surface.  They 
can  be  destroyed,  of  course,  but  no 
different  pattern  can  be  put  in  their 
place. 

Thus,  of  all  the  ways  of  knowing  who 
is  who,  this  is  the  most  certain,  as  well 
as  much  the  simplest  and  cheapest.  It 
is  now  being  more  and  more  used.  If 
a  man's  thumb-mark  is  the  same  as 
the  mark  on  a  piece  of  paper  where  a 
theft  was  committed,  the  evidence 
against  him  is  very  strong.  A  bad 
man  who  has  become  known  to  the 
police  may  change  his  clothes  and 
the  appearance  of  his  face,  he  may 
look  like  a  different  person,  and  have 
not  the  slightest  resemblance  to  the 
photograph  taken  of  him,  but  his 
thumb-mark  vrill  tell  him  at  once. 
This  is  now  known  as  the  Bertillon 
System. 

How   MANY  WORDS  THERE  ARE    IN  THE 
ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

A  dozen  great  scholars  might  give 
as  many  answers  to  this  question. 
One  of  them,  some  years  ago,  gave  the 
number  as  only  38,000.  But  a  still 
greater  scholar,  Professor  Max  Miiller, 
who,  was  perhaps,  the  greatest  au- 
thority of  his  time  on  words,  put  the 
number  of  words  in  the  English  lan- 
guage at  100,000.  He  compared  the 
growth  and  development  of  our  lan- 
guage with  the  putting  of  grain  in  a 
sieve.  Most  of  the  chaff  has  been 
winnowed  off,  and  with  it  have  gone 
many  good  grains.  Good  old  English 
words,  which  we  now  consider  only 
dialect     words     or     "Americanisms," 


have  gone  out  of  the  language.  If 
we  include  all  the  words  which  have 
fixed  places  in  the  dialects  of  the 
country,  and  include  also  many  which 
we  know  were  spoken  in  earlier  times, 
we  shall  have  to  put  the  total  at 
300,000  for  the  English  language. 

That  number  is  constantly  growing. 
Words  have  to  be  invented  for  new 
industries,  and  they  become  part  of 
the  language.  When  a  new  dictionary 
was  made,  not  many  years  ago,  it  was 
found  that  the  new  words  necessary 
for  use  in  relation  to  electricity  and 
electrical  appliances  numbered  over 
four  thousand.  A  similar  increase 
had  taken  place  with  regard  to  other 
arts  and  sciences.  Most  of  them  are 
purely  technical  words,  but,  little  by 
little,  they  become  common  words 
as  all  of  us  know  more  about  science; 
and  so  the  language  grows. 
Have   we   yet    discovered   all   the 

WORLD? 

No,  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions 
still  possess  secrets  which  as  yet  no 
man  has  been  able  to  solve.  Many 
brave  men  in  fine  ships  went  into  the 
gloom  and  silence  of  the  frozen 
regions  in  the  hope  of  discovering  the 
Poles ;  but  a  great  many  perished  in  the 
attempt.  Each  expedition  brought 
back  a  little  more  knowledge;  until 
finally  both  Poles  were  discovered. 
The  North  Pole  by  Peary  on  April  6, 
1909,  and  the  South  Pole  by  Amund- 
sen, on  December  14,  1911.  There  is 
much  land  still  to  be  explored  in  Asia. 
There  are  parts  in  the  far  North  of 
the  American  continent  of  which  we 
know  very  little.  So,  also,  in  the  great 
sandy,  stony  heart  of  Australia. 

The  continent  of  Africa  has  been 
traveled  from  end  to  end,  and  from 
side  to  side,  but  we  can  fix  a  point  on 
the  east  coast  of  Africa  and  come  out 
at  a  point  on  the  west  coast,  and  cover 
ground  which  no  white  man  has  pre- 
viously crossed. 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


81 


The  aeroplane  in  warfare 

The  aeroplane  enables  us  to  take 
real  "bird's-eye"  views  of  scenes  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth.     At  first  we 
might  think  that  a  photograph  taken 
from  an  aeroplane  to  be  a  mere  curi- 
osity, but  to  the  military  expert  it 
suggests  possibilities  of  a  startling  na- 
ture in  connection  with  the  art  of  war. 
It  lays  bare  the  maneuvering  of  armies 
and  the  interior  of   fortresses;    robs 
the  decks  of  ships  of  their  secrets,  and 
it  is  even  claimed  that  the  movements 
of    submarine    boats    are    almost    as 
patent  as  though  they  were  moving 
on  the  surface  of  the  water.     So  even 
as  a  scouting  facility  the  aeroplane 
will  be  of  first  rate  importance  in  the 
war  of  the  future.     The  various  gov- 
ernments, including  that  of  the  United 
States,   have  recognized   this   use   to 
which  the  aeroplane  may  be  put.     The 
United  States  has  an  aviation  school 
at    Annapolis     where     students     are 
taught  the  use   of   the   aeroplane   in 
connection  with  warfare.     So  far  the 
chief  experiments  at  this  school  have 
been  in  connection  with  the  hydro- 
aeroplane, which  rests  on  three  pon- 
toons, attached  centrally  and  at  the 
wing-tips,  thus  enabHng  the  machine 
to  rise  from  the  water  or  settle  on  it 
with  the  facility  of  a  water  fowl. 

Whether  the  aeroplane  may  be 
utilized  as  an  instrument  of  destruc- 
tion is  a  different  question.  Experi- 
ments have  been  made  in  dropping 
bombs  on  targets  representing  war 
■  vessels  but  it  is  not  yet  estabhshed  that 
they  can  be  dropped  with  accuracy 
from  a  swiftly  moving  aeroplane  so  as  to 
be  of  practical  utility.  Better  results 
have  been  obtained  from  a  new  ma- 
chine gun  invented  by  Lieutenant 
Colonel  Lewis  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Artillery.  This  gun  weighs 
only  twenty-five  pounds  and  dis- 
charges 750  shots  a  minute  and  the 
discharge    of    the    gun    is    practically 


without  recoil.     It  would  seem  that 

a  target  on  the  face  of  the  earth  might 

be  hit  with  considerable  accuracy  from 

an  aeroplane  flying  at  the  rate  of  60 

miles  an  hour. 

Why  the   united  states   is  called 
"uncle  sam" 

This  term  is  used  in  reference  to 
America  exactly  in  the  same  way  as 
"John  Bull"   is   applied  to  England. 
It  arose  at  the  time  of  the  last  war 
between   England   and   America.     At 
Troy,  New  York,  on  the  Hudson,  a 
commissariat  contractor  named  Elbert 
Anderson,  of  New  York,  had  a  store 
yard.     A  government  inspector  named 
Samuel  Wilson,  who  was  always  called 
"Uncle  Sam,"  superintended  the  ex- 
amination of  the  provisions,  and  when 
they  were  passed,  each  cask  or  package 
was  marked  "EA-US,"  the  initials  of 
the    contractor    and    of    the    United 
States.     The  man  whose  duty  it  was 
to  mark  the  casks,  who  was  a  facetious 
fellow,  being  asked  what  the  letters 
meant,    replied    that    they    stood   for 
Elbert    Anderson    and    Uncle    Sam. 
The  joke  soon  became  known,  and  was 
heartily  entered  into  by  Uncle  Sam 
himself.     It  soon  got  into  print,  and 
long   before   the   war   was    over   was 
known  throughout  the  United  States. 
Mr.  Wilson,  the  original  "Uncle  Sam," 
died  at  Troy,  in  1854,  aged  84  years. 

How  THE  AMERICAN   FLAG  ORIGINATED 

The  United  States  Congress  passed 
a  resolution  on  June  14,  1777,  declar- 
ing "that  the  flag  of  the  thirteen 
United  States  be  stripes  alternate  red 
and  white;  that  the  union  be  thirteen 
stars,  white  in  a  blue  field,  representing 
the  new  constellation."  In  1794,  Con- 
gress decreed  that  after  May  1,  1795, 
"the  flag  of  the  United  States  be  fifteen 
stripes,  alternate  red  and  white,  and 
that  the  union  be  fifteen  stars,  white 
in  a  blue  field."  This  change  was 
made  to  mark  the  admission  of  Ver- 


AIRSHIP  ATTACKED   BY  AEROPLANES   WHILE   B0:M 

BARDING  A  NAVAL  BASE 


Stationed  in  harbors  and  housed  in  floating  slied,-.  lua.^i  defence  aeroplanes  must  be  ready  to  give  battle  in  their  own 
element  to  such  aerial  invaders  as  may  dare  to  approach  their  shores. 

8i 


TEE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


83 


mont  and  Kentucky  into  the  Union. 
The  stars  and  stripes  were  then  equal 
and  a  star  and  stripe  were  to  be  added 
with  the  admission  of  each  new  State. 
It  was  reaUzed,  however,  that  the 
addition  of  a  stripe  for  each  new 
State  would  soon  render  the  flag  too 
large,  and  a  resolution  was  accordingly 
passed  by  Congress,  April  4,  1818,  re- 
ducing the  number  of  stripes  to  thir- 
teen— representing  the  original  Union 
— and  making  the  stars  twenty  in 
number.  It  was,  furthermore,  enacted 
that  a  new  star  should  be  added  for 
each  new  State  admitted  into  the 
Union. 

The  first  American  flag,  known  as 
the  "Stars  and  Stripes,"  was,  according 
to  our  best  information,  made  by 
Mrs.  Betsy  Ross  of  Philadelphia, 
about  whom  succeeding  years  have 
thrown  a  glamor  of  patriotic  romance. 

The  official  flag  of  the  United  States 
bears  forty-eight  white  stars  in  a  blue 
field,  arranged  in  six  rows  of  eight 
stars  each.  Two  stars  were  added  in 
1912  by  the  admission  of  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  to  the  Union.  The  gar- 
rison flag  of  the  Army  is  made  of  bunt- 
ing, thirty-six  feet  fly  and  twenty  feet 
hoist,  thirteen  stripes,  and  in  the  upper 
quarter,  next  the  staff,  is  the  field  or 
"union"  of  stars  equal  to  the  number 
of  States,  on  blue  field,  over  one-third 
length  of  the  flag,  extending  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  fourth  red  stripe 
from  the  top.  The  storm  flag  is  twen- 
ty feet  by  ten  feet,  and  the  recruiting 
flag  nine  feet  nine  inches  by  four  feet 
four  inches.  The  "American  Jack"  is 
the  "union  "or  blue  field  of  the  flag. 
The  Revenue  Marine  Service  flag, 
authorized  by  act  of  Congress,  March 
2,  1799,  was  originally  prescribed  to 
"consist  of  sixteen  perpendicular 
stripes,  alternate  red  and  white,  the 
union  of  the  ensign  bearing  the  arms 
of  the  United  States  in  dark  blue  on 
a  white  field."     The   sixteen   stripes 


represented  the  number  of  States 
which  had  been  admitted  to  the  Union 
at  that  time,  and  no  change  has  been 
made  since.  June  14,  the  anniversary 
of  the  adoption  of  the  flag,  is  cele- 
brated as  Flag  Day  in  a  large  part  of 
the  Union. 

What  are  the  three  flags  in  the 
union  jack? 

The  Union  Jack  is  made  up  of  three 
flags — the  English  flag  of  St.  George, 
the  Scottish  flag  of  St.  Andrew,  and 
the  Irish  flag  of  St.  Patrick.  St. 
George,  who  lived  about  300  years 
after  the  birth  of  Christ,  was  a  heroic 
soldier  who  gave  up  his  life  rather  than 
deny  his  faith  at  the  bidding  of  a 
Roman  emperor.  Edward  III  adopt- 
ed his  name  as  a  war-cry  for  England, 
and  the  red  cross  of  St.  George  on  a 
white  ground  became  the  English  flag. 
St.  Andrew  was  one  of  the  twelve 
Apostles,  and  he  was  crucified  on  a 
cross  shaped  like  the  letter  X.  Some 
relics  of  the  Apostle  are  supposed  to 
have  been  carried  to  Scotland,  and  the 
white  cross  of  St,  Andrew  on  a  blue 
ground  long  ago  became  the  national 
flag  of  Scotland.  St.  Patrick  was  car- 
ried to  Ireland  as  a  slave  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifth  century.  He  lived 
there  for  thirty  years,  founding  many 
schools  and  monasteries,  and  died 
there  a  very  old  man.  Many  cen- 
turies afterwards,  the  cross  of  St. 
Patrick  became  the  national  flag  of 
Ireland. 

Why    the    englishman     is    called 

JOHN    bull 

Every  country  has  a  nickname,  and 
is  represented  in  pictures  by  an  animal. 
The  British  lion  is  the  animal  which 
stands  for  England,  and  John  Bull 
is  its  owner  and  master.  The  lion  is 
the  country;  John  Bull  is  the  nation. 
The  name  of  John  Bull  comes  from  a 
work  written  by  John  Arbuthnot,  a 
witty  doctor  and  writer,  a  great  friend 
of  Swift  and  Pope.     He  was  born  in 


i     m.2 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


85 


1667,  in  Scotland,  and  died  in  1735. 
The  sketch  that  he  wrote  dealt  with 
the  political  affairs  of  Europe  at  the 
time,  and  the  countries  were  made  to 
appear  as  if  they  were  men  and  women. 

How   THE    AMERICAN    INDIAN    REACHED 
AMERICA 

This  is  a  much  discussed  question. 
In  a  recent  paper  Prof.  Chamberlain 
coincides  with  the  more  common  opin- 
ion that  the  American  race  came  from 
Northeastern  Asia  across  Bering  Strait. 
However,  he  does  not  think  that  the 
Indian  came  from  an  existing  people  of 
Northeastern  Asia,  but  thinks  that 
they  came  from  a  Mongolian  race 
which  migrated  at  a  very  remote 
period;  that  they  changed  consider- 
ably in  their  habitat  and  that  after 
many  ages  there  was  a  migration  in 
the  opposite  direction  from  America 
to  Asia,  thus  Americanizing  a  large 
portion  of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  red 
race  and  the  yellow  races  of  North- 
eastern Asia  including  the  Chinese 
and  the  Japanese,  would  appear  to  be 
akin.  This  view  is  largely  confirmed 
by  a  similarity  of  facial  contour,  or 
hair  and  eyes  and  of  complexion,  and 
by  the  fact  that  the  two  races  are  very 
similar  in  their  mental  traits. 

But  there  are  others  who  take  a 
different  view:  Prof.  Ameghino  of 
Argentina,  and  Prof.  Sergi,  an  Italian 
anthropologist,  believe  that  the  Indian 
is  descended  from  the  South  American 
monkey. 
Where  the  alphabet  came  from 

No  one  really  knows  all  about 
where  the  alphabet  came  from,  because 
it  grew  very  slowly,  like  children  and 
like  every  other  good  thing  in  the 
world.  But  we  know  quite  well  that 
no  ingenious  man  sat  down  and  made 
the  alphabet,  and  we  know  quite  well, 
too,  that  the  alphabet  began  as 
pictures. 

Just  as  a  child  reads  or  takes  things 
in  by  pictures  long  before  it  can  read 


letters,  so  men  used  to  read  and  write 
by  pictures;  and  then  these  pictures 
were  gradually  made  simpler  and 
simpler,  until  at  last  they  could  be  used 
in  every  and  any  way,  as  our  letters 
can.  We  know  for  certain  that  the 
letter  O  was  at  first  the  picture  of  an 
eye,  and  that  gradually  men  made  the 
picture  simpler  and  simpler,  until  at 
last  they  just  drew  an  O.  We  know 
for  certain  also  that  the  letter  I  was 
once  the  picture  of  a  man  standing, 
and  many  people  think  that  the  letter 
A  was  once  the  picture  of  a  house;  and 
very  likely  a  capital  A  may  have  been 
at  first  the  picture  of  a  pyramid. 

Ages  and  ages  ago  in  Egypt  men 
used  both  kinds  of  writing.  The 
priests  used  the  oldest  kind,  which 
were  the  pictures.  This  was  called  the 
sacred  writing.  But  the  ordinary 
people  used  a  different  and  newer  kind 
of  writing,  in  which  the  pictures  were 
turned  into  letters.  Not  very  many 
years  ago,  men  tried  in  vain  to  read 
the  old  sacred  picture  writing  of  the 
Egyptians,  but  they  could  not.  Then 
they  found  the  wonderful  Rosetta 
stone,  and  this  had  wTitten  upon  it  the 
same  thing  three  times — once. in  the 
pictures  and  once  in  the  letters,  and 
also  once  in  other  letters,  and  so  men 
got  the  key  to  the  picture-writing,  and 
now  it  can  be  read  easily. 

How  MANY   WORDS  MOST  OF   US   USE 

We  need  not  tremble  at  the  number 
of  words  it  is  possible  to  use.  Our 
greatest  writers  find  quite  a  small 
number  sufficient  for  their  purpose. 
Shakespeare,  with  all  his  varied  writ- 
ings, used  only  about  15,000  different 
words.  Milton  needed  only  8000  dif- 
ferent words  for  "Paradise  Lost," 
while  the  Old  Testament  contains 
fewer  than  6000  different  words. 
Some  people  use  only  about  800 
different  words,  and  most  of  us  use 
no  more  than  one  or  two  thousand. 

The  beauty  of  writing  and  speech 


86 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


lies  not  in  the  number  of  words  used, 
but  in  the  choice  and  placing  of  them. 
Simple  language  is  the  most  beautiful. 
The  finest  English  writing  is  in  the 
Bible,  in  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  and  in 
"The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  in 
each  of  these  books  the  language  is 
so  simple  that  a  child  may  under- 
stand, while  great  scholars  find  equal 
delight  in  it. 
Why  we  have  names 

Well,  we  have  names  for  the  same 
reason  that  everything  has  a  name.  If 
we  did  not  have  names,  we  should  have 
to  have  numbers,  like  the  numbers  on 
motor-cars,  which  serve  just  the  same 
purpose.  Now,  there  are  names  which 
have  meanings,  and  there  are  names 
which  have  none,  and  it  is  always  well 
to  know  how  much  and  how  little  a 
name  means.  There  is  something 
which  we  call  electricity,  which  means 
really  that  it  has  something  to  do  with 
amber,  for  when  you  rub  amber  you 
get  electricity,  but  people  sometimes 
speak  as  if  the  name  explained  elec- 
tricity, or  as  if  it  explained  something 
else  to  say  that  it  was  electricity.  That 
is  because  they  do  not  know  how  little 
the  name  means.  We  might  just  as 
well  call  electricity  X — which  is  the 
name  in  what  is  called  algebra  for  an 
unknown  quantity. 

One  thing  you  ought  to  know,  how- 
ever, is  the  meaning  of  your  own  name. 
If  your  name  is  Theodore,  for  instance, 
you  ought  to  know  that  that  means 
the  gift  of  God.  Many  of  our  names 
have  meanings,  which  you  can  some- 
times find  in  the  Bible. 
What  the  cinematograph  is 

Cinematograph  simply  means  "mov- 
ing picture."  You  take  a  camera,  and 
run  through  a  number  of  films  one 
after  the  other,  perhaps  at  the  rate  of 
forty  or  fifty  in  a  second.  Perhaps 
the  camera  is  looking  at  the  sea,  or  at 
a  game  of  football.  Then,  if  you  take 
a    magic-lantern,    and    run    the    film 


through  it  at  the  same  rate  as  you  ran 
it  through  the  camera  in  the  first 
place,  you  can  throw  a  moving 
picture  upon  a  screen.  The  eye 
remembers  each  separate  picture  after 
it  has  gone  just  long  enough  to  blend 
it  in  your  brain — where  your  real  eyes 
are,  at  the  back  of  your  head — with 
the  next  picture  that  comes  along; 
and  so  you  see  the  waves  or  the  pro- 
cession as  if  you  were  looking  at  the 
real  thing. 

WHAT     THE    CINEMATOGRAPH    TEACHES 

We  can  learn  from  our  senses  even 
when  they  deceive  us.  If  the  eye  did 
not  deceive  us  so  as  to  make  us  think 
we  see  things  for  a  tiny  part  of  a  second 
after  they  are  gone,  the  cinemato- 
graph would  merely  perplex  and  tire 
us,  and  would  not  give  us  the  effect  of 
reality  at  all.  Now,  too  often  the 
cinematograph  was  used  for  silly  pur- 
poses. But  some  wise  people  are 
teaching  us  by  it.  For  instance, 
students  can  learn  how  a  great  surgeon 
performs  an  operation  a  thousand 
miles  away  by  seeing  a  living  picture 
of  him  at  work.  And  men  have  taken 
living  pictures  of  wild  birds  flying 
home  to  their  nests  over  the  water,  the 
parent  birds  feeding  their  young  ones, 
the  young  ones  learning  to  fly,  and  so 
on.  Other  men  have  taken  ])ictures  of 
terrible  things  which  we  ought  to 
know  about,  so  that  we  can  stop  them. 
Yet  other  men  have  made  living 
pictures  of  the  blood  running  through 
the  little  tubes  in  the  web  of  a  frog's 
foot,  so  that  thousands  of  people  at 
once  can  see  with  their  own  eyes 
what  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is, 
and  how  the  little  blood  cells  tumble 
over  each  other  as  they  scurry  through 
these  tubes,  carrying  oxygen  from  the 
frog's  lungs  to  every  part  of  its  body — 
just  as  our  blood  does  for  us.  Before 
very  long  the  cinematograph  will  be 
used  all  over  the  world  for  teaching, 
as  the  blackboard  is  today! 


THE  EVERYDAY  WONDER  BOOK 


87 


MISCELLANEOUS       QUESTION       BOX 


f^^hy  does  a  ball  bounce? 

A  ball  bounces  because  its  elasticity  makes  it 
tend  always  to  spring  back  into  shape  whenever 
flattened.  When  it  strikes  some  hard  object 
the  ball  is  partly  flattened  by  the  impact.  It 
resumes  its  former  shape  with  such  speed  as  to 
cause  a  recoil  or  bounce.  The  harder  the  ball 
strikes  the  more  it  is  flattened  and  the  more 
violent  the  rebound. 

Why  does  wood  icarp  in  damp  iveafher? 

When  wood  is  alive  it  instinctively  expands 
in  wet  weather,  to  admit  the  moisture  on  which 
it  thrives.  Wood  that  has  been  cut  retains 
that  tendency.  It  absorbs  moisture  only  across 
the  grain.  This  causes  the  expansion  known  as 
'warping." 

Why  are  shoes  hotter  when  they  are  dusty? 

Dull  or  dusty  shoes  absorb  the  heat.  Brightly 
polished  shoes  throw  off  the  sun's  rays  by 
reflection. 

Why  is  toast  more  digestible  than  bread? 

The  charcoal  on  the  toast's  surface  helps  to 
absorb  the  stomach's  acid. 

Why  does  wood  decay? 

The  presence  of  myriads  of  parasitic  microbes 
causes  wood  to  decay.  The  soaking  of  wood  in 
creosote  prevents  the  microbes  from  carrying 
on  their  work  of  destruction. 

Why  are  there  tivo  buttons  on  the  back  of  an 
evening  coat? 

This  fashion  dates  back  to  the  days  when 
every  well-dressed  man  wore  a  sword.  The 
two  buttons  on  the  back  of  the  coat  held  the 
sword  belt  in  position. 

What  is  pumice  stone? 

Pumice  stone  is  volcanic.  It  is  formed  deep 
in  the  earth  and  thrown  out  upon  the  surface 
from  volcanic  craters. 

What  was  the  origin  of  the  tvord  "Lidlaby?" 

Lilith,  according  to  the  legend,  was  Adam's 
first  wife  and  was  a  demon.  Mothers,  soothing 
their  children,  would  croon  the  words  "Lilith 
abi"  (meaning,  "may  Lilith  keep  away  from 
you!")  The  phrase  became  corrupted  to 
"Lullaby." 

Why  does  dampness  make  wood  decay? 

The  oxygen  of  the  water  combines  with  the 
woods  carbon  and  forms  carbonic  acid.  The 
hydrogen  of  the  wood  is  oxidized  and  decay 
sets  in 

Why  does  a  silver  dish  tarnish  more  readily 
than  silver  bullion? 

An  alloy  is  used  to  make  such  vessels  harder 
and  more  lasting.  This  alloy  oxidizes  moie 
quickly  than  the  pure  silver. 

Why  are  glue  and  paste  adhesive? 

The  water  used  with  them  evaporates 
rapidly.  They  insinuate  themselves  so  closely 
into  the  pores  of  the  substance  to  which  they 
are  attached  that  when  the  water  dries  the 
whole  mass  becomes  solid. 

Why  does  the  exploding  of  a  cartridge  cause  a 
report? 

The  sudden  release  and  expansion  of  im- 
prisoned   air    causes   a    partial    vacuum.     The 


report  is  caused  by  the  inrush  of  fresh  air  to 
fill  this  vacuum. 

Why  does  dry  wood  burn  more  easily  than  green? 

The  dry  wood's  pores  are  filled  with  air, 
which  helps  combustion.  The  green  wood's 
pores  are  filled  with  moisture,  which  tends  to 
put  out  the  fire. 

Why  is  a  crowded  hall  likely  to  be  struck  in  a 
thunder  storm? 

The  vapor  and  heat  rising  from  so  many 
bodies  make  the  hall  a  good  conductor  of 
lightning. 

Why  wont  a  polished  tin  pan  bake  bread  as 
readily  as  an  iron  one? 

The  bright  metal  reflects  the  heat  and  will 
not  readily  brown  the  crust  on  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  the  pan.  Thus  the  top  of  the  loaf 
tends  to  burn  before  the  sides  are  brown. 

What  is  the  origin  of  pin  money? 

Pins  were  once  very  expensive.  Women 
bought  them  as  a  luxury  with  their  extra  money. 
Hence,  money  to  buy  luxuries  became  known 
as  "pin  money." 

Does  a  fan  cool  the  air? 

No.  It  makes  the  air  slightly  warmer  by 
imparting  to  it  the  heat  from  the  face  of  the 
person  fanned. 

What  substances  go  to  make  jip  common  glass? 

White  sand  silicate,  soda  ash,  lime  hydrate,  a 
little  antimony,  arsenic. 

How  did  the  phrase  "a  feather  in  his  cap" 
originate? 

In  Hungary  an  ancient  custom  forbade  any 
man  to  wear  a  feather  in  his  cap  until  he  had 
slain  at  least  one  Turk.  Hence  the  presence  of 
such  a  feather  was  a  sign  of  prowess. 

What  is  the  effect  of  electricity  upon  water? 

The  water  is  reduced  to  its  elements — two 
parts  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen. 

Why  IS  oak  ivood  stronger  than  pine? 

Because  the  molecules  of  the  oak  have  a 
greater  power  of  attraction  for  each  other  and 
so  would  take  a  greater  force  to  separate  them. 

Hoiv  long  must  a  pendidum  be  to  vibrate  sixty 
times  a  minute? 

The  length  of  the  pendulum  that  vibrates 
just  sixty  times  a  minute  is  39.1  inches  in  New 
York;  this  varies  at  different  points  on  the 
earth's  surface. 

How  is  stoneware  glazed? 

By  throwing  common  salt  into  the  furnace. 
This  is  volatilized  by  the  vapor  of  water,  which 
is  always  present,  and  the  silica  of  clay  of  which 
the  air  is  composed.  This  fuses  over  the 
surface  of  the  ware  and  gives  a  thin  but  excellent 
glaze. 

What  becomes  of  the  abundance  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  from  the  cities? 

Some  of  it  is  absorbed  by  vegetables,  the  rest 
is  blown  a.vay  by  the  wind  and  diffused  through 
the  whole  volume  of  the  air. 

Why  does  saleratus  make  cake  light,  particularly 
if  mixed  imth  sour  milk? 

The  acid  of  the  milk  disengages  the  carbonic 
acid  contained  in  the  saleratus. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Why  does  mortar  become  hard  after  afeiv  days? 

The  lime  reimbibes  from  the  air  the  carbonic 

acid  which  has  been  expelled  by  fire,  and  the 

loose   powder  again   becomes   as   hard   as   the 

original  limestone. 

Why  does  an  extinguisher  pnt  a  candle  out? 
The  air  in  an  extinguisher  is  soon  exhausted 
of  its  oxygen  by  the  flame,  and  when  there  is 
no  oxygen  the  flame  goes  out. 

What  are  meant  by  latitude  and  longitude? 
Latitude  is  the  distance  north  and  south  of 
the  equator.     Longitude  is  the  distance  east  or 
west  of  the  line  of  Greenwich  near  London. 
What  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  gold? 
About  1200  pounds. 
How  long  ago  was  shorthand  used? 
Shorthand  probably  originated  in  Greece  or 
in  the  Orient.     It  is  known  to  have  been  in 
common  use  in  Rome  as  early  as  63  B.  C.  and 
was  employed  by  Tiro,  Cicero's  secretary,  to 
report   his    master's    speeches    in    the    Roman 
senate. 

Why  are  the  edges  of  gold  and  silver  coins 
"viUledr 

Silv'er  and  gold  coins  used  to  be  "pared,"  or 
scraped  at  the  edges  by  unscrupulous  people, 
who  collected  and  sold  the  fragments  of  precious 
metal  thus  obtained.  To  prevent  this  the  edges 
were  "milled."  Copper  and  nickel  are  not  of 
sufficient  value  to  make  "paring"  worth  while. 
So  copper  and  nickel  coins  are  not  milled. 
Why  is  ice  slippery? 

Ice  is  slippery  because  the  molecules  of  water 
are  held  together  so  smoothly  and  evenly  that 
no  resistance  or  friction  is  offered. 

What  were  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world? 
The  pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  hanging  gardens 
of  Babylon,  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  the 
statue  of  Olympian  Jupiter  at  Athens,  the 
Mausoleum,  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  the  Pharos 
(lighthouse)  at  Alexandria. 

Why  are  three  gilt  balls  used  for  pawnbrokers' 
signs? 

The  Medici  family  of  Florence  were  money 
lenders.  Their  coat  of  arms  bore  three  gilt 
balls. 

What  is  the  derivation  of  the  zcord  "spinster?" 

In  olden  days  a  woman  did  not  marry  until 

she  had   spun  a  full   set   of  household   linen. 

Thus,  till  they  were  married,  they  were  known 

as  spinners  or  spinsters. 

Where  did  the  United  States  get  the  decimal 
system  of  coinage? 

Gouverneur  Morris  in  1782  reported  to  con- 
gress a  decimal  system  of  currency,  using  as  a 
basis  the  1140th  part  of  a  Spanish  dollar,  which, 
he  calculated,  was  a  common  divisor  of  the 
various  currencies.  With  this  fractional  sum 
as  a  unit  he  laid  out  a  monetary  system.  Jeffer- 
son in  1784  improved  on  this  by  suggesting  four 
standard  coins — $10,  $1,  1  dime  and  1  cent. 

When  and  from  what  country  tvas  the  wearing  of 
orange  blossoms  by  brides  introduced  into  Europe? 
From  Syria,  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades. 
How  did  the  custom  of  throwing  shoes  after  a 
departing  bride  originate? 

The  dropping  of  a  shoe  on  a  piece  of  property 


was  once  a  symbol  of  new  ownership.  By 
throwing  shoes  after  a  bride  her  parents  signified 
that  they  gave  up  all  claim  to  her. 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  word  "hurrah?" 

It  comes  from  the  Slavonic  phrase  "hu-ray," 
meaning  "To  Paradise!"  This  was  a  battle  cry 
among  the  Slavs. 

Why  are  members  of  tropical  races  dark-eyed? 

The  dark  color  defends  the  eyes  from  the 
intense  heat  of  the  sun,  which  would  otherwise 
scorch  them. 

Why  does  paint  keep  iron  from  rusting? 

Paint  prevents  the  moist  air  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  iron. 

Why  is  it  hard  to  ivrite  with  ink  on  greasy  paper? 

Grease  will  not  readily  mix  with  water  or  ink 
and  prevents  the  ink  from  being  properly 
absorjjed  by  the  paper. 

What  is  the  origin  of  the  ring  in  the  marriage 
ceremony? 

Its  use  began  in  Egypt,  and  then,  as  now, 
signified  a  transfer  of  property — "With  all  my 
worldly  goods  I  thee  endow." 

What  good  effect  has  rain  falling  on  dead  leaves? 

It  hastens  the  decay  of  the  leaves,  thus  helping 
to  fertilize  the  earth. 

How  is  the  red  fire  in  fireworks  produced? 

By  nitrate  of  strontian,  which  burns  with  a 
red  flame. 

What  are  the  uses  of  cast  iron  and  steel? 

Cast  iron,  being  brittle,  is  used  chiefly  for 
stoves,  furnaces,  etc.  Steel's  superior  hardness 
and  flexibility  renders  it  useful  for  making 
springs,  tools,  etc. 

Why  does  mother-of-pearl  shoio  so  many  colors? 

It  consists  of  many  transparent  layers  over- 
lapping one  another  and  thus  forming  grooves 
that  run  in  all  directions.  The  grooves  act  as 
prisms,  in  which  various  colors  are  seen. 

Why  are  dreams  usually  illogical  and  absurd? 

The  cerebrum  (the  reasoning  part  of  the 
brain)  is  at  rest  during  sleep. 

What  is  German  silver? 

It  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc  and  nickel. 

What  are  three  forms  of  iron? 

Wrought  iron,  cast  iron  and  steel. 

What  are  the  most  important  uses  for  common 
salt? 

As  a  part  of  the  diet  and  for  freezing  mixtures 
and  for  purposes  of  manufacture. 

What  are  the  different  kinds  of  coal? 

Anthracite  (hard)  and  bituminous  (soft). 
Forms  of  coal  in  transition  state  are  lignite  and 
peat. 

HoiD  are  mirrors  made? 

They  are  of  plate  glass,  backed  by  an  alloy 
of  thirty  parts  mercury  and  seventy  parts  tin. 

What  is  plaster  of  paris? 

Gypsum  is  heated  and  afterward  powdered. 
This  produces  plaster  of  paris. 

Why  is  rain  water  better  than  any  other  for 
plants? 

It  contains  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia,  which 
serve  as  fertilizers. 

What  is  shale? 

Shale  is  a  form  of  slate  that  splits  easily  into 
thin,  brittle  layers. 


THE   INVISIBLE  ARMIES  THAT  MASTER  THE  EARTH 


These  pictures  show  us  what  is  going  on  in  our  bodies  almost  every  moment  we  live.  Our  bodies  are  inhabited  by 
millions  of  living  creatures,  always  fighting  to  make  us  ill  or  keep  us  well.  In  the  first  circle  we  see  the 
little  white  things,  called  phagocytes,  that  live  in  our  blood  and  keep  it  pure  ;  in  the  second  we  see  them 
devouring  microbes  which  do  us  harm.  The  third  circle  shows  the  growth  of  a  microbe.  The  small  rings 
are  the  seeds,  which  grow  together  like  a  little  stick  and  split  up.  The  long,  thin  things  that  are  growing 
out  of  them  are  the  things  they  move  with,  what  we  should  call  legs  and  arms.  The  last  picture  shows 
what  a  colony    of  microbes  looks  like,  and  we   see  separate  microbes   going  out  to  form  other  colonies. 


This  is  a  row  of  our  microbe  enemies,  shown  1,000  times  bigger  than  they  really  are.  The  first  are  the  microbes 
that  cause  cholera,  the  second  cause  consumption,  the  third  cause  typhoid  fever,  and  the  last  cause  lockjaw. 
These  powerful  creatures  are  so  small  that  140,000  could  be  placed  side  by  side  on  a  line  as  long  as  a  pin. 


This  is  a  row  of  our  microbe  friends,  shown  1,000  times  bigger  than  they  really  are.  The  small  microbes  at 
the  top  in  the  first  circle  make  milk  sour ;  those  below  help  to  make  butter  and  cream.  In  the  second  circle 
are  the  microbes  found  in  yeast,  which  make  alcohol ;  in  the  third  is  the  microbe  that  makes  vinegar ;  and 
in  the  last  circle  is  a  microbe  that  helps  to  make  cheese.    We  could  not  live  without  such  microbes  as  these. 


€3 

2 


8 


At  the  end 
of  an  hour 


A  microbe        About  five       After   15         It  grows        Both  begin      Both  form        The  two 
begmning     minutes  later      minutes  into  two         to  develop       "waists"      become  four. 

Microbes  cannot  be  seen  without  a  magnifying  glass,  but  we  can  watch  them  working  with  a  microscope. 

THE    WONDERFUL    WAY    IN    WHICH    MICROBES    ARE    BORN    WHILE   WE    LOOK.   AT   THEM 


These  pictvires  show  the  way  microbes  grow.  Some  form  a  "waist"  and  add  other  microbes  to  themselves  like 
a  string  of  beads.  Others  form  buds,  which  break  off  and  become  separate  microbes.  Others  join  together  in 
long  rods  and  break  off  afterwards.  And  so  these  little  creatures  grow,  more  quickly  than  any  man  can  count. 
In  24  hours,  tf  they  all  lived,  the  children  of  one  microbe  would  form  a  line  reaching  from  end  to  end  of  Englandi 
and  if  the  microbes  were  as  big  as  shown  here  this  line  would  be  long  enough  to  go  20  times  round  the  earth. 


THE     ENEMIES     THAT     STEAL      HEALTH 


This  shows  what  happens  In  a  drop  of  blood  when  we    are  111.     The  little  black  •"burglars,"  Invisible  to  the  eye,  are 
phold  Jever  parasites,  and  the  white  cells  of  the  blood  are    attacking  them.     If  the  white  cells  win  the  battle,  we  recover 
they  lose,  we  die.    We  see  this  under  the  microscope. 


Book  of  Our  Own  Life 


Our  Body  a  Human  House  Smell  and  Taste 

Story  of  the  Eye  The   Forest  of  Nerves    Within 

Parts  of  the  Eye  Us 

Seeing  Colors  Mystery  of  the  Brain 

The  Marvel  of  Hearing  Parts  of  the  Brain 

Balancing  the  Body  How  to  Remember 

Talking  and  Singing  How  We  Think 


THE     VENTILATION    OF     THE     HUMAN     HOUSE 


In  this  picture  \vc  see  how  the  human  house  is  ventilated.  The  air  goes  down  the  voiee-box  and  windpipe  and  into  the 
lungs,  or  bellows,  whicli  are  very  much  \ike  sponges,  with  thousands  of  tiny  hollow  spaces  lined  with  living  cells.  These 
cells  lie  between  the  air  and  the  blood  in  the  hollow  spaces,  and  they  purify  the  blood  by  taking  the  oxygen  from  the  pure 
air  and  sending  it  into  the  blood,  and  by  driving  the  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  from  the  blood  into  the  air,  to  be  breatlaed 
out  again.  The  impure  blood  is  always  being  pumped  through  the  lungs  to  be  purifled  in  this  way.  In  the  picture  the 
blood-vessels  of  the  lungs  are  shown  dark,  and  the  air-passage-s  light. 

90 


THE      BODY 


HUMAN      HOUSE 


THIS  human  house  of  ours  is 
the  home  of  the  soul.  It  is 
the  wonderful  and  mysterious 
home  which  God  provides  for  each  of 
us  and  of  which  we  should  learn  to 
take  the  best  of  care. 

Just  as  with  houses  built  of  timbers 
or  of  stone,  so  this  house  of  ours  is 
made  up  of  many  rooms.  Each  room 
renders  its  special  service  and  demands 
of  us  in  turn,  a  special  care.  When 
we  are  hungry,  the  stomach  room,  or 
Great  Furnace  of  our  house  is  in  need 
of  wholesome  food.  This  food  after 
undergoing  a  wonderful  change  is 
absorbed  by  the  blood,  and  then 
through  a  net-work  of  arteries  and 
veins  is  carried  to  the  skin,  the 
nerves,  the  muscles,  and  the  bones, 
and  thus  nourishes  and  builds  up 
our  body. 
Need  of  fresh  air  in  the  house 

But  food  alone  cannot  make  this 
house  of  ours  a  healthy  place  in  which 
to  Hve.  The  lungs,  the  Ventilators  of 
the  house,  must  be  filled  and  refilled 
many  times  each  minute  with  pure, 
freSh  air.  The  air  breathed  deep  into 
the  tiny  cells  of  our  lungs,  meets  and 
purifies  the  impure  blood  which  has 
been  sent  there  by  the  heart,  the  Great 
Pump  of  our  house.  This  Great  Pump 
of  our  house  is  kept  busy  every  minute 
of  our  lives:  First,  it  must  gather  the 
poisoned  and  waste-laden  blood  from 
every  part  of  the  body  and  send  it  to 
the  lungs;  then  with  tremendous 
force  the  pure  blood  is  pumped  through 
the  arteries  and  the  veins  on  its  long 
journey  to  every  part  of  our  body. 
Sometimes,  Enemies,  or  invisible  living 
things  called  Microbes,  creep  into  our 
house  and  try  to  steal  away  our 
health,  but  wholesome  food,  fresh 
air  and  an  abundance  of  sunshine  and 
exercise  will  drive  these  Enemies 
away. 


The    busy    sentinels   in   the  first 

STORY 

The  top  story  of  our  house  is  sup- 
plied with  busy  sentinels,  the  eyes, 
the  ears  and  the  nose,  which  are 
always  on  guard  to  protect  our  house 
against  its  Enemies.  For  example, 
if  we  breath  through  the  nose,  the  air 
is  tested  and  filtered  of  impure  parti- 
cles; what  we  carry  to  our  mouths  is 
closely  examined  and  tested  by  our 
tongue  before  it  is  admitted  to  the 
stomach;  and  the  knowledge  thus 
gained  from  touching  and  tasting  and 
smelling  helps  train  the  outer  sentries, 
the  ears  and  the  eyes  to  be  on  guard, 
and  to  warn  of  approaching  danger. 
Our  telephone  exchange,  the  master 

OF  our  house 

We  may  correctly  call  the  Brain  our 
Telephone  Exchange.  It  is  connected 
with  every  room  and  every  part  of 
our  body  by  a  network  of  nerve  fibers 
— Telephone  W^ires.  These  nerve  fib- 
ers are  usually  gathered  into  insulated 
cables  called  nerve  trunks,  and  over 
these  nerve  trunks  travel  the  lightning 
messages  to  and  from  the  brain,  the 
master  of  our  house.  In  this  same 
manner  the  sound  vibration  travels 
over  the  Telephone  wires  that  extend 
everywhere  throughout  a  city  and 
unite  at  the  central  exchange. 

A  wonderful   story  most   wonder- 
fully TOLD 

How  important  it  is  to  know  how  to 
keep  in  perfect  order  the  many  rooms 
of  this  marvelously  constructed  house 
of  ours ;  what  guests  to  invite  there  and 
against  whom  every  door  should  be 
closed.  All  success  and  happiness  of  life, 
even  the  house  itself,  may  be  wrecked 
by  a  single  act  of  ignorance  or  neglect. 
The  Book  of  Our  Own  Life  tells  the 
story  of  the  things  we  should  know 
about  ourselves — how  we  should  live 
in  the  house  not  built  with  hands. 


n 


BLOOD  CIRCULATION  IN  THE  HUMAN  HOUSE 


This  picture  shows  the  wonderful  pump,  called  the  heart,  in  tlie  middle  ot  the  human  house,  and  we  can  see  here  also 
how  the  ovens  and  corridors  are  linked  up  with  the  top  story.  The  heart  pumps  blood  through  the  body,  and  if  we  start 
at  the  right  ventricle,  and  follow  the  arrows,  we  can  trace  the  course  of  a  drop  of  blood  through  the  body  back  to  the  heart. 

92 


BRAIN    SIGNALS    OP    THE    HITMAN    HOUSE 


TOMATIC 
UEPHONE 
RELAY  AND 
EXCHANGE 


The  study  at  the  top  of  the  wonderful  house  which  builds  itself,  and  from  this  room  run  the  telephones  and  te  leeraoha 
by  whlcli  we  coDtrol  all  our  affairs. 


M 


The  first  picture  shows  the  eye  of  a  fly,  the  sectjiitl  that  ot  a  fish,  and  the  third  that  of  a  man,  and  we  can  see,  by 
comparing  these,  how  much  nearer  the  fish's  eye  is  to  a  man's  than  is  that  of  an  insect. 

STORY      OF      THE      EYE 


THE  sense  which  we  are  now 
going  to  study  is  vision,  or 
seeing,  and  the  organ  of  this 
great  sense,  as  everyone  knows,  is  the 
eye.  In  many  ways,  this  is  the  most 
wonderful  and  important  of  the  senses. 
It  is  so  for  the  purposes  of  prac- 
tical living.  It  is  more  necessary 
to  see  than  to  hear,  or  taste,  or 
smell.  A  blind  man  is  at  a  greater 
disadvantage  than  a  deaf  man.  The 
progress  and  ascent  of  living  creatures 
on  the  earth  have  very  largely  de- 
pended upon  vision,  and  we  have  al- 
ready learned  that  the  vision  part  of 
the  brain  is  largest  in  the  highest 
forms  of  life.  It  is  much  larger  in 
ourselves  than  in  any  other  creature. 

Vision  is  also  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance for  our  ideas  of  the  world  in 
which  we  live,  just  as  it  is  for  our 
practical  doings  in  that  world.  If  we 
could  not  see  we  should  know  very 
much  less  of  our  own  earth,  and  we 
should  know  the  sun  only  by  the 
radiant  heat  that  it  sends  us;  and  all 
the  other  heavenly  bodies  would  be 
unknown  to  us — from  our  own  little 
moon  to  the  millions  of  stars.  It  is 
upon  our  eyes,  then,  that  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  great  world  beyond  our 
own  earth  depends,  and  on  this  claim 
alone  our  eyes  are  entitled  to  special 
respect.     Unlike    any    of    our    other 


senses,  they  put  us  directly  in  touch 
with    the    infinite    and    the    sublime. 

One  of  the  greatest  men  who  ever 
lived,  said  that  there  were  two  things 
which  filled  him  with  awe — the  feeling 
of  duty  inside  the  minds  of  men  and 
the  starry  heavens  above  us.  Let  us 
begin,  then,  by  studying  how,  in  the 
course  of  long  ages,  living  creatures 
have  been  able  to  develop  the  eyes  by 
which  the  starry  heavens  are  seen. 

This  question  of  the  history  of  the 
eye  is  deeply  interesting.  A  short 
time  ago  we  should  have  begun  at  once 
witii  the  history  of  the  eye  in  the  ani- 
mal world.  It  would  not  have  oc- 
curred to  anyone  that  there  was  any- 
thing to  say  about  eyes  or  seeing  in  the 
world  of  plants,  but  it  has  just  been 
discovered  that  seeing,  of  a  kind,  at 
any  rate,  is  not  confined  to  the  animal 
world.  There  are  older  eyes  than  any 
backboned  animal,  at  any  rate,  can 
boast  of,  and  we  find  them  among 
plants.  If  we  are  really  to  understand 
our  own  eyes,  therefore,  we  must 
begin  at  the  beginning,  with  something 
much  older  and  simpler  than  our  eyes 
or  any  part  of  us. 

The  eyes  of  plants  are  very  simple. 
The  business  of  a  green  plant,  and 
especially  of  the  leaf  of  such  a  plant, 
is  to  receive  and  use  the  light  that 
falls  upon  it.     It  is  therefore  in  the 


94 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  95 

leaves   of   plants   that   we   find   their  straight  at  a  thing,  and  the  picture  of 

eyes.        Simple     experiments — which  that  thing  falls,  as  we  shall  soon  learn, 

have    now    been    made    many    times  upon  exactly  the  right  place  at  the 

over,    with    many   kinds   of   plants —  back  of  our  eyes — the  place  where  we 

show,  to  begin  with,  that  somehow  or  see  best.     But — when  the  leaf  is  not 

other  the  leaf  gets  to  know  about  the  facing  the  light — not  looking  straight 

light.  at  it,  as  we  might  say — the  little  bright 

For  instance,  if  the  direction  of  the  circle  that  should  fall  upon  the  middle 

light  is  altered,  in  a  very  short  time  of  the  floor  of  the  cells  is  thrown  some- 

the  leaf  turns  itself,  so  as  to  get  the  where  to  one  side  of  the  floor,  or  may 

light  fair  and  square  upon  its  surface;  even  be  thrown  not  upon  the  floor  of 

and  some  leaves  will  do  this  as  often  the  cell  at  all,  but  upon  one  of  its 

as  the  direction  of  the  light  is  changed,  walls;    and  the  life  of  the  cell  knows 

We  may,  perhaps,  get  rather  wrong  the  difference. 

ideas  if  we  say  that  the  leaf  sees  the  Of   course,    these   discoveries   have 

light,  yet  that  must  be  what  happens;  excited  the  greatest  interest,  and  at 

only  it  is  a  very  simple  kind  of  seeing,  first  many  doubts  were  expressed,  but 

The  little  eyes   by   which   a   leaf  these  have  all  been  cleared  away.     In 

CAN  SEE  the  first  place,   it  was   necessary   to 

After  it  had  been  completely  proved  prove  that  the  curving  of  the  surface 

that  somehow  or  other  the  leaves  can  of  the  cells  really  made  them  act  like 

see,  the  next  thing,  of  course,  was  to  little  lenses. 

find  whether  the  leaf  saw  as  a  whole,  In  two  ways  this  can  be  proved; 

or  whether  it  had  any  special  places  either  the  surface  of  the  leaf  can  be 

where  it  saw — places  which  must  be  shaved  down,  so  that  it  becomes  flat, 

called    eyes    of    a    kind.     When    the  or  else  a  little  water  can  be  laid  on  the 

surfaces  of  leaves  were  carefully  ex-  leaf   and   then   covered  with   a  thin 

amined,  it  was  often  found  that  there  sheet  of  glass,  in  such  a  way  that  the 

were  places  where  there  was  developed  water  fills  up  the  hollows  between  the 

a  kind  of  simple  eye.     That  is  to  say,  cells,    and    so    makes    the    leaf    flat, 

certain  of  the  cells  forming  the  surface  whereas  before  it  was  covered  with 

of  the   leaf  were   made  of  a  special  hundreds  of  little  bulging  eyes, 

shape;    it  was  found  that  the  outside  When  these  experiments  were  made, 

of  these  cells  is  curved,  just  as  the  it  was  found  that  the  plant  no  longer 

front  of  our  eyes  is  curved.  responded  to  the  light;    the  leaf  no 

The  consequence  is  that  light  falling  longer  turned  so  as  to  face  the  light 

upon  these  cells  is  focused,  as  we  say,  directly — in  a  word,  it  no  longer  knew 

and  thrown  upon  the  floor  of  the  cell,  where  the  light  came  from.     Its  sight 

just  as  a  curved  piece  of  glass  will  focus  had   been   spoiled   just   as   our   sight 

the  sun's  rays  and  throw  a  bright  spot  would  be  spoiled  if  something  of  the 

on  a  piece  of  paper.     If  the  leaf  is  at  kind  were  done  to  our  eyes, 

right   angles   to   the   light,    then   the  Photographs  That   Can   Be   Taken 

bright  spot  made  in  this  way  will  fall  With  The  Eyes  Of  A  Leaf 

right  en  the  middle  of  the  floor  of  the  And    then,    still    more    lately,    the 

cell.  power  of  these  little  eyes  was  proved 

What   Happens  When  A  Leaf  Does  in  another  way.     If  these  cells  with 

Not  Look  Straight  At  The  Light  their  curved  fronts  really  act  as  lenses. 

This  corresponds  to  what  happens  then,  with  care  and  skill,  it  ought  to  be 

in    our    eyes    when    we    are    looking  possible   to   make   them   take   photo- 


96  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

graphs — that  is  to  say,  it  ought  to  be  This  is  usually  called  pigment,  which 

possible  to  use  these  little  cells  as  the  is  simply  the  Latin  for  paint — in  fact, 

lenses  of  a  hundred  tiny  little  cameras,  another  form  of  the  word  paint.  These 

This   has   been   done,   and   the   most  pigment  -  cells  are  sensitive  to  light, 

excellent  photographs  have  been  taken  When  light  shines  on  them,   all  the 

— photographs  so  good  that  the  per-  pigment  is  gathered  tightly  up  into 

son  photographed  can  quite  easily  be  the  body  of  the  cell;    but  when  the 

recognized    when    the   photograph    is  light  is  taken  away,  and  they  are  in 

magnified  and  thrown  on  a  screen.  shadow,    the   pigment   strays   out   in 

This  subject  is  quite  new,  and  we  are  all  directions  from  the  center  of  the 

only  at  the  beginning  of  our  knowledge  cell,  and  so  is  scattered, 

of  it.     A  beginning  has  been  made.  This  explains  why  the  color  of  the 

however,  with  a  new  chapter  in  our  animal  changes,  and  it  also  tells  us 

knowledge  of  plants  and  their  wonder-  why  and  how  the  animal  is  able  to 

ful  lives.     Here,   it  is   sufficient  just  know  what  the  state  of  the  light  is, 

for  us  to  know  that  plants,  which  live  and  to  act  as  it  pleases  accordingly, 

by  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  upon  whose  In  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  eye, 

life  our  own  lives  depend,  have  little  great  stress  has  always  been  laid  upon 

eyes  of  their  own,  which  they  use  for  these  pigment-cells;   but  now  that  we 

their  lives,  and  therefore,  in  the  long  have  discovered  such  wonderful  eyes 

run,  for  ours.     It  is  because  all  animal  in  leaves,  fitted  with  lenses  so  perfect 

life  depends  upon  plants  that  we  should  that  they  will  take  photographs,  the 

know  these  things.     And  now  we  can  pigment-cell,  which  we  look  upon  as 

go  on  and  study  the  history  of  the  the  beginning  of  the  animal  eye,  seems 

eye  in  the  animal  world.  to  be  a  very  poor  affair  compared  with 

In  the  very  lowest  forms  of  animal  a  plant  eye. 

life  we  find  that  there  is  response  to  the  little  cells  in  the  skin  upon 

light,  for  we  find  that  some  of  the  which  light  acts 

simplest  kinds  of  animals  will  always  We  do  not  know  exactly  how  it  is 

travel  from  shadow  into  the  light,  and  that   light   affects   the   pigment-cells, 

others  will  always  travel  from  light  but  we  may  be  sure  that  the  action  is 

into    shadow.     These    are    creatures  really  a  chemical  one.     Everyone  who 

whose  bodies  are  so  simple  that  we  is   interested   at   all   in    photography 

should  not  look  for  any  special  organ  knows  that  light  has  a  chemical  action 

of  vision.  — as,  for  instance,  on  the  salts  spread 

How  the  first  trace  of  an  eye  is  on    a    photographic    plate.       Every 

FOUND  in  the  skin  houscwifc    whose    curtains    fade,    or 

Probably  the  first  trace  we  have  of  who  puts  clothes  out  to  be  bleached, 

such  an  organ — that  is  to  say,  the  first  knows  also  that  light  has  a  chemical 

trace  of  an  eye — is  where  we  find  that,  action.     Its   action   on  the   pigment- 

in  certain  lowly  animals,  parts  of  the  cells  is  chemical  also;    and  when  we 

skin  are  very  sensitive  to  light.     We  come  to  study  what  happens  in  our 

find  in  such  cases  that  the  color  of  the  own  eyes  when  the  light  strikes  the 

animal  changes  according  to  whether  curtain  at  the  back  of  them,  we  shall 

it   is   in   light   or   in   darkness   or   in  find  that  what  happens  there  is  very 

shadow,  and  when  its  skin  is  examined  like  the  action  of  light  when  it  takes 

under  the  microscope,  we  find  that  it  the  color  out  of  a  curtain  or  a  gown, 

contains  a  large  number  of  cells  packed  What  happens  next  in  the  history 

with  colored  material.  of  the  eye  is  that  the  pigment-cells, 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


which  were  at  first  scattered  about  the 
surface  of  the  body,  get  to  be  specially 
collected  in  certain  places.  These 
cells  are  not  quite  on  the  surface  of 
the  skin,  but  are  underneath  the  outer 
skin,  and  the  next  stage  is  that,  at  the 
place  where  the  pigment-cells  are 
gathered  together,  the  outer  skin,  or 
epidermis,  becomes  thickened,  and 
bulges  a  little.  Now,  this  is  very 
important,  because  if  we  have  a 
bulging  or  a  curved  surface,  through 
which  the  light  must  pass  on  its  way 
to  the  pigment-cells,  we  have  indeed 
a  lens  of  the  shape  called  convex,  and, 
as  we  know  in  the  case  of  the  burning- 
glass  or  the  lenses  of  leaves,  the  result 
is  that  the  light  is  focused. 

The  simplest  kind  of  eye,  and  the 
wonderful  eye  of  a  fly 

Now,  we  have  already  learned 
enough  to  be  sure  that  these  pigment- 
cells,  like  every  other  part  of  the  body, 
are  comiected  by  nerves  with  the 
brain.  So  now  we  have  reached  the 
stage  where  there  is  a  lens  to  focus 
the  Hght,  sensitive  cells  to  be  chemi- 
cally affected  when  the  light  falls  upon 
them,  and  nerves  that  somehow  con- 
vey a  record  of  these  changes  to  the 
brain,  which  therefore  sees.  Here, 
then,  is  a  simple  kind  of  eye,  complete 
from  the  surface  to  the  center. 

All  the  eyes  of  animals  that  have 
no  backbone  are  to  be  looked  upon  as 
simply  improved  patterns  of  this 
kind.  The  eye  in  such  creatures  is 
always  developed  from  the  skin  in 
the  case  of  each  individual,  just  as  we 
have  learned  that,  in  the  history  of 
these  animal  forms,  the  eye  has  gradu- 
ally become  developed  from  the  skin. 
We  shall  soon  see  that  the  eyes  of 
backboned  animals  are  of  a  much 
higher  type;  but  we  must  not  under- 
rate all  the  eyes  below  backboned 
animals,  because  it  is  very  certain 
that  the  eyes  of  some  insects  are 
exceedingly     keen.     It    is     generally 


agreed  that  the  dragon-fly  is  the  most 
wonderful  insect  of  all  in  this  respect. 
Its  eyes  are  extremely  large  and 
powerful. 

As  in  many  other  cases,  the  lens  of 
the  eye,  instead  of  being  just  curved 
in  one  single  simple  bulge,  is  like  a 
large  diamond  that  has  had  its  face 
cut  into  a  number  of  little  flat  sur- 
faces. These  little  faces  of  the  lens 
are  usually  called  facets.  The  num- 
ber of  facets  upon  the  lens  of  the  eye 
of  the  dragon-fly  is  very  large. 

How  THE   DRAGON-FLY    AMUSES   ITSELF 
BY  AMUSING  MEN 

Few  things  are  more  wonderful  than 
the  certainty  and  skill  with  which  the 
dragon-fly  will  recognize,  follow,  and 
catch  the  smallest  insect  on  the  wing. 
One  of  the  greatest  living  students  of 
this  subject.  Professor  Forel,  one  of 
the  many  wise  men  who  have  made 
Switzerland  famous,  writes  as  fol- 
lows: "By  trying  to  catch  them  at  the 
edge  of  a  large  pond,  one  can  easily 
convince  oneself  that  dragon-flies  amuse 
themselves  by  making  sport  of  the 
hunter;  they  will  always  allow  one  to 
approach  just  near  enough  to  miss 
catching  them. 

"It  can  be  seen  to  what  degree  they 
are  able  to  measure  the  distance  and 
reach  of  their  enemy.  It  is  an  ab- 
solute fact  that  dragon-flies — unless  it 
is  cold  or  in  the  evening — always 
manage  to  fly  at  just  that  distance  at 
which  the  student  cannot  touch  them; 
and  they  see  perfectly  well  whether 
one  is  armed  with  a  net  or  has  nothing 
but  his  hands.  One  might  even  say 
that  they  measure  the  length  of  the 
handle  of  the  net,  for  the  possession  of 
a  long  handle  is  no  advantage.  They 
fly  just  out  of  reach  of  one's  instru- 
ment, whatever  trouble  one  may  give 
oneself  by  hiding  it  from  them  and 
suddenly  lunging  as  they  fly  off." 

We  must  not  suppose  that  all  in- 
sects have  good  eyes;    there  are  all 


98  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

stages  between  the  dragon-fly,  at  one  or  other  insect:   "Come  here;   I  have 

extreme,  and  insects  which  are  com-  something    that   you    will    like."     So 

pletely    blind,    as,    for    instance,    the  the  bee  gets  its  honey  and  the  flower 

cave-dwelling  insects  and  certain  kinds  gets    fertilized.     Thus    we    owe    the 

of    worker-ants    which    live    entirely  pleasure  our  eyes  get  from  most  of  the 

underground.  beautiful  flowers  we  know  to  the  fact 

The  house-fly  that  has  learned  to  that  the  eyes  of  bees  and  other  insects 

KEEP  AWAY  FROM  THE  GAS-FLAME  are  able  to  sec  them  and  to  distinguish 

The  rule  for  most  insects  is  that  them.     If  there  were  no  insects  there 

they  fly  towards  the  light.     Artificial  would  be  no  beautiful  flowers;    there 

lights,  such  as  we  use,  do  not  occur  would   be   nothing   for   the   plant  to 

in  Nature,  and  an  insect  flying  towards  hang  out  its  flag  for. 

a  lamp  really  supposes  that  it  is  flying  It  was  also  proved  by  Lord  Avebury, 

towards  the  light  of  day.     It  is  most  that  ants,  for  instance,  can  see  kinds 

unfortunate,  from  our  point  of  view,  of  light  to  which  our  eyes  are  blind — 

that  a   good   many  domestic   insects  that  is  to  say,   the  light  which  lies 

have  learned  in  the  course  of  many  beyond  the  violet,  and  which  is  known 

years  to  know  what  artificial  light  is.  as  ultra-violet  light. 

We  cannot  now  enter  into  the  very  Here  we  may  notice,  what  has  re- 

difiicult  question  how  it  is  that  this  cently  been  shown,  that  people's  eyes 

change   has   been   brought   about   in  vary    in    this    respect.     Just    as    old 

their  natural  habits;  but,  at  any  rate,  people     do     not     hear     high-pitched 

it  is  the  case  that  such  an  insect  as  sounds,    which    younger    people    can 

the  ordinary  fly  does  not  destroy  itself  hear,  so  we  find  that  there  are  a  good 

by  flying  against  a  flame.  many  young  people  who,   somewhat 

The  habits   of  flies   are   extremely  like  ants,  can  see  a  little  way,  so  to 

dirty;  their  feet  are  always  laden  with  speak,    into    the    ultra-violet,    where, 

filth.     They  are  thus  great  carriers  of  to  the  rest  of  us,   it  is  quite  dark, 

disease,  and  destroy  many  babies  every  Finally,    Lord    Avebury    has    shown 

year  by  poisoning  their  food.     That  is  that  ants  are  able  to  recognize  each 

why  it  is  very  unfortunate  that  flies  other  after  more  than  a  year  of  separa- 

have  learned  how  to  behave  to  arti-  tion.     Let  us  beware  of  judging  the 

ficial  light  in  what,  for  their  ancestors,  value  and  power  of  things  by  their 

would  have  been  an  unnatural  way.  size,  and  let  us  learn  from  this  brief 

Many    years    ago    Lord    Avebury  account  of  one  of  the  senses  of  insects 

showed  that  bees  and  wasps  were  able  that  we  still  have  reason  to  go  to  the 

to  distinguish  colors;    but  wasps  are  ant   to    "consider   her   ways   and   be 

very  inferior  to  bees  in  this  respect,  wise." 

Bees  distinguish  all  colors,  and  very  Now  we  must  pass  to  the  eyes  of 

rarely  make  any  mistake  except  be-  backboned  animals.     The  lowest  kinds 

tween  blue   and   green.     The  impor-  of  backboned  animals  are  the  fishes, 

tance  of  this  is  very  great,  because  it  and  we  have  all  seen  the  eyes  of  fishes, 

largely  helps  to  explain  how  it  is  that  Wonderful  and  skilful  as  the  eyes  of 

bees  are  able  to  distinguish  one  flower  insects  may  be,  the  eyes  of  backboned 

from  another.  animals  are  of  a  vastly  finer  and  more 

Insects  that  can  see  what  our  eyes  wonderful   type.     In   the  first   place, 

CANNOT  see  this  secms  to  depend  upon  a  change  in 

As  a  rule,  the  color  of  a  flower  is  the  making  of  the  eye.     We  have  seen 

a  kind  of  flag  held  out  to  say  to  a  bee  that  the  eyes  of  all  the  animals  that 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


99 


have  not  backbones  are  entirely  formed 
from  the  skin;  but  the  higher  type  of 
eye  found  in  backboned  animals  has 
its  most  important  parts  developed 
from  the  brain,  and  not  from  the  skin 
at  all. 

True,  the  front  part  of  such  eyes 
as  our  own  is  formed  from  the  skin, 
but  that  is  only  true  of  the  parts 
through  which  the  light  travels  on 
its  way  to  the  all-important  curtain 
which  makes  the  back  of  the  eye. 
That  curtain  is  really  a  part  of  the 
brain  which  has  been  pushed  out,  as 
it  were,  from  the  brain  upon  a  kind  of 
stalk  or  stem. 

The  real  reason  why  the  curtain,  or 
retina,  of  the  eye  of  backboned  animals 
has  its  great  powers — vastly  superior 
to  those  of  any  lower  type  of  eye — is 
that  this  retina  is,  indeed,  a  part  of  the 
brain  itself.  Vision  is  so  important 
that  the  business  of  receiving  light- 
rays  could  not  be  left  to  anything 
developed  from  the  skin;  so  a  portion 
of  the  brain  itself  extends  forward  to 
form  a  portion  of  the  eye  and  especially 
the  retina. 

In  main  principles,  the  eye  of  back- 
boned animals  is  much  the  same,  no 
matter  which  particular  animal  we 
take.  The  eye  of  the  fish  is  certainly 
very  much  inferior  to  that  of  a  bird  or 
a  mammal,  as  we  should  expect,  if  we 
consider  that  the  fish  has  to  see  only 
in  water,  where  it  would  be  impossible 
for  any  kind  of  eye  to  see  more  than 
very  short  distances ;  but  even  the  eye 
of  the  fish  is,  in  all  the  main  points, 
the  same  as  our  own,  though  much 
simpler. 

We  need  not  discuss  specially  the 
eyes  of  birds,  though  everyone  knows 
that  they  have  some  powers  superior 
to  those  of  the  eyes  of  any  other 
creature.  These  powers  are  in  the 
direction  of  keenness,  so  that  we  say 
of  anyone  w4io  is  very  sharp  to  see 
things  that  he  has  the  eyes  of  a  hawk. 


This  keenness  is  at  its  best  in  the  case 
of  the  hawk  and  other  birds  of  prey, 
but  other  birds  also  have  very  keen 
eyes.  They  could  not  catch  flying 
insects  if  they  had  not.  In  praising 
the  eye  and  the  keenness  of  vision  in 
birds,  and  in  studying  their  eyes,  we 
must  not  make  the  mistake,  which  is 
commonly  made  by  almost  everyone 
who  has  studied  this  subject  and 
written  upon  it,  of  supposing  that 
mere  keenness  of  vision  is  everything. 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  a  mistake 
that  is,  if  we  consider  the  case  of  a 
sailor,  for  instance,  who  has  very  keen 
eyes  indeed,  and  can  see  far  into  a 
fog,  but  who  would  perhaps  never 
cast  a  second  glance  upon  the  most 
noble  picture  that  was  ever  painted, 
or  upon  the  most  lovely  landscape. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  great  artist  may 
be  old  and  very  nearly  blind,  and 
though  his  vision  is  very  dim,  yet  he 
can  see  in  a  sunset  or  in  a  picture 
things  which  mere  keenness  of  vision, 
whether  in  a  man  or  a  hawk,  could 
never  see  at  all.  This  is  worth 
remembering,  for  it  is  just  as  true  of 
all  the  other  senses  as  it  is  of  vision. 

Keenness  is  not  the  highest  quality 
of  a  sense,  and  the  best  proof  of  the 
rightness  of  our  view  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that,  when  we  test  the  matter 
by  the  brain,  we  find  that  the  vision 
area  is  largest  and  most  highly  de- 
veloped, not  in  the  insect  or  the  bird, 
or  in  the  men  with  the  keenest  eyes, 
but  in  the  brains  of  the  highest  type 
of  men,  who  have  learned  to  see  and 
love  what  is  beautiful  and  poetic. 

The  eyelid  that  washes  the  eyeball 
and  keeps  it  moist 

And  now  we  are  prepared  to  look 
at  our  ow^n  eyes  and  see  how  they  are 
made.  It  is  proper  to  mention  the 
eyelids,  because  they  exist  for  the 
sake  of  the  eyes,  and  the  eye  cannot 
get  on  without  them.  We  are  very 
wrong  if  we  suppose  that  the  eyelids 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


merely  exist  in  order  to  cut  off  the 
light  when  we  do  not  wish  to  see. 
They  have  that  purpose,  but  if  we 
had  to  do  without  them,  and  replace 
them  by  an  artificial  shade,  we  should 
soon  find  that  that  is  not  the  whole  of 
their  use,  but  that  they  have  another 
use  that  is  of  the  greatest  service  to 
the  eyes. 

Every  time  that  we  wink — which 
we  do  every  few  seconds  without 
thinking  about  it — the  upper  eyelid 
washes  the  front  of  the  eyeball  by 
means  of  a  tear  which  has  come  from 
the  tear-gland,  and  has  been  spread 
over  the  inside  of  the  upper  eyelid. 


7hf  Pupil  through  ^fiicfi 
the  L'ght  /jaan 


(Jpprr  Eyr/id. 


Thf  fris  which  'cyufat*^ 
,  ifit  a/ni'unl  of  Light 
that  nyttrs 


.Tf)f  Oland 

\\Mhrrt  the 

7>orJ  art 

ade 


The  Canal  Ihraogh 
which    ihe    Tears 
pri.i.i  to  ihr  h/ose 


Lor^rCyehd 


The  left  eye,  showing  the  glands  where  the  tears  are 
made  and  the  ducts  through  which  they  are  carried  to  the 
nose  after  washing  the  eyeball.  In  weeping,  the  tears  can- 
not all  pass  through  the  ducts,  and  so  they  overflow. 

The  tear-gland  lies  above  the  eye- 
ball, a  little  to  its  outer  side.  The 
tear,  after  washing  and  moistening 
the  front  of  the  eyeball,  passes  through 
a  tiny  hole  at  the  inner  end  of  the 
lower  eyelid  into  the  nose. 

Why  we  cry  when  we  are  in  sorrow 
or  distress 

The  reason  why  we  cry  when  we 
are  distressed  seems  at  first  to  be  that 
the  part  of  the  brain  connected  with 
the  tear-glands  lies  very  close  to  the 
part  of  the  brain  which  is  disturbed 
when  we  are  made  unhappy. 

The  real  reason,  we   may  believe, 


why  we  show  signs  of  distress  in  our 
eyes  rather  than  anywhere  else  is  that 
we  human  beings  live  by  one  another's 
help  and  sympathy  and  love.  We  are 
meant  to  see  when  others  are  unhappy, 
so  that  we  may  know,  beyond  any 
doubt,  when  they  are  needing  our 
sympathy  and  help. 

If  a  child's  mouth  merely  watered 
when  it  was  unhappy,  we  should  not 
know,  and  therefore  would  not  help 
it;  but  when  we  see  its  eyes  water  our 
sympathy  is  aroused,  and  we  help  it. 
We  cry,  not  because  the  brain  happens 
to  be  so  made,  but  the  brain  has  been 
so  made  because  crying  is  the  most 
useful  and  convenient  way  in  which 
our  distress  can  be  shown  to  others. 

How   THE    FACE   AND   THE    EYE    EXPRESS 
OUR  FEELINGS 

As  the  higher  parts  of  the  brain 
develop  we  learn  self-control,  and  cry 
very  much  less  readily  than  when  we 
are  quite  young;  but  it  is  still  true 
that  our  feelings  find  expression  that 
can  be  seen  by  other  people,  for  the 
face  shows  our  feelings,  and  when  we 
make  a  general  study  of  the  way  in 
which  our  feelings  are  expressed  by 
the  various  parts  of  the  face,  we  shall 
see  that  crying  fits  in  with  these  other 
ways  of  expression  as  the  watering  of 
the  mouth  would  not,  so  that  it  is 
more  than  a  mere  chance  that  sorrow 
and  sadness  find  expression  in  the 
shedding  of  tears  rather  than  in  the 
production  of  saliva  or  in  some  other 
way. 

The  eyelids  are  provided  with  hairs 
which  help  to  protect  the  eyes  from 
dust.  Besides  the  protection  afforded 
by  the  eyelashes,  the  eyebrows  are  to 
be  reckoned  with,  as  they  prevent 
the  sweat  of  the  forehead  from 
running  into  the  eye.  Lastly,  we 
have  to  notice  the  well-contrived 
bony  structure  of  the  skull  around 
the  eye,  which  furnishes  a  very 
wonderful  protection. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


101 


laahe 


EytktW."''. 


Y»WowJSp<*j 


Rftl"'^ 


In  the  middle  picture  we  see  a  section  of  a  perfect  eye,  with  the  light  focused  correctly  on  the  retina.  The  left-hand 
picture  shows  an  eye  in  which  the  cornea  is  too  flat,  and  the  light  being  focused  beyond  the  retina  causes  indistinct  vision. 
The  eye  on  the  right  hand  has  the  cornea  too  convex. 

PARTS     OF     THE     EYE 


WHEN  we  examine  the  eye,  the 
first  thing  we  notice  is  that 
the  front  of  it  is  transparent. 
This  round,  transparent  part  in  front 
is  called  the  cornea,  which  really 
means  the  horny  thing.  If  we  look 
very  carefully  at  it,  we  shall  see  that 
it  bulges  forward  somewhat.  The 
curve  of  it  is  not  quite  the  same 
as  the  general  curve  of  the  eyeball. 
This  shape  of  the  cornea  is  very 
important  because  of  its  effect  on 
the  rays  of  light  that  enter  it.  It 
acts  just  like  the  curved  surface  of 
the  eye-cell  of  a  leaf. 

The  first  and  greatest  business  of 
the  cornea  is  to  be  perfectly  transpar- 
ent. It  contains,  therefore,  no  blood- 
vessels, small  or  great;  it  would  not  do 
to  have  red  or  white  blood-cells  in  the 
cornea  interfering  with  the  passage  of 
light.  But  the  cornea  is  alive  and 
must  be  fed,  and  it  is  supplied  by 
materials  that  pass  to  it  through  the 
walls  of  the  tiny  blood-vessels  that 
we  find  all  around  its  edge.  The 
cornea  is  well  supplied  with  nerves, 
nearly  all  of  which  run  to  its  front 
surface,  in  order  that  it  shall  be  very 
sensitive. 

This  is  necessary  so  that  the  least 
speck  of  dust  or  anything  else  that 
would  injure  it,  shall  be  felt  and  wiped 


away  by  the  eyelids  and  the  tears. 
Only  too  often,  however,  a  workman 
gets  what  he  calls  a  "fire"  in  his  eye, 
and  then  there  is  a  great  risk  that, 
when  the  cornea  recovers  from  the 
injury,  the  injured  place  will  be 
opaque  for  the  rest  of  his  days.  Also, 
when  anything  of  this  kind  happens  to 
the  cornea,  blood-vessels  grow  into  it 
from  the  side.  They  must  do  so,  for 
they  must  supply  food  and  other  ma- 
terials to  the  injured  part,  if  it  is  to 
recover;  but  these  blood-vessels  mean 
that  the  passage  of  light  is  inter- 
fered with. 

Recently  the  first  attempt  that  has 
ever  succeeded  was  made  to  remove  a 
piece  of  cornea  that  had  become 
opaque,  and  to  graft  there  a  piece  of 
healthy  transparent  cornea.  It  is 
well  for  us  to  understand  how  impor- 
tant and  wonderful  this  part  of  the 
eye  is.  All  the  light  we  see  by  must 
pass  through  it;  yet  it  is  a  living  thing, 
with  all  the  needs  and  delicacy  of  a 
living  thing — very  different  from  a 
curved  piece  of  glass.  Lastly,  it  is 
very  much  exposed,  though,  as  we 
know,  the  eyelid,  eyelashes,  eyebrow, 
and  the  bony  wall  around  the  eye  do 
their  best  to  protect  it. 

All  round  its  edge  the  cornea  passes 
into  the  white,  thick,  strong  coat  of 


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This  picture  helps  us  to  understand  how  the  eyes  grow  out  of  the  brain,  the  optic  nerve  projecting  till  it  expands  into 
the  hollow  cup  of  the  eyeball.     The  muscles  that  move  the  eyes  are  also  shown. 


the  eyeball;  indeed,  the  cornea  is  really 
a  special  part  of  this  strong  outer  coat 
of  the  eyeball  that  has  been  made 
transparent,  and  has  been  made  to 
bulge  forward  a  little  in  order  to  help 
in  focusing  the  light.  The  white  outer 
coat  of  the  eyeball  is  very  strong,  and 
will  stand  a  good  deal  of  pressure.  If 
we  feel  one  of  our  own  eyes  with  the 
finger,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  quite 
tight;  and  the  existence  of  this  pressure 
in  the  eyeball,  which  is  supported  by 
the  outer  coat,  is  of  great  importance 
for  good  seeing. 

Now,  when  we  look  at  anyone's  eye, 
we  see  something  through  the  trans- 
parent cornea.  We  see  a  round, 
colored  ring  with  a  black  hole,  small 
or  large,  in  the  middle  of  it.  The 
colored  part  is  called  the  iris,  and  it  is 
a  ring  of  muscle  with  a  hole  in  the 
middle  of  it,  which  is  the  pupil.  This 
looks  black  because  it  is  really  the  hole 
leading  into  the  dark  chamber,  or  in- 
side of  the  eye,  which  is  like  the  inside 
of  a  camera.  Now,  if  we  could  be 
shown  an  eye  cut  through  sideways, 
we  should  see  that  there  is  quite  a 
large  space  between  the  cornea  and  the 
front  of  the  iris.  This  space  is  filled 
with  a  watery  fluid,  and  the  light  has 
to  pass  through  this  fluid  before  it 
is  able  to  reach  the  pupil. 


The   pupil   of  the   eye  that  gets 
bright  in  a  dim  light 

The  business  of  the  iris  is  to  regulate 
the  size  of  the  pupil.  The  less  the 
amount  of  light,  the  larger  must  the 
pupil  be;  and  the  more  the  light,  the 
smaller  the  pupil.  So  when  a  person 
goes  from  darkness  into  light,  or  when 
the  eyes  are  opened  in  a  bright  light, 
anyone  may  see  that  the  pupil  gets 
smaller.  We  can  also  notice  that  the 
pupil  gets  smaller  if  a  person  who  has 
been  looking  at  something  far  away 
suddenly  looks  at  something  close  to 
his  eye.  There  is  a  special  reason, 
rather  difficult  to  explain,  why  it  im- 
proves the  clearness  of  vision  to  reduce 
the  size  of  the  pupil  when  looking  at 
something  near.  The  cause  is  to  be 
found  in  the  shape  of  what  lies  behind 
the  pupil,  as  we  shall  soon  see. 

All  the  color  of  the  eye  is  due  to  the 
iris.  The  color  is  not  to  be  found  at 
all  in  the  muscle  fibers  that  make  the 
iris;  they  are  just  like  other  muscle 
fibers,  and  are  the  same  in  everybody. 
But  both  on  the  back  and  front  of  the 
iris  there  is  a  layer  of  cells,  which  may 
or  may  not  contain  a  certain  amount 
of  pigment,  or  paint.  It  is  this  that 
varies  in  different  people.  It  is  inter- 
esting from  the  point  of  view  of 
beauty,  because  its  variations  in  dif- 


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103 


ferent  people  provide  many  different 
types  of  beautiful  eyes.  But  the  color 
of  the  iris  has  quite  lately  become 
most  interesting,  because  we  are  just 
beginning  to  learn  what  are  the  rules 
as  to  the  way  in  which  eye-color 
descends  from  parent  to  child.  This  is 
one  of  the  subjects  which  is  being 
closely  studied  by  scientific  men  all 
over  the  world,  and  we  are  no  doubt 
going  to  learn  a  great  deal  from  it. 

The  people  with  blue  eyes  and  the 
people  with  brown  eyes 

It  seems  that  some  eyes  have  brown 
pigment  in  the  cells  on  the  front  of  the 
iris,  and  others  have  not.  This  gives 
us  at  once  two  great  types  of  eyes — 
those  which  have  the  brown  pigment 
on  the  front  being  more  or  less  brown, 
and  those  which  have  not  being  more 
or  less  blue.  There  is  far  more  to  say 
than  this,  of  course,  because,  as  every- 
one knows,  there  are  many  different 
blues  and  browns,  and  many  eyes 
which  could  not  be  called  either.  But 
still  we  have  already  learned  that  a 
father  and  mother  with  genuine  blue 
eyes  never  have  brown-eyed  children; 
on  the  other  hand,  if  one  parent  has 
brown  eyes  and  the  other  parent  has 
blue  eyes,  most  of  the  children,  at  any 
rate,  will  have  brown  eyes. 

At  present  in  this  country  it  seems 
quite  plain  that  blue  eyes  are  rapidly 
becoming  rarer  and  brown  eyes  com- 
moner. One  of  the  deeply  interesting 
questions  is  as  to  why  this  is  so,  and 
what  the  consequences  will  be.  Care- 
ful study  of  the  iris  in  thousands  of 
people  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
especially  the  study  of  the  eyes  of 
children  as  compared  with  their  par- 
ents, will  teach  us  not  only  a  great 
deal  about  heredity,  as  it  is  called,  but 
will  also  help  us  to  learn  what  is  really 
happening,  and  how  far  it  is  true  that 
the  blue-eyed  strain  in  our  population 
is  dying  out  and  the  brown-eyed 
people  surviving. 


The  people  with  blue  eyes  who  are 
disappearing  from  the  world 

It  is  very  likely  that  though  the 
blue-eyed  seem  less  able  to  bear  city 
life,  and  the  conditions  of  existence 
nowadays,  they  may  yet  have  many 
valuable  qualities,  and  their  slow  dis- 
appearance threatens  to  be  a  great 
loss  to  the  world,  and  ought  to  be 
thoroughly  investigated,  and  some 
means  found  to  check  it. 

Now,  if  we  pass  through  the  door  in 
the  iris,  we  find  a  beautiful  transparent 
thing  called  the  lens  of  the  eye.  It  is 
a  genuine  lens,  just  like  the  lens  of  an 
ordinary  magnifying  glass,  and  it  is  of 
the  same  shape,  convex  on  both  sides. 
It  helps  to  bend  the  rays  of  light  enter- 
ing the  eye,  just  as  the  cornea  did,  and 
it  is  perfectly  transparent.  Unlike 
any  lens  that  any  man  ever  made, 
this  lens,  while  able  to  do  all  that 
artificial  lenses  do,  can  do  far  more; 
for  it  is  elastic,  and  can  change  its 
shape  as  we  please. 

How  THE  LENS  OF  THE  EYE  IS  KEPT  INSIDE 
A  LITTLE  BAG 

The  lens  lies  inside  a  little  bag,  and 
that  bag  has  little  fibers  attached  to 
it  all  round,  which  can  be  pulled  upon 
by  tiny  slips  of  muscle  inside  the  eye. 
When  the  bag  is  pulled  upon  in  this 
way  all  round,  the  lens  inside  it  is 
made  flatter.  When  the  muscles  stop 
acting  and  the  pulling  ceases,  the  lens 
is  free  to  bulge  out  again  if  it  is  per- 
fectly elastic. 

It  is  by  this  power  of  the  lens  that 
we  are  enabled  to  see  clearly  both  at 
short  distances  and  at  long  distances. 
Now,  as  everyone  knows,  in  the  case 
of  an  ordinary  camera,  it  is  equally 
necessary  to  focus  the  light  properly 
if  the  picture  to  be  taken  is  to  be 
sharply  defined  on  the  plate;  or  if  we 
are  using  a  magic  lantern,  we  know 
that  we  must  focus  properly  if  the 
picture  is  to  be  sharply  thrown  on  the 
screen.     In   these    cases,    and   in    all 


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other  cases  where  men  use  artificial 
lenses — as,  for  instance,  in  the  micro- 
scope and  the  telescope — the  same 
method  of  focusing  is  employed,  and 
that  is  to  alter  the  distance  of  the  lens, 
or  lenses — for  there  may  be  several — 
from  the  place  where  we  want  the 
image  to  fall. 

How    OUR    EYES    FOCUS    BY    CHANGING 
THE  SHAPE  OF  THEIR  LENSES 

It  is  very  interesting  to  discover 
that  in  the  fishes  this  method,  which 
men  employ  in  all  their  instruments, 
is  employed  in  the  eye:  the  lens  has 
its  position  shifted  nearer  to  or  farther 
from  the  retina,  or  screen,  at  the  back 
of  the  eye.  But  in  all  the  higher  types 
of  eye,  such  as  our  own,  this  method 
is  not  employed.  There  is  no  arrange- 
ment for  shifting  the  lens  backwards 
and  forwards  in  order  to  suit  the  dis- 
tance of  the  particular  thing  we  are 
looking  at.  Its  distance  from  the 
retina  is  fixed.  The  method  of  the 
higher  types  of  eye  is  not  to  alter  its 
position,  but  to  change  its  shape 
where  it  stands.  That  is  why  it  has 
to  be  most  perfectly  elastic,  so  that 
after  it  has  been  flattened,  by  having 
the  bag  in  which  it  lies  pulled  upon, 
it  can  spring  back  perfectly  to  its 
rounder  shape. 

This  means  that  the  shape  of  the 
eyeball,  as  a  whole,  is  very  important. 
An  eyeball  may  be  long  from  back  to 
front,  and  then  the  lens  is  far  from  the 
retina,  or  it  may  be  short  from  back 
to  front,  and  then  the  lens  is  nearer  the 
retina.  If  the  lens  be  of  the  same 
shape  in  the  two  cases,  one  eye  or  both 
must  certainly  not  be  quite  suited  to 
its  purpose.  Thus,  in  consequence  of 
the  varying  shapes  of  eyeballs,  the 
variations  in  the  curve  of  the  cornea, 
and  the  variations  in  the  shape  of  the 
lens  itself,  we  find  that  there  are  a 
very  large  number  of  people  whose 
eyes  are  not  perfectly  suited  for  all 
kinds  of  use. 


Near-sightedness  has  nothing  to  do 

WITH  the  health  OF  THE  EYE 

Nothing  is  more  important  than 
for  us  to  understand,  at  the  very  first, 
that  this  is  not  at  all  a  question  of  the 
health  of  the  eye.  An  eye  may  be 
healthy  or  ill,  like  any  other  part  of 
the  body,  but  what  we  are  now  talking 
about  is  simply  a  question  of  the  mere 
shape  of  the  eye  or  certain  parts  of  it. 
The  bending  of  rays  of  light  is  called 
refraction,  and  so  we  usually  speak  of 
"errors  of  refraction"  to  describe 
those  cases  where  an  eye  is  near- 
sighted or  far-sighted,  or  has  some 
defect  of  that  kind. 

This  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
health  of  the  eye  or  of  any  other 
part  of  the  body,  except  that,  as  we 
shall  see,  if  something  is  not  done,  the 
rest  of  the  body  may  be  affected. 
We  are  to  look  upon  the  eye  for  the 
moment  as  a  kind  of  optical  instru- 
ment or  machine,  and  simply  to 
realize  that  the  shape  of  this  optical 
instrument  will  affect  the  rays  of 
light  that  pass  through  it,  just  as  in 
the  case  of  any  other  optical  instru- 
ment. 

It  is  very  commonly  found  that  the 
cornea  is  not  quite  regularly  curved; 
it  bulges  more  or  less  in  one  direction, 
say,  from  side  to  side,  than  it  does  in 
another  direction,  say,  from  top  to 
bottom.  This  means  that,  if  we  are 
looking  at  a  cross,  the  one  limb  of  it 
cannot  be  seen  sharply  if  the  other  is. 
As  a  rule,  this  defect  in  the  shape  of 
the  cornea  is  so  slight  that  it  is  not 
worth  bothering  about;  but  often  it  is 
worth  while  to  wear  glasses  which  are 
more  curved  in  one  direction  than  in 
another — more  curved  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  cornea  is  less  curved,  and 
less  curved  where  the  cornea  is  more 
curved — so  that  the  little  defect  is 
corrected.  This  particular  error  of 
refraction  is  not  nearly  so  important 
as  those  we  must  now  study. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


105 


Near-sightedness  is  what  happens 
when  the  eyeball  is  rather  too  long 
from  back  to  front.  This  error  of 
refraction  means  that  the  light  is 
focused  before  it  reaches  the  retina, 
and  when  it  does  reach  the  retina  the 
picture  it  makes  is  rather  blurred. 
Sometimes,  also,  near-sightedness  may 
be  due  to  the  cornea  being  too  much 
curved,  so  that  it  acts  as  too  strong  a 
lens,  and  the  rays  of  light  are  focused 
too  soon. 

Why  it  is  that  some  people  become 
near-sighted 

Near-sightedness  is  a  very  common 
defect,  and  is  very  inconvenient.  We 
can  see  anything  near  quite  well;  the 
things  farther  off  are  blurred.  The 
reason  why  we  see  things  clearly 
when  they  are  quite  near,  and  why  we 
therefore  always  hold  a  book  close  to 
our  eyes,  is  that,  when  a  thing  is  held 
close,  the  image  of  the  object  is 
larger,  and  so  more  easily  seen. 

People  who  start  near-sighted  when 
they  are  quite  young,  or  who  even  are 
far-sighted  at  first — as  most  young 
children  are — often  become  gradually 
more  and  more  near-sighted  until  the 
age  of,  perhaps,  thirty.  Most  of  the 
people  who  study  this  subject  are  very 
sure  what  the  cause  of  this  is,  only, 
unfortunately,  they  do  not  agree  with 
each  other. 

Some  of  them  who  have  not  really 
gone  into  it  properly  think  that  the 
near-sightedness  is  a  sort  of  disease 
of  the  eye,  and  is  due  to  over-use  of 
it,  bad  conditions  during  childhood, 
and  so  forth.  Others  think  that  it  is  a 
natural  change  which  is  bound  to 
happen  in  any  case;  and  still  other 
people  suppose  that  this  increase  in 
near-sightedness  is  due  to  the  con- 
stant use  of  the  eye  at  short  distances. 

The  truth  lies  somewhere  between 
the  last  two  opinions;  each  of  them  is 
probably  true  in  part.  The  eye,  like 
other  parts  of  the  body,  does  undergo 


natural  changes  during  life,  and  as  it 
gradually  becomes  more  far-sighted 
after  a  certain  age,  c^uite  apart  from 
anything  that  is  done  to  it,  there  is  no 
reason  why  it  may  not  become  more 
near-sighted  during  the  earlier  years. 

How    NEAR-SIGHT    IS   CAUSED   BY   USING 
THE  EYE  FOR  SHORT  DISTANCES 

On  the  other  hand,  we  can  prove 
that,  when  the  eye  is  used  for  short 
distances,  certain  muscles  inside  it 
are  used  in  such  a  way  as  to  tend  to 
make  the  eyeball  longer  from  back  to 
front,  and  therefore  more  near-sighted. 

The  reason  for  going  carefully  into 
this  is  that  very  few  people  under- 
stand the  facts,  and  many  doctors 
even  have  not  properly  inquired  into 
them.  Young  people  between  the 
Ages  of  twenty  and  twenty-five  find, 
very  often,  that  year  by  year  they  get 
rather  more  near-sighted;  perhaps 
they  require  to  use  glasses  where 
formerly  they  did  not  need  them,  and 
the  glasses  have  to  be  made  stronger 
or  parents  find  their  children  require 
glasses  for  near-sight. 

People  are  alarmed  if  they  think 
that  all  this  means  a  kind  of  disease  of 
the  eye,  or  if  they  begin  to  ask  them- 
selves where  this  is  going  to  stop. 
That  is  why  everyone  should  under- 
stand that  near-sight  is  not  a  disease 
at  all;  that  the  changes  which  go  on 
are  natural;  that  they  only  go  on  to  a 
certain  point. 

More  than  this,  it  is  certain  that  we 
may  look  upon  near-sightedness  in  our 
time  as  a  kind  of  adaptation  to  our 
needs — that  is  to  say,  in  the  case  of 
the  great  majority  of  people  who  have 
to  use  their  eyes  at  short  distances. 
For  such  distances  the  near-sighted  eye 
is  just  the  best  that  one  can  have;  it 
lasts  splendidly,  and  does  not  tire. 

Near-sighted  people  may  become  far- 
sighted  AS  they  grow  old 

After  a  certain  age,  perhaps  about 
forty-five,    or    later,    the    eyes,    after 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


having  remained  just  as  they  were  for 
many  years,  begin  slowly  to  become 
far-sighted,  or  less  near-sighted,  as 
the  case  may  be.  But  before  we  look 
at  this  we  must  return  to  the  case  of 
the  child. 

Practically  all  very  young  children 
are  far-sighted.  A  certain  number  of 
them  remain  far-sighted  as  the  years 
go  on,  and  are  still  far-sighted  when 
they  begin  to  learn  to  read  and  write. 
There  is  no  more  disease  or  ill-health 
here  than  there  is  in  the  other  case, 
but  simply  the  eyeball  is  too  short 
from  back  to  front,  the  cornea  is  too 
flat,  and  so  the  rays  of  light  are  not 
focused  sharply  j"n  time,  and  reach  the 
retina  sooner  than  they  should.  The 
retina  is  too  near  the  lens. 

Now,  in  days  that  are  gone  this 
was  no  serious  matter,  because  people 
lived  far  more  natural  lives  than  they 
do  now.  They  lired  much  more  in 
the  open  air.  Instead  of  constantly 
reading  books  at  a  few  inches  distance, 
they  had  to  read  the  book  of  the  dis- 
tant clouds  and  mountains;  they  had 
to  see  animals  or  enemies  at  great 
distances,  and  the  use  of  their  eyes  for 
short  distances  was  only  occasional. 

The  different  uses  tor  which  nature 
has  fitted  different  eyes 

When  the  eye  is  tc  be  used  at  long 
distances,  evidently  the  far-sighted  eye 
has  little  of  which  to  «*omplain. 

But  the  far-sighted  eye  is  too  short 
from  back  to  front.  The  rays  of 
light  are  not  focused  ia  time.  Now, 
if  such  an  eye  is  to  be  used  at  short 
distances,  it  will  be  very  much 
strained,  because  the  muscles  inside 
the  eye  will  constantly  be  trying  to 
change  the  shape  of  the  /ens  in  order 
to  make  the  eye  focus  better;  in  fact, 
the  far-sighted  eye  requires  to  use 
the  muscles  inside  it  in  all  circum- 
stances. This  means  that  it  is  liable 
to  get  tired,  and  every  far-sighted 
person  knows  what  it  is  to  get  head- 


ache and  eye-strain  from  the  use  ot 
the  eyes  under  conditions  which  would 
not  be  at  all  inconvenient  or  dis- 
turbing to  a  near-sighted  person. 

The  FOOLISHNESS  OF  MAKING  CHILDREN 
USE  THEIR  EYES  IN  A  WRONG  WAY 

In  our  ignorance  and  carelessness 
regarding  children,  we  at  present 
inflict  very  grave  cruelty,  and  perhaps 
often  injury  that  is  never  recovered 
from,  upon  large  numbers  of  children 
everywhere  by  compelling  them  to 
use  far-sighted  eyes  for  purposes  to 
which  they  are  not  suited. 

All  over  the  country,  children  are 
straining  their  eyes  at  reading  and 
writing,  gaining  no  good,  but  only 
harm,  from  what  we  do  for  them,  and 
all  they  need  is  a  pair  of  spectacles 
with  rounded  convex  lenses  that  will 
help  to  focus  the  rays  of  light  quickly, 
so  that  they  are  brought  sharply 
together  by  the  time  they  reach  the 
retina  at  the  back  of  these  short 
eyes.  It  is  the  short  eye,  we  must 
notice,  that  is  far-sighted,  and  it  is 
the  long  eye  that  is  near-sighted. 

It  is  just  beginning  to  be  discovered 
how  important  this  subject  is,  and, 
now  that  it  is  slowly  occurring  to  us 
that  before  we  start  educating  a  child 
we  must  make  it  fit  to  be  schooled, 
we  may  hope  that,  within  a  few  years 
from  now,  no  far-sighted  child  will  be 
allowed  to  be  injured  for  the  lack  of 
spectacles.  The  relief  obtained  when 
proper  glasses  are  employed  is  quite 
astonishing. 

As  we  shall  readily  understand,  it  is 
concave  lenses  that  are  used  in  spec- 
tacles for  the  near-sighted  eye,  and 
convex  lenses  that  are  used  in  spec- 
tacles for  the  far-sighted  eye.  We 
may  think  this  out  for  ourselves. 

As  people  become  elderly,  the  eye 
becomes  more  far-sighted;  this  change 
oftenest  occurs  at  some  time  after 
forty-five.  If  the  person  was  near- 
sighted,   he    now    becomes    less    so. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  107 

Indeed,  if  we  take  the  whole  course  of  regular  way  in  parents  and  children, 

life,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  under  Cataract    is    the    name    applied    to 

ordinary  modern  conditions,  the  near-  opaqueness   of   the   lens.     Its   conse- 

sighted  person  is  much  better  off  than  quence  is  blindness.     The  time  was, 

the    far-sighted    person,    although    at  and  that  quite  recently,  when  there 

first  it  may  not  appear  to  be  the  case,  was  no  remedy  for  this  terrible  afBiction. 

The  LENS  OF  THE  EYE  THAT  CEASES  TO  BE  We  kuow  that  many  of  the  very 

ELASTIC  AND  CAUSES  FAR  SIGHT  great  men  of  the  past  became  blind  in 

The  far-sighteHress  of  elderly  people  their  old  age,  and  in  many  cases  it  was 

is  due  to  changes  that  occur  mainly  in  cataract  that  was  the  cause.     Nowa- 

the  lens  of  the  eye.     The  all-important  days  science  triumphs  over  this  ca- 

elasticity  of  the  lens  becomes  impaired,  lamity.     Thanks  to  those  who  have 

and  it  does  not  bulge,  when  the  pres-  studied  the  structure  of  the  eye,  and 

sure  of  its  coat  is  removed,  as  readily  thanks   to   Pasteur   and   Lister,   who 

as  it  used  to  do;  indeed,  it  becomes  have  taught  us  how  to  keep  microbes 

decidedly  flatter.     In  extreme  old  age  away  from  wounds,  so  that  they  shall 

the  lens  loses  its  elasticity  to  such  an  heal   easily   and   painlessly   and   cer- 

extent  that  its  shape  cannot  be  changed  tainly,   it  is  now  possible  simply  to 

at  all.  make  a  little  cut  in  the  eye,  then  a 

The  commonest  sign  that  the  eyes  little  cut  in  the  coat  of  the  lens,  and 

are  beginning  to  show  this  change  is  then,  by  a  little  squeeze,  to  push  the 

that  the  person  finds  it  more  difficult  lens  out  through  the  cut  which  was 

to  read  in  a  dim  light.     It  is   very  made — and  there  it  lies  in  the  sur- 

much  better  to  be  sensible  about  this  geon's   hand,    looking   almost   like   a 

and  wear  glasses  than  to  try  to  fight  little  lens  of  ground  glass, 

against  it.     This  does  no  good,  and,  This  would  probably  have  to  be  done 

on  the  other  hand,  it  may  do  just  the  to  both  eyes,  though  it  makes  all  the 

same  kind  of  harm  as  is  done  to  the  difference  in  the  world  if  it  were  done 

far-sighted  child  that  is  "educated,"  to    only    one    eye    when    both    were 

as  we  call  it,  without  having  glasses  affected.     It  is  easily  done,  without 

provided  for  him.     The  same  is  true  pain.     The   obstacle   to   the   light   is 

in  this  case,   as  has  been  seen,  that  now   gone,    and   the   light   can   pour 

people  suppose  the  need  for  glasses  to  through  to  the  retina ;  but  the  rays  are 

be  a  sign  of  weakness  or  disease,  and  not    focused,    and    things    cannot    be 

think  they  ought  to  fight  against  it.  properly  seen. 

Now,   it  is   good  to  fight  against  How  science  is  able  to  give  sight  to 

weaknesses,    and   there   is   not   much  the  blind 

hope  for  people  who  do  not;  but  the  The  remedy  is  to  supply  the  person 

weakness   is    in   being   too   proud  to  with   spectacles,   with   strong  convex 

wear  glasses  or  too  careless.  lenses  that  take  the  place  of  the  lenses 

Why  many  great  men  of  the  past  he  has  lost.     Few  operations,  so  simple 

became  blind  and   so   easy   and   so   certain,    do   so 

In  old  age,  or  sometimes  before  it,  much  for  old  people,  and  it  would  be 

the    lens    of    the    eye    may    become  worth  while  to  study  the  eye,  if  only  to 

opaque.     Much  the  commonest  form  learn  how  it  is  possible,  by  the  applica- 

of  this  misfortune  is  found  in  old  age,  tion  of  our  knowledge,  to  give  sight  to 

but  there  is  also  a  very  definite  form  the  blind  in  this  way,  as  is  done  all 

which  may  occur  in  quite  young  people,  over  the  civilized  world  many  times 

and  which  is  known  to  appear  in  a  daily. 


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In  the  first  pictiin  wr  sec  a  section  of  the  eyeball  between  the  blind  spot  and  the  optic  nerve.  The  middle  picture 
Shows  the  interior  ol  the  eyeball  with  the  nerve  fibers  radiating  from  the  blind  spot.  In  the  right  hand  picture  a  por- 
tion ol  the  retina  is  highly  magnified  showing  the  various  layers  and  the  rods  and  cones. 


SEEING    COLORS 


IN  some  ways,  the  most  wonderful 
of  all  the  feats  that  the  eye  per- 
forms is  the  seeing  of  colors,  and 
this  subject  of  color  vision,  as  it  is 
usually  called,  is  also  very  important 
from  the  practical  point  of  view,  be- 
cause in  many  cases  we  require  to 
distinguish  one  color  from  another; 
and  sometimes  the  lives  of  many 
people  may  depend  upon  the  cer- 
tainty with  which  this  is  done. 

We  know  that  light  is  a  wave 
motion  in  the  ether.  A  better  way  of 
putting  it  would  be  that  there  are 
wave  motions  in  the  ether  which, 
when  they  fall  upon  an  eye,  give  rise 
to  light.  Apart  from  eyes  to  see,  all 
Nature  is  in  darkness.  Neither  the 
eye  nor  the  ether  alone  can  make 
light,  but  both  are  required.  We  can 
count  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the 
ether  that  affect  the  eye  in  a  single 
second. 

The  smallest  number  per  second 
that  we  can  see  is  roughly  about  four 
hundred  billions.  When  we  see  these 
we  get  an  impression  of  red.  The 
highest  number  we  can  see  is  roughly 
about  eight  hundred  billions,  and 
when  such  vibrations  affect  our  eyes 
we  see  a  sort  of  violet. 

Now  in  music  a  note  that  is  an 
octave  higher  than  another  has  ex- 


actly twice  the  number  of  vibrations 
in  a  second;  and  so  we  may  say  that 
the  amount  of  light  that  our  eyes  can 
see  corresponds  to  one  octave,  the 
number  of  vibrations  of  the  violet 
being  about  twice  the  number  of  the 
red.  We  must  clearly  remind  our- 
selves once  more  that  just  as  there  are 
sounds  higher  and  lower  in  pitch  than 
the  eleven  octaves  or  so  which  we  can 
hear,  so  there  are  ether  vibrations 
higher  and  lower  in  pitch  than  the  one 
octave  or  so  that  we  can  see. 

We  know  that  our  distinguishing  of 
colors  depends  upon  the  cones  in  the 
retina.  We  are  bound  to  suppose 
that  in  those  kinds  of  eyes  where 
there  are  only  rods,  colors  cannot  be 
distinguished  as  they  are  seen  by  us; 
and  we  begin  to  understand  the 
immense  advantage  of  having  a  place 
in  our  eyes  which  is  the  most  sensitive 
of  all,  and  contains  only  cones. 

From  all  this  it  follows  that  we  do 
not  see  the  colors  of  objects  whose 
light  falls  upon  the  outermost  parts 
of  the  retina,  where  there  are  no  cones, 
or  practically  none.  Also  our  eyes 
vary  in  sensitiveness  at  different  parts 
of  the  color  scale.  At  the  actual 
extremes,  such  as  red  and  blue,  we  do 
not  notice  slight  differences  in  color 
so  sharply  as  we  do  in  between  the 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  109 

extremes,  as  in  the  yellow  and  green,  of  comparatively  few  colors  to  which 

Colors  vary  in  several  ways.     For  we    give    definite    names.     Of    these 

instance,  they  vary  in  brightness,  as  we  various   colors,   which   are  commonly 

all  know.     The  brightness  of  a  color  described  as  seven,  some  give  us  the 

depends   simply   upon   the  extent   to  impression  of  being  mixed,  and  others 

which  it  excites  the  brain.     We  cannot  of   being    pure.     For   instance,    what 

say  why  one  color,  because  it  is  that  we  call  orange  is  mixed;  what  we  are 

color,    should   affect   the   brain   more  really   seeing  is  a  red  and  a  yellow 

than  another;  but  it  is  so.  together.     Then,  again,  Prussian  blue 

Secondly,  we  find  that  colors  vary  is  not  a  pure  blue,  but  a  mixture  of 

in  their  hue,  or  tint,  and  that  depends  blue  and  green. 

on  the  number  of  vibrations  in  each  the  three  pure  colors  that  are  not 

second  of  the  ether  waves  which  cause  made  up  of  other  colors 

the  color.  Now  contrast  with  these  colors  such 

Thirdly,  colors  vary  very  much  in  a  color  as  crimson  red.     Nothing  will 

what    is    called    purity,    or    richness,  persuade  us  that  that  is  a  mixture  of 

The  best  types  of  eyes  are  very  keen  other  colors;  it  is  simply  red  itself, 

to  appreciate  this  quality   in   colors.  There  is  also  a  tone  of  green  which  we 

A  pure  color  is  one  which   depends  cannot  imagine  to  be  made  up  of  any- 

upon  light  of  one  rate  of  vibration,  thing  else,   and  the  same  is  true  of 

The  purity  of  a  color  is   destroyed  ultra-marine    blue.     Probably     these 

when  it  is  mixed  with  other  colors,  are  the  only  three  colors  of  which  this 

or  when  it  is  mixed  with  white  light,  can  be  said.     We  therefore  call  red, 

which  really  comes  to  the  same  thing,  green,  and  blue  primary  colors.     The 

as  white  light  contains  all  the  colors,  meaning  of  this  is  almost  always  mis- 

The   myriads   of   colors   that    we  understood. 

CANNOT  SEE  AT  ALL  When  wc  Call  red,  green,  and  blue 

Now,  quite  apart  from  any  question  primary  colors,  we  are  not  saying  any- 

of  the  eyes,  the  question  of  color  is  thing  about  light;  we  are  talking  about 

simple,  because  it  is  exactly  the  same  the  way  in  which  the  eye  sees.     Light 

as  the  question  of  the  pitch  of  sounds,  consists   of   waves   of   every    rate   of 

Ten  vibrations  a  second  means  one  vibration,  and  any  one  of  these  rates 

sound,  eleven  means  another,  twelve  is  as  good  as  another.     But  the  eye, 

another,  and  so  on.     In  the  same  way,  instead  of  being  able  to  see  each  of 

between  light  made  of  waves  running  these,  has  only  got  within  itself  means 

four  hundred  billions  to  the  second  for  seeing  three  of  them  directly,  and 

and  light  made  up  of  waves  running  these  three  are  red,  green  and  blue, 

eight  hundred  billions  to  the  second  All  the  other  colors  it  sees  by  mixing 

there  is  really  an  infinite  number  of  in    various    proportions    these    three 

colors — hundreds  of  billions  of  colors,  kinds  of  sensation,  and  that  is  why  we 

That  is   all   very   well,   but  when   it  call    red,    green,    and    blue    primary 

comes  to  our  seeing  them  we  find  that  colors.     By  mixing  these  in  various 

the  case  is  different.  ways  we  can  obtain  the  impression 

If  we  take  white  light  and  pass  it  upon  the  eye  of  every  kind  of  color 

through  a  prism,  we  get  a  band  of  that  it  can  see.     By  mixing  red  and 

colors  called  the  spectrum,  and  when  green  rays  in  various  proportions  we 

we  look  at  it  we  quite  clearly  get  the  can  get  the  effect  of  all  the  scarlets, 

impression  not  of  a  regular  even  change  oranges,   yellows,    and   yellow-greens; 

of  color  from  one  end  to  the  other,  but  by  mixing  red  and  blue  rays  we  can 


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get  all  the  various  violets  and  purples ; 
and  by  mixing  the  green  and  blue 
rays  we  can  obtain  all  the  various 
shades  of  blue-green. 

To  the  three  primary  colors  we  have 
to  add  a  fourth — the  gray  color  which 
we  get  from  the  rods  of  the  retina. 

A  POWER  THAT  NO  MAN   UNDERSTANDS, 

BY  WHICH  WE  SEE  DIFFERENT  COLORS 

AND  SHADES  OF  COLOR 

Of  course,  we  now  want  to  know 
what  are  the  things  in  the  eye  which 
correspond  to  these  various  kinds  of 
color  sensation  or  color  vision.  This 
can  be  clearly  answered  as  regards  the 
gray  color,  for  we  know  that  that  is  due 
to  the  rods.  We  know  also  that  the 
cones  are  responsible  for  the  other  three 
kinds  of  color  sensation;  but,  unfor- 
tunately, we  can  go  no  further  than 
this,  except  by  guessing.  For  instance, 
we  do  not  find  that  there  are  three  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  cones,  nor  do  we  find,  as 
some  have  supposed,  that  there  are 
three  different  parts  to  each  cone — one 
for  each  kind  of  color. 

Nor  can  we  show  that  there  are 
three  different  kinds  of  nerves  rimning 
from  the  retina  to  the  brain,  as  Dr. 
Young  supposed  a  century  ago.  It 
may,  indeed,  be  that  we  are  altogether 
mistaken  in  looking  at  the  retina  for 
the  key  to  the  fact  that  we  see  colors 
by  these  three  sensations. 

It  may  be  that  the  key  to  the  facts 
is  to  be  found  not  in  the  retina  at  all, 
but  in  the  gray  matter  of  the  vision 
part  of  the  brain.  The  fact  that  a 
man  may  be  color-blind  in  one  eye  is 
rather  against  this. 

As  a  rule,  color-blindness  occurs  in 
both  eyes,  but  there  are  cases  where  it 
Is  found  in  one  eye  only,  and  that,  of 
course,  suggests  that  it  is  the  eye 
rather  than  the  brain  that  is  respon- 
sible for  color  vision.  Color-blindness 
is  almost  always  a  state  of  things 
which  exists  from  birth,  and  there  is 
no  cure  for  it. 


People  who  cannot  see  color  pic- 
tures 

About  four  men  out  of  a  hundred,  it 
is  said,  have  one  form  or  other  of 
color-blindness,  and  about  one  woman 
in  a  hundred.  This  is  by  no  means 
the  only  case  in  which  peculiarities 
are  found  more  commonly  in  men  than 
in  women.  Color-blindness  is  passed 
on  from  parents  to  children,  and  we 
have  lately  gone  far  to  understand  the 
laws  by  which  it  is  inherited. 

Very  rarely  we  find  people  who  are 
cjuite  color-blind.  The  spectrum  of 
sunlight  to  them  appears  in  shades  of 
gray  throughout,  being  lightest  in  the 
position  of  yellow-green,  and  darkest 
at  each  end.  A  colored  picture  to 
them  looks  like  a  photograph  or  an 
engraving.  If  we  believe  that  our 
three  color  sensations  depend  on  the 
presence  of  three  special  chemical 
substances  in  the  retina,  then  we 
must  suppose  that  in  such  cases  all 
these  three  substances  are  absent. 

Very  rare  also  is  "blue-blindness," 
in  which  the  possibility  of  blue  sensa- 
tion is  absent.  Then  there  is  "green- 
blindness,"  common,  and  very  impor- 
tant, in  which  we  suppose  that  the 
substance  corresponding  to  the  green 
sensation  is  absent;  in  such  cases 
bright  green  is  confused  with  dark 
red,  and  a  dark  green  letter  on  a  black 
background  is  not  seen  at  all.  If  we 
remember  that  everywhere  on  railways 
red  is  used  as  the  color  of  danger, 
while  green  allows  the  train  to  go  on, 
we  shall  understand  how  very  serious 
it  would  be  if  a  railway  signalman 
could  not  distinguish  between  a  bright 
green  color  and  a  dark  red  color. 

Why    railway  signals    are   always 

RED,  green,  AND  WHITE 

Lastly,  there  is  "red-blindness,"  also 
common,  which  is  sometimes  called 
Daltonism,  because  it  was  this  that 
Dalton  sviffered  from.  Here  v.e  sup- 
pose   that    the    chemical    substance 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


111 


affected  by  light  and  corresponding 
to  red  sensation  is  absent  from  the 
retina.  In  these  cases  light  red  is 
confused  with  dark  green,  and  a  dark 
red  letter  on  a  black  background  is 
not  recognized  at  all. 

Now,  as  nearly  all  color-blind  men 
are  either  red-blind  or  green-blind,  it 
was  suggested  that  signal  colors, 
instead  of  being  red,  green,  and  white, 
should  be  changed;  for  instance,  blue 
and  yellow  might  be  employed.  But 
this  does  not  do.  The  only  convenient 
colors  to  use  for  this  purpose  are  red, 
green,  and  white. 

It  is  found  that  a  red  glass  allows 
about  ten  per  cent  of  the  light  behind 
it  to  come  through,  and  a  green  glass 
rather  more,  but  a  blue  glass  allows 
only  about  four  per  cent  of  the  light  to 
come  through ;  and  yellow  does  not  do, 
for  there  are  states  of  the  light  in 
which  yellow  would  not  be  noticed. 

It  is  necessary,  then,  to  test  people 
who  are  to  be  expected  to  recognize 
lights,  and  if  they  are  color-blind  they 
must  find  some  other  employment. 

The  best  way  of  finding  out  if  we 
are  color-blind 

Scores  of  different  methods  have 
been  invented  for  detecting  color- 
blindness. The  best  method,  which 
is  generally  employed,  is  the  use  of 
colored  worsteds,  and  the  person  who 
is  being  tested  is  asked  to  match 
them.  If  a  green-blind  man  is  handed 
a  skein  of  pale  green  worsted,  and  if  he 
draws  from  the  heap  some  worsteds 
which  contain  no  green  at  all,  then  he 
must  not  be  passed;  or  if  a  man  takes 
a  dark  green  as  a  match  to  a  dark  red 
skein,  he  proves  himself  to  be  red- 
blind,  and  must  therefore  be  rejected. 

How  WE  CAN  REST  OUR  EYES  BY  LOOKING 
AT  THINGS  A  LONG   WAY  OFF 

Enough  has  already  been  said  about 
spectacles  and  their  importance  in 
correcting  the  errors  of  refraction. 
Here  we  must  note  a  few  points  which 


will  help  to  preserve  our  eyes,  quite 
apart  from  the  use  of  spectacles. 

When  the  muscles  inside  the  normal 
eye  are  at  rest,  the  shape  of  the  lens 
and  other  parts  is  such  that  the  eye  is 
fitted  to  see  distant  objects.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  first  and  most 
natural  uses  of  the  eye  are  for  distant 
and  not  for  near  vision.  The  course 
of  our  lives  is  now  such  that  we  use  our 
eyes  very  much  at  short  distances, 
and  this  means  the  use  of  the  muscles 
inside  them.  That  is  especially  true 
of  far-sighted  persons,  who  should,  of 
course,  not  use  their  eyes  at  short 
distances  without  glasses.  But,  apart 
from  that,  it  is  a  good  rule  for  all  of  us 
to  relax  our  eyes,  when  we  can,  by 
letting  them  rest  upon  something 
which  is  distant,  and  so  giving  the 
muscles  inside  them  a  rest,  and  lessen- 
ing the  risk  of  strain. 

The  best  light  for  vision  is  daylight 
— not  direct  sunlight,  but  diffused 
daylight  reflected  from  the  sky.  When 
we  use  artificial  light,  which  we  do 
more  and  more,  it  is  a  safe  rule  that 
the  nearer  it  resembles  diffused  day- 
light, the  better  it  will  be.  When  we 
call  daylight  diffused,  what  we  mean 
is  that  it  comes  from  a  large  surface — 
the  general  surface  of  the  sky.  What 
we  call  a  soft  light  is  always  one  that 
is  diffused  in  this  way. 

The  best  way  to  light  our  houses 
and  to  paper  our  rooms 

In  modern  buildings  the  lights 
themselves  should  be  entirely  hidden, 
and  we  should  see  by  light  reflected 
from  wall  or  ceiling.  Of  course,  this 
is  expensive,  because  more  light  is 
required;  but,  though  it  costs  more 
money,  it  saves  our  eyes  very  much. 

Another  great  fact  about  diffused 
daylight  is  that  it  is  steady,  and  so 
should  artificial  light  be.  In  this 
respect  gas  is  a  great  improvement 
upon  candles,  and  electric  light  is  the 
best  of  all. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


It  has  lately  been  shown  by  some 
French  students  that  the  different 
qualities  of  light  affect  our  eyes  in 
different  ways,  quite  apart  from  their 
brightness.  The  safe  rule  is  that  we 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  make  our 
artificial  light  of  the  same  compo- 
sition as  sunlight. 

In  our  houses,  if  we  are  wise,  we 
shall  have  spaces  upon  which  the  eyes 
can  rest.  This  means  that  we  shall 
think  twice  before  we  use  wallpapers 
with  marked  patterns;  this  is  true 
especially  of  bedrooms,  because,  sooner 
or  later,  someone  is  likely  to  lie  ill  in 
a  bedroom,  and,  whatever  healthy 
people  can  stand,  wallpapers  with 
patterns  are  a  distress  and  a  night- 
mare to  sick  people. 

The  safe  rule  for  reading  by  day 
and  night 

Great  stretches  of  Nature  are  green. 
There  is  probably  no  color  which 
fatigues  the  eye  less  in  proportion  to 
its  brightness  than  the  green  of  fresh 
young  leaves.  This  is  good  for  bed- 
rooms and  living  rooms  alike.  Dead 
white  is  fatiguing  to  the  eyes,  and  best 
avoided.  It  is  excessively  foolish  to 
read  with  the  eyes  facing  a  source  of 
light,  especially  as  the  light  is  any- 
thing but  diffused.  We  should  read 
with  the  light  behind  us,  passing  over 
one  shoulder  or  the  other — the  left 
shoulder,  of  course,  when  we  are 
writing. 

So  far  as  children  are  concerned,  we 
must  remember  that  the  great  majority 
of  them  are  far-sighted  when  they  are 
very  young,  and  that  therefore  the 
strain  of  using  their  eyes  at  short  dis- 
tances is  even  greater  for  them  than 
for  us.  The  fact  that  the  child  is  far- 
sighted  ought  to  be  hint  enough  to  us 
that  the  best  employment  fcr  its  eyes 
at  early  ages  is  not  at  short  distances. 
Few  and  short  stretches  of  reading 
and  writing  are  all  that  we  ought  to 
require  of  these  young  eyes.     On  the 


whole,  the  best  work  for  a  small  child 
is  its  play,  and  its  best  play  is  open-air 
play  with  balls  and  hoops,  and  so  on. 

When  children  are  obliged  to  read, 
we  must  remember  that  they  are 
taking  certain  risks  with  their  eyes. 
We  should  take  great  care  of  the 
lighting  arrangements;  we  must  pro- 
vide glasses  if  the  child  is  too  far- 
sighted;  we  should  be  most  careful  to 
use  large  type  deeply  printed;  and,  in 
any  case,  the  periods  of  reading  should 
be  brief.  It  is  much  better  to  employ 
some  kind  of  print  that  makes  the 
letters  in  very  simple  shapes. 
What  the  eyes  see  when  reading 

When  we  come  to  think  of  the  case 
of  a  printed  page,  we  shall  see  that 
the  letters  which  we  distinguish  are 
the  only  places  where  the  eye  does  not 
not  see.  What  we  see  when  we  read 
is  not  the  black,  but  the  white;  the 
letters  are  not  really  anything  that 
we  see,  but  gaps  in  our  seeing.  As  the 
white  occupies  a  great  deal  more  space 
than  the  black,  it  is  evident  that  our 
eyes  would  be  much  less  fatigued  if 
the  state  of  things  were  reversed,  and 
books  were  printed  in  white  letters  on 
black  paper.  If  that  were  so,  the 
eye  would  be  rested  everywhere  except 
where  there  were  the  letters  which  it 
wishes  to  see. 

But  reading  is  not  the  only  use  for 
the  eyes,  and  there  are  a  great  many 
people  who  think  that,  while  we  spend  so 
much  time  upon  reading,  we  are  forget- 
ting to  keep  our  eyes  open  in  other  ways. 

The  time  may  come  when  the 
education  of  the  eye  in  other  matters 
than  reading  will  always  be  included 
in  the  upbringing  of  any  child.  The 
time  for  this  education,  as  for  every 
kind  of  education,  is  youth,  and  one 
great  difference  between  this  kind  of 
education  of  the  eye  and  the  kind 
that  has  to  do  with  reading  and 
writing  is  that  it  is  much  more  suited 
to  the  young  eye. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


113 
i1 


'rSr^r 


fttrttttt/te 
Srai»  -9. 


Vl/r  Titbefitn.] 


V' 


mty 


;-■;  :r  ■  .'■■  ...'irssSSSsaSi-E, ' 


This  diagram  shows  us  how  the  sound-waves  travel  in  ever  increasing  circles  and  how  the  outer  ear  collects  the  waves 
as  shown  by  the  arrows,  A,  B,  and  C,  directing  them  inwards  so  that  they  will  strike  the  drum. 


THE    MARVEL    OF    HEARING 


WE  know  something  of  the 
brain  and  the  spinal  cord, 
which  together  are  called 
the  central  nervous  system,  in  the 
upper  part  of  which  the  Self  of  man 
resides.  But  when  we  study  the 
history  of  the  central  nervous  system, 
we  find  that  it  has  been  developed 
from  the  surface  of  the  body,  and 
this  fact  in  itself  argues — as  all  the 
other  known  facts  do — that  its  first 
business  is  to  receive  communications 
from  the  outside  world. 

At  the  present  time  these  communi- 
cations take  very  definite  lines,  which 
we  call  the  senses.  It  is  by  the  senses 
that  we  gain  all  our  knowledge  of 
outside  things,  and  it  is  upon  the 
delicacy  of  the  senses  that,  in  the  first 
place,  the  high  development  of  the 
human  being  depends. 

We  have  reason  to  believe  that  th?s 
delicacy  is,  in  the  main,  a  matter  of 
the  brain  itself,  rather  than  of  the 
channels  from  the  world  to  the  brain. 
But,  in  any  case,  it  must  be  distinctly 
understood  that  this  quality  of  sensi- 
tiveness is  so  invaluable  that  all  the 
higher  qualities  of  mankind  are  built 


upon  it.  It  is,  no  doubt,  possible  to  be 
unduly  sensitive — sensitive  to  a  degree 
that  upsets  the  balance  of  the  mind; 
but,  then,  nearly  every  good  thing  can 
be  exaggerated. 

One  of  the  most  horrible  conse- 
quences of  what  we  at  present  call 
education,  and  of  the  dull  routine 
through  which  so  many  of  us  are  put, 
is  that  the  beautiful  delicacy  of  sense 
that  enables  children  to  respond  to 
what  is  new,  and  to  notice  the  small 
differences  between  things,  becomes 
spoiled;  the  edge  is  blunted,  so  that 
many  grown-up  people  go  through  the 
world  having  lost  the  sense  of  appre- 
ciating everything  which  made  it  such 
a  beautiful,  wonderful,  and  interest- 
ing place  when  they  were  children. 
Some  day,  when  we  learn  more  about 
ourselves,  we  shall  find  better  ways 
than  those  at  present  adopted  in 
educating  and  dealing  with  children, 
and  then  we  shall  get  better  results. 

And  now  let  us  go  on  to  study,  one 
by  one,  our  senses,  or  highways  of 
knowledge.  It  probably  does  not 
matter  very  much  which  sense  we 
begin  with,  for  the  great  principles  are 


lllf 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  same  in  every  case;  only  we  may 
begin  by  noting  the  names  of  the 
various  senses,  and  especially  by  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  senses  which 
communicate  with  the  outer  world 
and  certain  other  senses  which  do  not. 

The  senses  by  which  we  know  the 
outer  world 

The  senses  which  communicate  with 
the  outer  world  are — seeing,  hearing, 
taste,  smell,  and  touch.  But  nowadays 
we  have  learned  that  it  is  not  sufficient 
merely  to  say  touch,  for  there  are 
several  senses  in  the  skin  besides  mere 
touch.  We  must  at  least  add  the 
heat  sense,  the  cold  sense,  and  the 
pain  sense  to  the  sense  of  touch. 

In  addition  to  these  senses  which 
communicate  directly  with  the  outer 
world,  there  are  other  senses  by  which 
the  brain  is  informed  about  the  body. 
Of  course,  in  a  way,  we  may  say  that, 
so  far  as  the  brain  itself  is  concerned, 
the  body  is  part  of  its  outer  world. 
These  senses  come  from  the  organs 
inside  the  body,  from  the  muscles  and 
joints,  and  from  certain  wonderful 
little  canals  in  the  inner  ear,  which 
we  shall  study  later. 
Hearing 

Now  we  can  take  the  senses  one  by 
one,  and  we  shall  begin  with  hearing. 
We  know  that  there  is  a  special  part 
of  the  brain  concerned  with  hearing. 
If  we  were  to  use  the  word  ear  for  the 
part  of  the  body  that  really  hears,  we 
should  certainly  have  to  say  that  the 
real  ear  is  in  this  part  of  the  brain. 

The  real  ear   in   our   brain  that 
cannot  hear  at  all 

But  we  are  quite  certain  that  sound 
cannot  be  heard  directly  by  this  real 
ear  in  our  brain.  The  part  of  the 
brain  where  we  feel  touch  feels  nothing 
if  it  is  itself  touched,  and  this  is  true 
of  the  senses  generally.  The  brain 
only  responds  if  the  communication 
is  made  to  it  through  the  proper 
channel.     So  what  we  now  have  to 


study  is  the  channel  that  leads  from 
the  outside  to  the  hearing  center  in 
the  brain.  Perhaps  the  best  use  of 
the  word  ear  would  be  to  describe  the 
whole  structure,  from  the  surface  of 
the  body  to  the  tiny  nerve  cells  where 
the  hearing  is  actually  done. 

If  we  begin  at  the  surface  of  the 
body,  we  find  in  ourselves  and  in 
most  of  the  higher  animals  a  pair  of 
organs  projecting  from  the  head, 
which  are  the  only  parts  of  the  organs 
of  hearing  that  we  can  see,  and  which 
we  therefore  call  the  ears,  though  they 
are  by  far  the  least  important  part  of 
the  whole  organ  of  hearing,  especially 
in  ourselves.  We  have  all  observed 
a  dog  prick  up  its  ears,  and  so  we  learn 
that  the  real  use  of  the  ear — or,  as  we 
should  properly  say,  the  outer  ear — 
is  to  catch  waves  of  sound. 

It  is  the  general  rule  that  the  outer 
ear  is  provided  with  small  muscles  by 
which  it  can  be  moved  in  various 
directions.  This  serves  two  purposes. 
First,  it  enables  the  animal  to  make 
the  most  of  the  sound  that  comes  to 
it,  for  the  sound-waves  are,  to  a 
certain  extent,  gathered  up  by  the 
outer  ear,  and  so  are  made  rather 
more  intense. 
Why  animals  prick   up  their  ears 

AT    ANY    sound 

But  the  second  great  advantage  of 
being  able  to  move  the  outer  ear  is 
that  it  greatly  helps  to  decide  where  a 
sound  comes  from.  This  is  of  great 
importance  to  such  an  animal  as  the 
antelope,  which  hears  a  sound  and 
fears  that  it  may  mean  the  approach 
of  some  danger.  We  all  have  oppor- 
tunities of  observing  how  animals 
prick  up  their  ears,  and  we  can 
imagine  them  saying  to  themselves: 
"Where  does  that  sound  come  from?" 

It  is  very  interesting  to  find  in  our- 
selves three  little  muscles  attached  to 
the  outer  ear,  by  which  it  ought  to  be 
pulled   in   various   directions.     These 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


115 


muscles  exactly  correspond  with  those 
that  we  find  in  the  lower  animals,  but 
in  ourselves  they  have  quite  fallen 
out  of  use.  Though  they  are  small, 
they  are  still  quite  capable  of  moving 
the  ear;  but  we  do  not  use  them.  A 
few  people  have  the  power  of  moving 
one  or  both  outer  ears  at  will,  but  there 
is  no  record  of  any  human  being  who 
ever  moved  his  outer  ears  when  he 
was  straining  to  hear  a  sound,  or 
when  he  was  trying  to  judge  the 
direction  of  a  sound. 

We  are  able  still  to  judge  the 
direction  of  a  sound,  but  we  cannot 
do  so  as  well  as  do  the  lower  animals, 
and  the  reason,  no  doubt,  is  that  our 
outer  ears  no  longer  help  us.  Still, 
we  are  able  in  some  degree  to  compare 
the  intensity  of  a  sound  in  the  two 
ears,  and  so  we  judge  more  or  less 
where  it  comes  from.  If  the  sound  is 
made  at  a  point  equally  distant  from 
both  ears,  we  are  c^uite  at  a  loss.  A 
simple  and  amusing  experiment  or 
game  will  prove  this. 
An  amusing  came  that  teaches  us  a 

LESSON   IN  science 

If  someone  is  blindfolded,  we  can 
seat  him  in  a  chair  and  then  make 
little  noises,  and  ask  him  to  judge 
where  they  come  from.  As  long  as 
they  are  on  one  side  he  will  judge  all 
right;  but  if  we  make  the  noises  at  the 
back  of  his  neck,  in  the  middle  line 
of  his  body,  or  under  his  chin,  he  can- 
not tell  the  one  from  the  other. 

If  we  try  this  experiment  on  one  of 
those  people  who  can  move  their  ears, 
we  shall  find  that  he  does  not  use  his 
power  for  this  purpose.  But  one  of 
the  lower  animals  could  not  possibly 
be  deceived  in  such  a  case.  By  prick- 
ing its  ears  forwards  and  back,  it 
would  in  a  moment  discover  in  which 
direction  it  heard  the  sound  best.  It 
would  have  no  more  difficulty  in  this 
case  than  when  the  sound  was  on  one 
side.     When   the   sound   comes   from 


the  side,  the  animal  judges,  as  we  do, 
mainly  by  comparing  the  intensity  of 
sound  in  the  two  ears. 

The  centers  of  hearing  in  the  brain 
that  compare  notes 

This  seems  very  simple,  and  we 
none  of  us  have  any  difficulty  in 
doing  it;  but  it  is  wonderful,  all  the 
same,  that  the  two  hearing  centers 
should  be  able  to  compare  notes,  so 
to  speak,  and  w^hen  the  left  hearing 
center  hears  loudest  we  should  turn 
to  the  right,  and  when  the  right  hear- 
ing center  hears  loudest  we  should 
turn  to  the  left.  This  is  so  because 
most  of  the  nerve-fibers  cross  the 
middle  line  of  the  body  on  their  way 
to  the  brain. 

The  outer  ear  is  not  entirely  useless 
even  in  ourselves,  for  if  it  is  all  filled 
up  except  just  at  the  opening  of  the 
canal  that  runs  inwards,  we  hear  less 
clearly.  This  experiment  can  easily 
be  made.  It  shows  us  that  to  some 
small  extent  the  outer  ear  is  still 
useful  as  a  sort  of  ear-trumpet, 
though  vastly  inferior  to  that  of  most 
of  the  lower  animals. 

From  the  outer  ear  there  leads  a 
little  channel,  along  which  the  sound- 
waves pass.  When  we  cleanse  our 
ears,  we  cannot  and  do  not  wash  this 
channel.  It  would  be  a  very  serious 
matter  if  we  had  to  do  so,  for  there 
would  be  grave  risk  of  doing  harm  at 
its  inner  end.  Yet,  as  a  rule,  this 
channel  is  kept  perfectly  clear  and 
open,  even  though  it  is  never  washed. 
It  is  lined  by  tiny  glands  which  pro- 
duce a  sort  of  wax,  and  as  this  wax 
passes  outwards  it  carries  impurities 
away  with  it.  We  think  of  this  wax 
as  a  rather  unpleasant  thing;  but  in 
reality  it  is  a  beautiful  means  of 
cleanliness  and  protection.  At  its 
inner  end  this  canal  is  closed  entirely 
by  a  thin,  delicate  membrane,  which  is 
exactly  like  a  drum-head,  and  it  is  called 
the  drum  membrane  or  tympanum. 


116 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  great  importance  of  the  drum 
membrane 

This  membrane  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant for  the  purposes  of  hearing, 
and  it  is  a  delicate  thing.  If  it  is 
injured,  it  is,  as  a  rule,  injured  per- 
manently, and  the  hearing  is  affected. 
It  may  be  injured  either  from  within 
or  from  without.  Sometimes  little 
children  push  beads  or  peas  into  their 
ears,  and  they  may  do  much  harm  in 
that  way.  A  child  might  have  reason 
to  regret  for  its  whole  life  such  a 
foolish  action.  When  anything  like 
a  bead  has  been  put  into  the  ear,  we 
should  call  in  the  doctor  at  once  and 
not  attempt  to  get  it  out  ourselves. 

This  precious  drum  membrane  of 
the  ear  is  also  liable  to  be  injured  from 
within;  and  earache  in  children,  or 
indeed  in  anyone,  should  not  be 
neglected,  because  it  means,  as  a  rule, 
more  or  less  of  a  threat  against  the 
health  of  the  ear-drum.  We  shall 
understand  this  better  when  we  see 
what  is  on  the  inner  side  of  the  mem- 
brane. 

If  we  could  see  beyond  the  mem- 
brane we  should  find  that  it  made  one 
of  the  walls  of  a  little  space,  or  cham- 
ber, hollowed  out  inside  one  of  the 
bones  of  the  head.  This  space  is 
known  as  the  middle  ear  or  tympanum. 
The  bone  in  which  it,  and  also  the 
inner  ear,  lies  is  called  the  petrous 
bone,  from  the  Greek  word  for  a  rock, 
because  it  is  the  hardest  bone  in  the 
whole  body.  This  is  interesting  be- 
cause a  hard  bone  must  undoubtedly 
conduct  waves  of  sound  very  much 
better  than  a  softer  one. 

The  little  tube  that  runs  from  the 
throat  to  the  ear 

This  middle  ear  is  filled  with  air, 
and  naturally  we  must  ask  where  the 
air  comes  from;  the  answer  is  that  it 
comes  from  the  throat.  There  runs 
from  the  back  of  the  throat  on  each 
side  a  little  tube  which  goes  to  the 


middle  ear  and  conveys  air  to  it.  If 
we  shut  the  mouth  and  hold  the  nose, 
and  then  make  a  sharp  movement  as 
if  we  were  sneezing,  we  can  feel  some- 
thing happening  in  our  ears.  This  is 
because  when  we  made  that  move- 
ment we  opened  the  little  tubes,  and 
drove  some  air  along  them  into  the 
middle  ears.  It  is  a  very  important 
thing  for  the  safety  and  health  of  the 
ear,  and  also  for  the  immediate  pur- 
poses of  hearing,  that  the  air  pressure 
on  both  sides  of  the  drum  of  the  ear 
should  be  the  same. 

If  the  air  pressure  were  greater  on 
the  outside  than  the  inside  of  it,  the 
drum  membrane  would  be  driven 
inwards  and  strained.  If  any  dis- 
turbance in  the  throat  or  nose  closes 
up  these  canals,  so  that  air  cannot  get 
along  them,  this  is  liable  to  happen. 

Why  a  cold  in  the  head  causes  deaf- 
ness 

Everyone  knows  that  a  cold  in  the 
head  often  causes  deafness.  The  rea- 
son is  that  the  cold,  as  we  call  it, 
spreads  along  the  tubes  that  run  to 
the  ear.  The  lining  of  them  becomes 
swelled  up,  and  so  they  are  closed, 
and  cannot  do  their  duty  of  keeping 
the  air  pressure  of  the  middle  ear  the 
same  as  the  air  pressure  outside. 
Hence  the  drum  head  of  the  ear  is 
strained  and  cannot  vibrate  as  it 
should  do  to  soundwaves,  and  so  we 
are  deaf  for  the  time.  In  more 
serious  troubles  of  the  nose  and 
throat,  such  as  may  happen  in  scarlet 
fever,  the  middle  ear  may  be  invaded 
by  the  disease,  and  the  drum  head 
may  be  broken  through,  and  deafness 
for  life  may  result.  It  is  probably 
quite  fair  to  say  that  proper  care  and 
treatment  from  the  first  could  prevent 
this  very  unfortunate  result  in  every 
case. 

But  the  most  remarkable  thing  that 
we  find  in  the  middle  ear  is  a  little 
chain  of  three  tiny  bones,  much  the 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


117 


smallest  bones  in  the  body,  which  are 
there  for  a  very  special  purpose. 
They  are  called  by  Latin  names, 
which  mean  the  hammer,  the  anvil, 
and  the  stirrup,  and  the  stirrup 
especially  is  exactly  like  its  name. 
The  handle  of  the  hammer  lies  against 
the  drum  membrane;  the  hammer  is 
jointed  to  the  anvil,  and  the  anvil  to 
the  stirrup.  The  foot  of  the  stirrup 
rests  against  a  membrane  which  sep- 
arates the  middle  ear  from  the  inner 
ear,  which  is  the  most  wonderful  place 
of  all. 

How  THE  HAMMER,  ANVIL,  AND  STIRRUP 
CARRY  SOUNDS  TO  THE  INNER  EAR 

The  business  of  this  chain  of  bones 
is  to  carry  sound-waves  across  the 
middle  ear.  That  is  why  it  has  to  be 
filled  with  air,  for  otherwise  they 
could  not  vibrate  freely.  Every  time 
a  sound-wave  causes  the  drum  mem- 
brane to  vibrate,  it  sets  in  motion 
the  hammer  bone  which  is  fastened 
to  it,  and  so  the  vibration  goes  on. 
If  the  joints  between  the  bones 
become  fixed,  the  hearing  is  spoiled  in 
some  degree.  This  may  happen  in  old 
age. 

Lastly,  we  find  two  muscles,  very 
tiny  but  very  useful,  which  pass  into 
the  middle  ear.  They  have  opposite 
uses,  and  we  call  them  into  action — 
though  we  know  nothing  about  it- 
according  to  whether  we  want  to  hear 
a  sound  more  acutely  or  less  acutely. 
One  of  them  is  so  arranged  that  when 
it  pulls  it  tightens  the  drum  mem- 
brane. That  makes  it  vibrate  more 
energetically,  and  so  we  hear  better. 
Whenever  we  strain  to  hear,  we  throw 
this  little  muscle  into  action.  It  is 
called  by  doctors  the  tensor  tympani, 
which  simply  means  the  stretcher  of 
the  drum. 

The  other  muscle  has  just  the 
opposite  effect.  It  is  attached  to  the 
stirrup  bone  in  such  a  way  that  when 
it  pulls   the  bone   cannot   vibrate  as 


well  as  usual.  So  when  this  muscle 
is  in  action  it  interferes  with  the 
conduction  of  sound  to  the  inner  ear, 
and  when  a  noise  is  unpleasantly  loud 
we  throw  this  muscle  into  action.  It 
is  noticed  that  in  certain  cases  when 
there  is  anything  the  matter  with  the 
nerve  that  supplies  this  muscle,  loud 
sounds  become  unusually  painful. 

That  is  all  we  need  say  about  the 
middle  ear.  The  more  closely  we 
study  it,  the  more  wonderful  we  find 
it,  and  we  become  almost  inclined  to 
think  that  there  can  be  nothing 
quite  so  exquisite  and  perfect  in  the 
whole  body  until  we  come  to  study 
the  inner  ear,  compared  with  which 
the  middle  ear  is  almost  clumsy.  The 
whole  purpose  of  the  chain  of  bones  in 
the  middle  ear  is  to  carry  the  sound- 
waves from  the  membrane  in  its 
outer  wall  to  a  similar  sort  of  mem- 
brane on  its  inner  wall,  on  the  inside 
of  which  is  the  inner  ear.  The  inner 
ear  is  filled  with  fluid,  and  every 
sound  that  we  hear  reaches  the  nerve 
of  hearing  by  conduction  through 
fluid. 

We  think  of  sound  as  a  wave  in  the 
air,  and  that  is  what  it  usually  is;  yet 
in  its  last  stage,  before  reaching 
our  nerves,  every  sound  we  hear  is 
made  of  waves  in  water.  This  has 
a  special  interest  if  we  trace  the 
history  of  the  ear  and  notice  how  it 
has  slowly  developed  from  its  early 
stages  in  the  fish,  which  hears  sound- 
waves conveyed  by  water. 

The     INNER     EAR     THAT     IS     FAR     MORE 
WONDERFUL  THAN  THE  OUTER  EAR 

The  main  part  of  the  inner  ear  is  a 
tiny  and  very  delicate  bony  structure, 
rather  like  a  snail's  shell.  We  must 
understand  that  all  this  is  filled  with 
fluid.  When  the  foot  of  the  little 
stirrup  bone  is  thrown  into  vibration 
by  a  sound,  it  vibrates  the  membrane 
to  which  it  is  attached,  and  so  there 
is  started  a  series  of  rapid  little  taps  to 


THE    WONDERFUL    MACHINERY    OF    OUR    EARS 


Picture-dia0>*«m   of  the  EAR 


This  diagram  shows  the  Inside  of  our  ear,  from  the  entrance  to  the  end  of  the  nerve  that  passes  to  the  brain.  Tiie 
drum  Is  stretched  across  the  end  of  the  canal,  and  on  the  other  side  is  the  chamber  of  the  middle  ear,  filled  with  air  that 
enters  from  the  throat.  In  this  chamber  are  three  small  bones,  the  hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  stirrup,  the  last  being  fixed 
to  the  drum  of  the  inner  ear,  which  is  shaped  like  the  coUs  of  a  snail's  shell. 


Here  we  see  a  sound  wave  striking  the  drum  of  the  ear.  The  vibration  moves  the  handle  of  the  hammer,  which  pulls 
the  anvil  and  pushes  the  stirrup,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  against  the  drum  of  the  inner  ear.  Tiny  waves  of  the  fluid 
inside  this  inner  ear  pass  through  a  membrane  which  lines  the  shell,  and,  traveling  round  the  coils  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrows,  communicates  its  sensation  to  tlie  nerve,  and  then  returns  by  anotlicr  canal. 


In  this  picture  the  spiral  coil  is  cut  through  from  lop  to 
bottom.  The  little  galleries  are  filled  with  fluid,  and 
contain  very  marvelous  organs.  The  part  in  the  dotted 
square  is  shown  in  the  next  picture  enlarged. 


118 


Over  3000  little  hammers,  jointed  like  those  of  a  piano, 
support  thousands  of  hair-cells  that  rest  on  a  membrane. 
More  than  10.000  strings  are  stretched  across,  like  piano 
wires,  and  these  convey  the  wave  sensation  to  the  nerve. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


119 


the  fluid  which  is  lying  against  the 
inner  side  of  that  membrane,  and  the 
waves  thus  started  run  right  along 
this  spiral  coil. 

Now,  when  we  carefully  examine 
the  inside  of  this  coil  with  the  aid  of  a 
microscope,  we  shall  find  that  we  have 
really  come  to  the  essential  part  of 
the  machinery  by  which  sounds  are 
received.  All  the  rest  that  we  have 
studied  is  merely  for  conducting  the 
sounds.  The  outer  ear,  the  canal 
leading  from  it  to  the  drum,  the  chain 
of  bones,  and  the  spiral  canal  filled 
with  fluid,  are  all  mere  arrangements 
for  getting  the  sound  in  the  best 
possible  way  to  the  ends  of  the  nerve 
of  hearing.  We  may  compare  all 
these  parts  of  the  ear  with  all  the  front 
parts  of  the  eyeball.  These  front 
parts  simply  serve  to  carry  the 
light  to  the  curtain  at  the  back  of  the 
eye,  where  the  nerve  of  vision  begins 
•7r  ends,  whichever  way  we  care  to 
look  at  it.  And  the  same  is  the  case 
•^-ith  the  ear. 

The  fibers  of  the  inner  ear  that 
are  like  piano  wires 

But  we  have  not  vet  actuallv 
reached  the  ends  of  the  nerves  of 
hearing.  The  httle  nerve  fibers  do 
not  hang  freely  in  the  fluid  of  the 
spiral  canal,  for  there  is  something  in 
between.  We  find  that  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  canal,  stretched 
across  it  from  side  to  side,  there  is 
a  sort  of  platform  made  of  delicate 
fibers.  Their  number  runs  into  many 
tens  of  thousands. 

If  the  spiral  were  arranged  flat,  in  a 
straight  line  —  which  it  doubtless 
would  be  but  for  the  fact  that  a 
spiral  takes  up  less  room  in  the  head 
— we  should  see  that  the  fibers  are 
very  like  a  series  of  piano  wires,  or 
like  those  toy  musical  instruments 
made  of  strips  of  metal  that  are  struck 
with  little  hammers.  INIany  people 
suppose  that  there  is  a   meaning  in 


the  resemblance  of  these  fibers  to  a 
musical  instrument. 

There  are  cases  where  people  have 
been  perfectly  deaf  to  one  or  two  notes 
of  the  piano,  but  could  hear  all  the 
notes  above  and  all  the  notes  below, 
and  in  some  of  these  cases  it  has  been 
found  that  the  piano  in  the  inner  ear, 
so  to  speak,  has  been  damaged  in  a 
way  corresponding  with  the  gap  in 
the  person's  hearing. 

The  little  fingers  of  the  ear  that 
receive  the  waves  of  sound 

Now,  upon  the  whole  length  of  this 
series  of  fibers  there  are  perched  a 
number  of  small  but  wonderful  cells, 
each  of  which  has  a  few  little  things 
like  short  hairs  sticking  out  from  it, 
and  these  little  fingers,  or  hairs,  lie  in 
the  fluid  of  the  spiral  canal.  Probably 
it  is  these  tiny,  hair-like  fingers  that 
receive  the  waves  of  the  fluid,  and 
then  something  happens  in  the  cells. 
Lastly,  if  we  examine  carefully  the 
lower  part  of  each  of  these  cells,  we 
find  that  the  nerve  of  hearing,  which 
has  come  to  this  place  from  the  brain, 
has  sent  a  few  tiny  fibers  that  end  at 
the  base  of  these  cells.  The  fibers  do 
not  run  into  the  cells,  but  the  cells 
are  perched  upon  the  ends  of  the 
little  nerve  fibers. 
The  journey  of  a  sound  from  the 

OUTSIDE  world  TO  THE   BRAIN 

Now  we  have  actually  traced  the 
sound  from  the  outer  world  to  the 
ends  of  the  nerve  of  hearing.  We 
have  seen  the  path  of  its  conduction, 
sometimes  along  canals  filled  with  air, 
sometimes  along  little  bones,  then 
along  the  canal  of  fluid,  and  lastly, 
through  their  hairs  into  certain  special 
cells  made  for  the  purpose.  Here  we 
come  to  a  point  which  very  few  people 
understand,  and  as  it  applies  equally 
to  all  the  senses,  we  must  know  it 
thoroughly.  We  might  suppose  that 
the  next  thing  to  happen  would  be 
that  the  sound,  having  got  so  far,  runs 


HOW    A     SOUND     REACHES    THE     BRAIN 


Tliis  picture  shows  the  wonderful  strurture  of  the  ear — the  telephone  receiver  by  which  we  are  able  to  receive  mes- 
sages from  outside  Sound-waves  of  air  strike  the  drum  of  the  ear,  which  vibrates  the  bones  of  the  middle  ear,  and  they 
in  turn  vibrate  the  drum  of  the  inner  ear.  This  sets  in  motion  a  fluid,  and  the  wave  motions  are  conveyed  along  the  spiral 
staircase  to  the  wires,  or  nerves  of  hearing,  and  from  there  to  the  telephone  exchange,  or  brain. 

120 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  121 

along   the   nerves   of  hearing  to  the  we  are  not  so  much  puzzled,  because 

brain.     Nothing  of  the  sort  occurs.  here  is  something  which  seems  to  cor- 

Hitherto  we  have  been  dealing  with  respond  with  the  sense  of  hearing, 

things  that  are  wonderful  and  com-  There   ought   to   be   the   power  of 

plicated  enough — so  complicated  that  noticing  slight   differences  in  sounds 

what  has  been  said  is  only  a  mere  by  means  of  an  organ  so  complicated 

outline  of  the  facts — but  at  this  point  as  the  inner  ear  is.     But  the  inner  ear 

we  have  reached  something  compared  would  not  be  of  the  least  use  without 

with  which  all  the  rest  is  common-  the  nerve  of  hearing,  and  every  one 

place  and  simple.  of    these    tiny    differences    in    sounds 

The  sound  which  reached  the  hair  means  a  tiny  difference  in  the  some- 
cells  of  the  inner  ear  does  not  pass  thing  that  runs  along  the  little  white 
along  the  nerves  of  hearing,  but  it  threads  that  make  up  this  nerve, 
sets  up  in  them  a  nerve  current  which  jhe  crea  c  marvel  of  nerve-currents 
runs  to  the  brain.  That  nerve  current  that  very  few  people  think  about 
is  not  a  sound  wave ;  it  is  utterly  Language  cannot  say  how  wonderful 
different  in  every  way  from  a  sound  these  things  appear  to  those  who  really 
wave.  But  it  is  that  current,  and  think  about  them;  and  it  is  a  great 
that  alone,  which  excites  the  hearing  pity  that  so  many  of  us  should  go 
cells  in  the  brain,  and  enables  us  to  through  the  world,  hearing,  seeing, 
say  that  we  hear.  and  moving,  and  yet  never  giving  a 

If  we  examine  the  nerve  of  hearing  thought  to  these  marvels  upon  which 

through    a    powerful    microscope,    it  our  lives  depend. 

looks  just  like  any  other  nerve.     But  The  fact  that  nerve  currents,  and 

to  say  merely  that  it  is  capable  of  not  sound  currents,  travel  along  the 

carrying   a   nerve   current   which   we  nerve  of  hearing  is  a  general  truth  of 

translate  into  sound  is  not  to  state  all  the  senses.     It  is   not  light  that 

half  the  mystery,  for  we  must  consider  travels    along    the    nerve    of    vision, 

the  infinite  variety  of  sounds  that  we  The  place  in  the  brain  where  we  see 

can  hear  and  distinguish.  is  enveloped,  and  lives  always  in  utter 

The  many  nerve-currents  that  pass  darkness;    no    light    ever    reaches    it. 

TO  THE  BRAIN  WHEN  WE  HEAR  MUSIC  What  Fcachcs  it  is  the  nerve  currents 

What    must    be    the    number    and  from  the  nerves  of  vision.     All  that 

delicacy    and    variety    of    the    nerve  the  light  does  in  entering  our  eyes  is 

currents  passing  along  these  nerves  of  to   do  something  which  starts  those 

hearing  when  a  great  musician  con-  nerve  currents  in  the  ends  of  the  nerve 

ducts  a  big  orchestra,  and  can  hear  of  vision. 

every  instrument  separately,  and  know  And  all  that  sound  does  in  entering 

whether  it  is  in  tune  or  not!     How  our    ears    is    to    start    certain    nerve 

delicate  must  be  the  varieties  of  cur-  currents  in  the  ends  of  the  nerve  of 

rent     that     are     possible     when     we  hearing.     When  we  study  the  variety 

remember  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  of  sensations  that  are  possible  for  us, 

for  us  to   mistake  the  voice   of  one  we  see  that  a  nerve  current,  though 

friend  for  that  of  another.  we  talk  about  it  so  easily,  must  be 

So  long  as  we  confine  ourselves  to  nearly  the  most  complicated  and 
the  study  of  the  inner  ear,  and  see  the  wonderful  thing  in  the  world,  com- 
tens  of  thousands  of  fibers  of  different  pared  with  which  the  waves  of  sound, 
lengths,  and  the  hundreds  of  thou-  or  light,  or  electricity,  must  be  con- 
sands  of  hair  cells  which  it  contains,  sidered  quite  simple. 


122 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


HOW  THE  BODY  IS  HELD  IN  BALANCE 


THE  inner  ear  would  be  quite 
sufficient  to  make  the  bone 
that  contains  it  the  most 
wonderful  in  the  body.  We  know 
that  that  bone  is  the  hardest  in  the 
body;  and  this  is  necessary  not  only 
because  it  forms  part  of  the  base  of 
the  skull  and  should  be  strong,  but 
also,  we  suppose,  because  a  hard 
bone  conducts  sound  waves  better 
than    a    more    loosely -built  one. 

We  must  understand  th^.^  the  im- 
portant thing  in  hearing  is  for  sound 
waves  somehow  or  other  to  get  to  the 
hair  cells.  Much  the  best  way  is 
through  the  fine  series  of  structures 
about  which  we  have  read;  but 
though  they  are  very  useful,  and 
though  we  cannot  hear  anything  like 
so  well  without  them,  they  are  not 
necessary. 

From  the  teeth,  or  from  the  bones 
of  the  head  in  general,  sound  waves 
can  be  conducted — and,  of  course,  are 
conducted,  whenever  we  hear — which 
are  conveyed  very  well  by  the  dense 
bone  that  contains  the  inner  ear,  and 
so  get  to  its  hair  cells.  Sound  waves 
reaching  the  ear  in  this  way  contribute 
to  the  keenness  of  our  hearing,  but  of 
course  they  cannot  compare  for  ef- 
fectiveness with  those  that  travel 
along  the  wonderful  path  made  for 
the  special  purpose  of  hearing. 

But  there  is  another  reason  why 
the  bone  that  contains  the  inner 
ear  is  of  very  great  importance 
and  interest.  It  also  contains  an- 
other organ  of  a  wholly  distinct 
sense,  which  lies  close  beside  the 
inner  ear,  and  is,  indeed,  in  more 
or  less  direct  communication  with 
it.  For  many  years  it  was  sup- 
posed that  this  organ  was  part  of 
the  inner  ear,  and  was  concerned 
with  hearing.  We  now  know  that  it 
has  nothing  to  do  with  hearing. 


The  mistake  was  made  more  natural 
by  the  fact  that  one  and  the  same 
nerv  seems  to  run  from  the  brain  to 
both  parts — as  they  were  supposed  to 
bo — of  the  inner  ear.  In  point  of 
fa:t,  what  looks  like  one  nerve,  and  is 
still  called  one  nerve,  is  two  wholly 
distinct  nerves,  as  we  can  readily 
prove  if  we  trace  the  course  of  the 
fibers  towards  the  brain. 

We  find  that  the  fibers  which  have 
come  from  the  real  inner  ear  all  run 
to  a  certain  part  of  the  brain,  the  busi- 
ness of  which  is  hearing.  But  we  find 
that  the  fibers  which  have  come  from 
this  other  organ  all  run  to  an  entirely 
different  part  of  the  brain  which  has 
nothing  to  do  with  hearing  at  all. 

In  fact,  what  we  are  here  dealing 
with  is  the  sense  of  balance,  and  it  is 
probably  more  or  less  of  an  accident 
that  its  machinery  happens  to  be  such 
a  close  neighbor  to  that  of  the  sense  of 
hearing. 

A    LITTLE-KNOWN    PART   OF   OUR    BODY 
THAT   HELPS    US  TO   STAND 

This  sense  of  balance  is,  in  a  way, 
a  sense  that  tells  us  about  the  outside 
world,  like  hearing  or  vision;  because 
it  does  tell  us  where  the  outside  world 
is  in  relation  to  our  bodies.  But  it  is 
quite  unlike  the  senses  we  know  so  well, 
as  it  is  not  arranged  to  receive  any- 
thing from  the  outside  world  at  all, 
and  so,  unlike  the  eye  or  ear,  it  has 
no  connection  with  the  surface  of  the 
body.  We  may  say  that  this  is  one  of 
the  senses  which  tells  the  brain  about 
the  body,  rather  than  about  the  world 
outside  the  body. 

Before  we  study  the  organ  of  this 
sense,  we  must  notice,  in  the  first 
place,  that  it  is  helped  by  other  means. 
We  do  not  entirely  depend  for  our 
balance  upon  the  organs  of  balance  in 
the  base  of  the  skull,  though  we  cer- 
tainly cannot  balance  ourselves  with- 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


123 


out  their  assistance.  When  we  stand, 
for  instance — and  standing  is  a  very 
much  more  difficult  matter  than  we 
usually  suppose — our  power  of  balance 
is  greatly  helped  by  the  feelings  we  get 
from  the  soles  of  our  feet.  If  some- 
thing is  painted  on  to  the  soles  of  our 
feet  so  that  the  skin  there  can  no  lon- 
ger feel,  or  in  cases  of  illness  which 
have  the  same  result,  we  cannot  stand 
so  easily  as  we  usually  do. 

But  the  sense  of  balance  is  also 
helped  by  the  eyes.  As  long  as  the 
eyes  are  open,  even  a  person  who  is  not 
helped  by  the  soles  of  his  feet  may 
balance  himself;  or,  with  his  eyes 
shut,  he  may  yet  balance  himself  if  he 
stands  with  his  feet  far  apart;  but  if 
he  puts  his  heels  together,  and  shuts 
his  eyes,  he  will  probably  topple  over 
on  the  ground. 

The    great    use    of    the    eyes    in 
balancing  the  body 

People,  however,  can  stand  with 
their  heels  together,  and  with  their  eyes 
shut,  thus  doing  without  the  assistance 
of  sight,  if  the  organs  of  balance  in 
the  skull  are  all  right,  and  if  guidance 
is  also  coming  to  the  brain  from  the 
soles  of  the  feet,  and  also  from  the 
muscles  and  joints  of  the  legs.  If  we 
set  ourselves  the  task  of  balancing  on 
a  very  narrow  plank,  or,  still  more 
difficult,  on  a  tight-rope,  then  our 
eyes  become  more  useful,  and,  unless 
we  are  very  skilful  indeed,  they  are 
quite  necessary. 

Everyone  knows  how  the  tight- 
rope walker  keeps  his  eyes  steadily 
fixed  on  a  certain  point,  and 
so  greatly  helps  himself.  If  he  is 
very  skilful,  he  may  walk  on  the  tight- 
rope even  though  he  bandages  his 
eyes;  but  this  is  far  more  difficult. 
However,  the  eyes  and  the  feelings 
from  the  skin  and  joints  and  muscles 
are  all  unimportant  compared  with 
the  guidance  we  get  from  the  special 
organs  of  balance,  and  no  one  was  ever 


yet  able  to  stand  or  walk  on  the 
ground,  much  less  on  a  tight-rope,  in 
whom  these  organs  were  not  working 
properly.  Now  we  must  learn  what 
they  consist  of. 

In  the  hard  bone  that  contains  the 
inner  ear,  and  close  to  the  inner  ear — 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  of  course — 
we  find  this  organ  of  balance.  It  con- 
sists of  three  tiny  tubes,  in  shape  like 
half  a  circle. 
The   six    little   tubes    which   tell 

THE    brain    our   MOVEMENTS 

The  proper  name  for  a  half  circle 
is  a  semi-circle,  just  as  half  a  tone  is 
a  semi-tone,  and  the  corresponding 
adjective  is,  of  course,  semi-circular; 
not  a  difficult  word  if  we  know  how  it 
is  made  up.  The  proper  name  for 
these  tubes,  then,  is  the  semi-circular 
canals,  and  of  these  the  head  of  every 
human  being  and  of  all  the  higher 
animals  contains  six,  three  on  each 
side.     They  are  all  filled  with  fluid. 

Just  as  the  nerve  of  vision  runs  to 
the  eye  and  the  nerve  of  hearing  to 
the  ear,  so  the  nerve  of  balance  runs 
to  the  semi-circular  canals.  The  ends 
of  the  nerve — that  is  to  say,  the  ends 
of  the  countless  nerve-fibers  which 
make  the  nerve — lie  close  to  the  fluid 
that  fills  the  canals,  and  if  that  fluid 
moves,  or  if  the  pressure  on  it  changes 
in  any  direction,  the  nerve-fibers  know 
about  it  and  tell  the  brain  our  move- 
ments. 

Now  let  us  look  at  an  ordinary 
child's  block,  which  we  call  a  cube. 
If  we  want  to  measure  it,  we  find  that 
it  can  be  measured  in  three  directions 
— from  top  to  bottom,  from  side  to 
side,  and  from  back  to  front.  We 
may  pick  up  any  solid  thing  and  we 
find  the  same  is  true  of  it.  We 
may  want  to  measure  a  room,  and  we 
find  again  that  the  same  is  true;  we 
must  measure  the  floor  in  both  direc- 
tions, and  we  must  also  measure  the 
height  of  one  of  the  walls. 


A  BLINDFOLDED  MAN'S  WALK  ACROSS  NIAGARA 


One  of  the  most  marvelous  feats  of  balancing  ever  performed  was  the  crossing  of  Niagara  Falls  by  Blondin,  who  walked 
across  the  Falls  on  a  tight-rope,  blindfolded.  The  eyes  are  very  helpful  in  enabling  us  to  keep  our  balance,  but  they  are 
not  really  essential,  and  Blondin  was  able  to  walk  over  Niagara  with  his  eyes  covered,  being  aided  by  the  six  little  canals 
in  his  head,  which  are  the  organs  of  balance,  as  described. 

124 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  125 

In  general  terms,   space  has  three  balance   are   injured   cannot   balance, 

directions — or  dimensions,  to  give  the  They  suffer  from  persistent  giddiness, 

usual  word — and  when  we  move  our  It  has  also  been  proved  that  where 

head  it  must  move  in  one  or  more  of  the  injury  affects  only  certain  of  the 

those  three  directions.     We  may  nod  canals,   the   giddiness  corresponds  to 

our  head,  or  we  may  shake  our  head,  the  direction  of  the  particular  canal 

or  we  may  raise  it  up  and  down.     All  or  canals  in  question.     If  it  is  only 

the  possible  movements  of  the  head  the  horizontal  canals  that  are  thrown 

are  either  in  one  of  these  directions  or  out   of  action,   then  we  shall   be  all 

in  a  combination  of  two  or  all  three  of  right  so  far  as  nodding  the  head  is 

them.     Now,  the  business  of  the  organ  concerned,  but  directl}^  we  start  shak- 

of  balance  is  to  acquaint  the  brain  ing  it,  we  shall  become  giddy,  and, 

with  every  possible  movement  of  the  if  we  do  not  receive  support,  topple 

head,    and   it    must   therefore   be    so  over. 

constructed   that   all    possible    move-  The    history    of    the    semi-circular 

ments  shall  duly  register  themselves  canals     is     deeply     interesting.     The 

in  it.  lowest  kind  of  creature  with  a  back- 

This  is  done  in  the  most  exquisite  bone,  as  we  know,  is  the  fish,  and  we 
way  by  the  provision  of  three  canals  find  in  it  no  trace  of  these  canals, 
on  each  side  of  the  head,  these  three  Now,  the  fish  is  very  clever  at  balanc- 
canals  being  arranged  in  correspond-  ing  itself,  and  shows  no  signs  of  giddi- 
ence  with  the  three  dimensions,  or  ness;  but  probably  we  can  explain 
directions,  of  space.  One  canal  lies  why  the  fish  manages  so  well  without 
on  its  side  or  is  horizontal;  and  the  any  semi -circular  canals,  if  we  remem- 
other  two  are  upright,  but  at  right  ber  how  great  the  pressure  of  water  is 
angles  to  each  other.  As  there  is  an  upon  the  surface  of  the  fish,  and  there- 
organ  of  balance  on  each  side  of  the  fore  how  much  more  information  the 
head,  we  may  think  of  the  canals  in  fish  must  get  from  its  skin  than  we  are 
pairs,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  able  to  get  from  ours, 
act  in  pairs.  For  instance,  the  hori-  How  birds  are  able  to  fly  without 
zontal  canal  on  each  side  of  the  head  tumbling  over 
acts  with  its  fellow  when  we  shake  As  we  ascend  the  scale  of  back- 
tlie  head,  or  when  we  spin  round,  as  boned  animals,  we  gradually  find  the 
we  do  in  dancing.  appearance  of  these  semi-circular  ca- 
The  moving  fluid  in  the  six  little  nals,  though  they  do  not  all  appear  at 
CANALS  IN  OUR  HEADS  oucc.     If  our  statements  as  to  their  use 

The   consequence   of   this   arrange-  are  correct,  we  should  expect  to  find 

ment  is  that  every  possible  movement  them  most  beautifully  and  perfectly 

of  the  head  has  a  strictly  correspond-  developed  in  birds,  which  could  not 

ing  effect  upon  the  fluid  inside  one  or  succeed   in   flying   without  a   perfect 

more  pairs  of  these  six  canals,  and  the  sense  of  balance.     In  flying,  the  bird 

center    of    balance    in    the    brain    is  gains  little  from  the  feet  and  legs,  as 

informed.     This     center    of    balance  we    do    in    the    very    much    simpler 

probably  exists  in  the  cerebellum,  or  business  of  standing  or  walking;  and 

little  brain.     Sometimes  we  have  an  therefore  its  need  of  special  organs  of 

illness  in  which  the  organ  of  balance  balance  is  all  the  greater, 

is  thrown  out  of  action,  and  just  as  a  So  we  find  the  semi-circular  canals 

person  whose  eyes  are  injured  cannot  at   their  very  best  in  birds,  and  we 

see,  so  those  in  whom  the  organs  of  know  also  that,  just  as  in  our  own  case. 


126 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


if  the  canals  are  thrown  out  of  action, 
the  bird's  power  of  balance  is  destroy- 
ed, and  in  flying  it  will  make  mistakes 
and  show  peculiarities  corresponding 
to  the  particular  defect  in  its  organ  of 
balance.  It  is  probable  that  in  this 
way  we  can  explain  the  peculiarity  of 
what  are  called  "tumbler"  pigeons. 

It  used  at  one  time  to  be  thought, 
before  these  newer  facts  were  dis- 
covered, that  the  semi-circular  canals 
must  have  something  to  do  with 
hearing;  and  we  can  understand  how 
natural  this  idea  was,  seeing  that  the 
canals  look  as  if  they  were  part  of 
the  inner  ear,  and  their  nerve  looks 
as  if  it  were  a  part  of  the  nerve  of 
hearing. 
The  little  organs  in  our  ears  that 

HAVE   ^IOTHING  TO  DO  WITH  HEARING 

The  idea  used  to  be  that  probably 
we  somehow  judge  of  the  direction  of 
sound  by  means  of  these  semi-circular 
canals.  No  one  could  look  at  their  odd 
arrangement  without  feeling  that  their 
business  had  something  to  do  with 
direction.  But  we  now  know  that 
their  business  is  with  the  direction  in 
which  the  head  moves,  and  not  with 
the  direction  of  sound.  It  is  much 
more  important  to  know  what  the 
head  is  doing  than  to  know  where 
sound  comes  from,  and,  in  any  case, 
by  having  external  ears  that  can  be 
moved,  a  creature  can  easily  enough 
judge  of  the  direction  of  sound  with- 
out any  special  machinery  inside  its 
head.  If  we  human  beings  are  not 
so  well  off  in  this  respect,  it  is  because 
we  have  lost  the  power  of  moving  our 
outer  ears  like  the  animals. 
The  FISH'S  gills,  upon  which  many 

PRECIOUS  structures  ARE  BUILT  UP 

We  have  lost  this  power  that  the 
animals  have,  but  we  have  gained 
many  things  that  the  animals  have 
not.  In  the  very  lowest  vertebrate 
animals,  such  fishes,  we  find,  instead 
of  lungs,  have  what  are  called  gills. 


To  these  the  blood  runs,  as  it  runs  to 
our  lungs,  and  in  them  it  comes  in 
close  relation  with  the  oxygen  dis- 
solved in  the  water,  just  as  in  our 
lungs  the  blood  comes  in  close  relation 
to  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  The  gills 
have  to  be  supported  on  something, 
and  so  we  find  in  the  fish  five  gill- 
arches,  with  slits  between  them  called 
gill-slits. 

How   THE   SWIM-BLADDER    OF   THE    FISH 
BECAME  THE  LUNG  OF  THE  MAMMAL 

We  can  never  tell  what  uses  nature 
will  turn  a  thing  to,  and  the  history  of 
life  upon  this  earth  proves  over  and 
over  again  that  organs  which  would 
appear  to  have  lost  all  their  use,  and 
of  which  nothing  could  be  made,  may 
be  turned  to  new  and  utterly  different 
purposes,  rather  than  be  wasted. 
Nature  took  the  swim-bladder,  which 
used  to  be  filled  with  air,  and  helped 
the  fish  to  swim  at  the  level  it  liked, 
and  when  the  creature  no  longer  swam 
under  the  surface  at  all,  she  made  it 
into  a  lung.  Thus  nature  had  gill- 
slits  and  gill-arches  thrown  on  to  her 
hands  w4th  their  occupation  gone.  By 
long  and  careful  study  of  many  animals 
we  have  been  able  to  trace  what  hap- 
pens to  each  of  these;  and  it  is  one  of 
nature's  great  triumphs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bodies  of  the  higher  ani- 
mals that  she  has  been  able  to  do  with 
these  apparently  useless  things. 

Out  of  them  has  been  made  the 
whole  of  the  semi-circular  canals. 
Thus  nature  has  provided  for  the 
balance  of  the  bird  out  of  the  organs 
which  helped  the  fish  to  breathe. 
From  these  organs,  also,  she  has  made 
the  whole  of  the  ear,  including  the 
little  bones  in  the  middle  ear,  and  all 
the  wonderful  structure  of  the  inner 
ear.  As  if  this  were  not  enough,  she 
has  also  made  out  of  the  gill-arches 
an  organ  no  less  new  and  wonderful 
than  the  voice-box,  or  larynx,  by 
which  we  speak  and  sing. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  121 

THE     VOICE    AND  ITS     MECHANISM 

IT  IS  much  better,  for  two  good  rea-  meaning  in  this  arrangement,  which,  as 

sons,  that  we  should  go  on  to  study  we  know,  makes  it  necessary  for  every- 

the  larynx.      First,  we  should  do  thing  we  swallow,  whether  liquid  or 

this  because  then  we  shall  be  studying  solid,  to  be  thrown  over  the  opening 

together  the  various  organs  that  have  to    the    larynx    without    entering    it. 

been  developed  in  the  higher  animals  There  is  thus  placed  upon  the  larynx 

from  the  gill-arches  of  the  fish;  and,  another    duty    besides    that    of    pro- 

secondly,  we  should  do  so  because  it  ducing  sound,  and  that  of  attending 

is  well  to  study  the  means  by  which  to  our  breathing,  for  it  has  to  protect 

we  produce  sounds,  after  studying  the  the  air  passages  every  time  we  swallow, 

means  by  which  we  hear  them.  This  organ  is  made  of  pieces  of  what 

We  all  know  something,   at  least,  is  called  cartilage.     Our  ordinary  name 

about  the  larynx,  because  we  have  all  is  gristle,  and  we  may  describe  it  as 

seen  the  front  part  of  it  pushing  the  something  which  is  half  way  towards 

skin  forward  and  sometimes  moving  bone. 

up    and    down.     There    is    a    foolish  The  narrow  channel  through  which 

notion  that  this  is  the  apple  which  passes  all  the  breath  of  life 

Adam   swallowed,    and    which    stuck  In   old   age   the   cartilages   of   the 

in  his  throat,  and  so  it  is  sometimes  larynx  get  to  be  not  exactly  bony,  but 

called  Adam's   apple.     A   larynx,    or  more  chalky  and  rigid  than  they  are 

voice-box,  similar    to    ours  is    to  be  in  youth;  and  this,  probably,  is  one  of 

found  in  all  the  higher  animals,  and,  the   reasons   why    most    people   with 

as  we  know,  it  is  simply  a  stringed  sensitive  ears  can  readily  distinguish 

musical  instrument.     In  the  case  of  a  young  voice  from  an  old  voice, 

the  birds,  many  of  which  have  such  The  business   of   the   larynx  is   to 

beautiful  voices,  there  is  besides  this  support  and  control  the  action  of  two 

stringed  instrument  another,  which  is  tiny  cords  or  strings  called  the  vocal 

practically   an   organ   pipe.     But,    in  cords;  that  is  to  say,  the  voice  cords, 

all   its   forms,   and   whether   with   or  The  picture  given  in  connection  with 

without  this  organ  pipe,   the  larynx  this    article    shows    what    the    vocal 

is  evolved  from  one  of  the  gill-arches  cords  look  like  when  they  are  seen 

of  the  fish.  from  above  by  means  of  a  bright  little 

This   voice-box,    of   course,    is   not  mirror  held  at  the  back  of  the  throat, 

only    concerned    with    speaking    and  We  see  that  the  vocal  cords  have  a 

singing;   it   has   important   duties   to  free   edge   towards   the    middle,    and 

perform  every  moment  of  our  lives,  that  from  it  they  pass  outwards  to 

because  it  is  the  channel  of  the  breath  the  sides  of  the  larynx, 

of  life.     Further,  owing  to  the  manner  All  the  air  by  which  we  live  passes 

in  which  the  lungs  have  been  devel-  through  the  narrow  space  between  the 

oped    in    long-past    ages,    it    has    so  vocal    cords.     The    arrangements  by 

occurred  that  the  opening  from  the  wiiich  they  can  be  put  together  or 

throat  to  the  voice-box  lies   in  front  separated    are    quite    simple.     They 

of  the  opening  from  the  throat  to  the  part  every  time  we  breathe  in,  and 

gullet.  when  we  choke  and  cannot  breathe 

Only  the  study  of  the  way  in  which  in,  it  is  because  the  vocal  cords  are 

living  things  have  developed  one  from  not  parting  as  they  should.     But  if 

another   can   enable   us   to   see   any  the  cords  are  to  produce  voice,  they 


PICTURES    DRAWN    BY    THE   HUMAN   VOICE 


No  artist  drew  these  designs.  A  thin  sheet  of  india-rubber  was  stretched  over  a  vessel  like  a  cup  which  had  a  spout 
at  the  side.  Some  light  powder  was  then  thrown  upon  the  rubber  covering,  and  when  someone  sang  into  the  spout,  the 
powder  formed  itself  into  the  design  of  the  picture  on  the  left.  The  right-hand  picture,  looking  like  a  frosted  window, 
was  drawn  in  the  same  way,  but,  instead  of  powder,  moist  paint  was  put  on  the  rubber  covering. 


To  obtain  the  left-hand  picture,  a  sheet  of  glass  was  coated  with  paint  and  put  over  the  cup,  with  the  paint  resting  on 
the  rubber  covering.  Then,  as  the  spout  was  sung  into,  the  glass  was  moved  round,  and  this  beautiful  design  appeared. 
The  picture  on  the  right — something  like  a  fern-leaf — was  made  by  singing  louder  and  having  moister  paint  on  the  glass. 
The  cup  with  a  spout  or  tube  is  called  an  eidophone,  which  means  "form  of  the  voice." 

12S 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


129 


must  be  able  to  do  much  more  than 
this.  It  must  be  possible  to  hold 
them  tightly  stretched,  so  that  when 
air  is  forced  against  them  they  will 
vibrate.  Nor  is  this  all,  for  it  must 
be  possible  to  stretch  them  in  different 
degrees.  As  we  shall  learn  when  we 
come  to  study  sound,  the  pitch — the 
shrillness  or  the  lowness — of  a  musical 
note  produced  by  anything  trembling 
depends  upon  a  number  of  things, 
such  as  its  weight,  its  length,  and  its 
tightness. 

The  wonderful  musical  instrument 
with  one  string 

Now,  in  the  case  of  a  piano,  when 
we  want  to  produce  notes  of  different 
pitch,  we  have  a  number  of  strings 
of  different  lengths  laid  side  by  side, 
so  that  we  can  strike  the  one  that 
gives  out  the  required  note.  Also, 
we  can  have  some  of  them  made  of 
much  heavier  material  than  others. 
In  the  case  of  the  violin,  it  is  possible 
to  have  only  very  few  strings,  but  we 
can  produce  all  the  notes  we  want  by 
stopping  the  strings  with  our  fingers, 
so  that  the  length  of  string  that  is 
free  to  vibrate  can  be  altered  as  we 
please;  and  the  strings  are  made  of 
different  weight  and  thickness. 

But  in  the  larynx  there  are  only 
two  strings,  and  these  always  act 
together,  it  being  impossible  to  produce 
voice  with  one  of  them ;  moreover,  they 
are  of  the  same  weight  and  length. 
Outside  the  human  body,  a  musical 
instrument  that  had  practically  only 
one  string,  and  that  could  not  be 
stopped  at  different  points  like  a 
violin  string,  would  not  be  able  to 
produce  much  variety  of  pitch.  The 
only  possible  way  of  getting  any 
variety  would  be  to  have  some  means 
of  varying  its  tightness.  It  is  prob- 
ably correct  to  say  that  there  is  no 
material  other  than  that  made  by 
life  that  can  be  tightened  in  such 
different  degrees  as  the  needs  of  music 


demand,  without  permanent  injury  to 
the  strings. 

The    MARVELOUS    POWER    THAT    A    GOOD 
SINGER   HAS  OVER  THE  HUMAN  VOICE 

But  though  our  vocal  cords  have 
only  the  one  possibility  of  varying 
pitch,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  can  be 
tightened  in  different  degree,  with  this 
one  means  they  triumph.  A  good 
singer  can  produce  all  the  notes  in  a 
range  of  two  octaves,  and  many 
singers  are  able  to  exceed  this  com- 
pass considerably.  Outside  the  body 
there  is  no  parallel  to  this.  It  is 
interesting,  therefore,  to  know  of 
what  the  vocal  cords  are  made,  so 
that  they  can  stand  such  varying 
degrees  of  tightness,  within  a  few 
seconds,  without  injury.  They  are 
simply  made  of  fibers  of  what  we  call 
elastic  tissue,  such  as  is  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  body  wherever  it 
is  needed.  But  an  ordinary  piece  of 
elastic  is  rubbish  compared  with  the 
elastic  tissue  made  by  the  body. 

How  THE  VOCAL  CORDS  ARE  TIGHTENED 
TO  PRODUCE   DIFFERENT  SOUNDS 

The  next  question  is — How  is  their 
tightness  varied?  In  front,  just  be- 
hind the  part  of  the  voice-box  that 
we  see  from  outside,  the  cords  are  fixed 
to  the  largest  cartilage  of  the  larynx, 
but,  behind,  each  of  them  is  fixed  to 
a  tiny  little  knob  of  cartilage  which  is 
delicately  jointed  to  the  part  that  it 
rests  on,  so  that  it  can  be  tilted  in 
several  directions. 

What  really  happens  when  we  sing 
is  that  these  little  knobs  of  cartilage 
are  tilted  backwards  so  that  the  cords 
are  made  tighter  when  our  voice 
ascends  in  pitch,  and  are  tilted  for- 
wards so  that  the  cords  are  made 
slacker  when  our  voice  falls  in  pitch. 

When  a  singer  is  producing  one  of 
his  highest  notes,  the  cords  have  to  be 
so  tight  as  to  vibrate  four  times  as 
often  in  every  second  as  when  he  is 
producing   one    of    his    lowest   notes. 


130 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Thus,  in  the  whole  range  of  nature, 
there  is  scarcely  anything  more  per- 
fectly delicate  than  the  control  which 
a  singer  has  over  this  tiny  little 
machine  to  produce  such  results. 

Why  the  human  voice  is  much  more 
marvelous  than  a  piano 

Nor  must  we  suppose  that  the 
singer  is  merely  limited  to  the  number 
of  notes  that  there  are  on  the  piano 
in  two  octaves.  Pianos  vary  in  pitch, 
as  we  know,  and  a  singer  can  tune  his 
voice  to  the  pitch  of  any  piano  he  sings 
with.  Skilful  singers  can  produce 
several  tones,  even  as  many  as  eleven, 
between  two  notes  that  are  next  to 
each  other  on  the  piano. 

As  we  have  said,  all  this  depends 
on  the  tightness  of  the  cords,  and  the 
tightness  depends  on  the  strength 
with  which  certain  tiny  slips  of  muscle 
pull  upon  the  cartilages  to  which  the 
cords  are  attached;  and  that  depends 
upon  the  force  of  the  nerve  current 
sent  to  the  nerves  through  these 
muscles  from  certain  nerve  cells  in 
the  brain.  The  place,  therefore,  where 
the  unrivaled  delicacy  of  this  machine 
really  exists  is  the  nerve  center  in  the 
brain. 

As  everyone  knows  who  has  tried 
to  read  a  song  he  was  not  sure  of,  or 
as  anyone  may  observe  who  watches 
a  child  learning  to  sing,  it  is  one  thing 
to  have  all  the  machinery  for  pro- 
ducing a  note  that  is  easily  within  the 
range  of  our  voice,  and  it  is  quite 
another  thing  to  be  able  to  produce 
that  note  when  we  want  to.  There 
are  two  stages  of  difficulty  here,  and 
the  second  is  marvelous  beyond  any- 
thing  we   have   yet   described.     The 


first    of    these    is    where    we    simply 
imitate  a  note  we  hear. 

This  is  quite  wonderful  enough,  for 
it  means  the  beautiful  working  to- 
gether of  the  cells  in  the  hearing  center 
of  the  brain  with  the  cells  of  that  part 
of  the  brain  which  gives  orders  to  the 
muscles  of  the  voice-box. 

The   mystery   of  the   writing  and 
singing  of  music 

But  now  take  the  second  case,  where 
a  singer  sings  aloud  the  notes  of  a 
piece  of  music  that  he  has  never  seen 
before.  What  is  it  that  he  imitates 
now-f^  What  is  it  that  guides  him? 
We  can  only  say  that  the  singer 
imitates,  or  realizes,  his  idea  of  a 
certain  sound  that  he  has  in  his  mind, 
but  what  and  where  the  idea  really  is, 
and  how  the  ringer  can  do  what  he 
does,  no  one  can  say,  for  we  are  here 
in  the  realm  of  the  mind — the  most 
mysterious  of  all  things,  and  it  baffles 
us  utterly. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  case  of  the 
composer  sitting  down  with  a  pencil 
and  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  creating 
music  "out  of  his  head"  for  other 
people  to  sing  and  play.  Some  of  the 
greatest  music  ever  written — music 
which  has  made  miserable  people 
happy,  and  cowardly  people  brave, 
and  frivolous  people  solemn,  and  will 
do  so  to  the  end  of  time — was  written 
by  a  man  named  Beethoven  many 
years  after  he  had  become  stone  deaf. 
He  never  heard  a  note  of  the  greatest 
and  most  wonderful  part  of  the  music 
that  he  wrote;  and  yet,  in  his  mind's 
ear,  he  heard  it  better  than  anyone 
has  ever  heard  it  since,  or  he  could 
not  have  created  it. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


131 


lu  these  pictures  we  see  the  positions  taken  by  the  tongue  and  lips  when  diHerent  vowels  are  pronounced.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  larynx  remains  the  same,  the  different  sounds  being  produced  by  the  changed  position  of  the  resonators,  or 
cavities  above  the  larynx.     The  vowels  shown  are  A,  as  in  father,  E,  and  U. 


TALKING    AND    SINGING 


WE  know  how  the  larynx,  or 
voice  box,  the  musical  in- 
strument which  we  all  pos- 
sess, produces  notes  of  any  particular 
pitch  that  we  desire.  But  though 
singing  is  very  delightful  and  pleasing, 
and  though  many  books  might  be 
written  upon  the  voice  box  and  its 
use  in  singing,  speaking  is  really 
much  more  important  than  singing, 
and  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  study 
speaking  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  machinery  by  which  it  is  done. 
We  have  already  learned  about  the 
wonderful  center  in  the  brain  where 
words  and  the  meaning  of  them  are 
stored,  and  we  understand  that  every- 
thing else  depends  upon  the  .orders 
given  there,  but  now  we  must  go  on  to 
study  the  machinery  by  which  those 
orders  are  carried  out.  The  voice 
box  is,  of  course,  the  central  part  of 
this  machinery,  but  it  is  not  all;  and, 
indeed,  everyone  knows,  who  has 
whispered,  that  it  is  possible  to  speak 
without  the  voice  box  at  all. 

There  is  one  point  which  has  been 
greatly  discussed  by  many  thinkers, 
and  which  we  must  mention  first.  We 
know  that  we  ourselves  both  speak  and 
sing,  and  when  we  observe  the  birds, 
we  find  that  they  sing,  but  do  not 


speak.  The  question  is:  Did  singing 
or  speaking  come  first  .^  And  there  is 
a  difference  of  opinion  on  this  matter. 
A  great  Frenchman,  named  Diderot, 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  Herbert  Spencer,  many  years 
after,  supposed  that  singing  came  later 
than  speaking.  Their  argument  was 
that,  after  learning  merely  to  speak, 
the  time  came  when  men  wanted  to 
make  their  speech  more  effective  and 
thrilling  and  moving,  and  so  they  sang 
the  words  instead  of  only  speaking 
them.  So  on  this  theory  speech  came 
first,  and  song  is  a  sort  of  speech  with 
more  effect  added  to  it  by  the  addition 
of  music. 

But  against  these  great  opinions 
there  is  another  great  opinion — that  of 
Charles  Darwin.  For  many  years  he 
studied  the  expressions  of  feeling  in 
man  and  in  the  lower  animals.  He 
found,  as  he  thought,  that  many  of 
the  lower  animals,  especially  the  birds, 
sing  of  set  purpose,  so  to  speak,  and 
perhaps  sing  very  beautifully.  He 
supposed  that  the  special  reason  for 
the  song  of  animals  was  to  call  each 
other  and  to  please  each  other.  Now, 
on  this  view,  song  came  first  and 
speech  afterwards  with  man,  and  that 
is  what  Darwin  maintained. 


132 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


This  is  a  subject  which  one  writer  has 
specially  tried  to  study,  and  what  he 
thinks  is  that  in  the  case  of  mankind 
speech  and  song  have  arisen  together. 
They  are  really  two  varieties  of  the 
same  thing,  which  is  expression  by 
means  of  the  voice.  The  argument 
of  Diderot  and  Spencer  that  speech 
came  first  and  song  afterwards  is, 
not  supported  by  the  fact  that 
when  we  observe  the  growth  of 
very  small  children,  w^e  can  see  the 
beginnings  of  speech  and  of  singing 
growing  up  at  one  and  the  same  time 
in  them;  nor  is  there  any  reason  at  all 
why  this  should  not  be  the  case. 
However  this  may  be— and  it  is  at 
least  an  interesting  subject  to  think 
about — let  us  now  go  on  to  study 
what  happens  when  we  speak. 

Why  it  is  that  we  use  different 
notes  in  speaking 

First  of  all,  let  us  discover  what  is 
the  difference  between  singing  and 
speaking.  In  both  cases  we  produce 
sounds  by  means  of  the  voice  box, 
except  in  whispering;  in  both  cases 
these  sounds  are  musical  notes — that 
is  to  say,  the  waves  which  form  them 
are  regular;  in  both  cases  there  are 
changes  of  pitch. 

No  one  speaks  with  his  voice  all  the 
time  on  the  same  note,  even  in  the 
shortest  sentence.  We  raise  the  voice 
sometimes,  we  lower  it  at  other  times, 
as  we  go  along,  and  we  convey  a  great 
deal  by  the  way  in  which  we  do  this; 
so  much  so,  that  children  or  foreigners, 
who  do  not  understand  the  words  we 
are  saying,  may  learn  a  great  deal 
from  the  pitch  of  the  notes  we  speak 
in. 

Even  a  dog  or  a  horse  will  learn 
much  from  our  voices  in  the  same  way. 
If  anyone  doubts  that  we  use  a  num- 
ber of  different  notes  when  we  speak, 
let  him  get  someone  to  say  a  sentence 
all  on  the  same  note,  without  raising 
his  voice  or  lowering  it.     The  Greek 


word  for  one  is  monos,  and  so,  when 
something  is  spoken  or  sung  all  on  the 
same  note,  we  say  that  it  is  a  mono- 
tone, and  thus  we  get  the  word 
monotonous. 

How  WE  ARE  ABLE  TO  PUT  COLOR  INTO 
OUR  VOICES 

We  could  scarcely  live  with  anyone 
who  spoke  in  a  really  monotonous 
voice.  Also,  we  use  different  loud- 
nesses when  we  speak,  and,  apart 
from  the  actual  note  we  are  speaking 
on,  we  use  d  fferent  kinds  of  what  is 
often  called  color  in  our  voices.  We 
speak  to  a  child  in  a  more  tender  tone 
than  we  speak  to  a  car  conductor, 
though  we  may  speak  more  loudly 
to  the  child  than  to  him.  There  are 
many  different  shades  of  expression 
which  we  can  put  into  the  same  words 
spoken  on  the  same  notes  and  with 
the  same  loudness. 

Now,  the  reason  why  it  has  been 
necessary  to  go  so  carefully  into  this  is 
that  we  want  to  find  out  the  difference 
between  speaking  and  singing,  and 
the  first  thing  we  find  is  that  in  all 
real  points  the  singer  does  no  more 
than  the  speaker  does.  He  uses  a 
variety  of  notes,  he  uses  a  variety  of 
force,  he  uses  a  variety  of  colors.  Both 
singers  and  speakers  use  a  variety  of 
rhythm  and  speed. 

But,  nevertheless,  no  one  will  say 
that  speaking  and  singing  are  the 
same,  and  everyone  knows  what  it  is 
to  hear  someone  speaking  in  a  sing- 
song voice.  There  is  a  common  Eng- 
lish word  which  has  a  very  interesting 
history  that  bears  on  this  point.  It 
is  the  word  cant.  We  say  that  a 
thing  is  cant  or  that  a  person  is  canting 
when  we  mean  that  he  is  professing 
high  ideas  that  he  does  not  really  be- 
lieve. The  word  comes  from  the 
Latin  canto,  I  sing.  Cant  and  chant 
are  really  the  same  word,  and  we  might 
as  well  say  that  a  person  is  chanting 
as  that  he  is  canting. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  133 

What  happens  when  anybody  speaks  but   by   tightening   or   loosening   our 

IN  A  sing-song  way  vocal  cords.     If  we  do  not  use  these 

The  explanation  is  that  at  a  very  intervals   when   we   sing,    people   say 

interesting  time  in  history  there  were  that  we  are  singing  out  of  tune,  and 

certain    people,    having    very    strict  go    out    of    the    room    as  quickly  as 

views  on  many  things,  who  had  the  possible,   and   we   are   only  asked  to 

habit  of  speaking  in  a  sing-song  way.  sing  by  people  who  have  never  heard 

When  they  spoke  they  rather  chanted,  us  sing  before. 

Their  enemies  said  that  they  did  not  Why  different  people  have  different 

believe  what  they  professed,  and  so  kinds  of  voices 

the   word   cant,   w^hich   really   means  But  the  violinist  can  also  move  his 

singing,  came  to  mean  insincerity.  bow  across  a  string  and  make  it  sound. 

Now  let  us  ask  what  it  is  that  hap-  while,  at  the  same  time,  instead  of 

pens  when  a  person,  who  was  speaking  stopping  the  string  at  certain  intervals, 

in  the  ordinary  way,  speaks  in  a  sing-  he  slides  a  finger  right  along  the  string, 

song  way,   or   actually   sings.     What  So,  as  the  string  gets  gradually  longer 

happens  is  that  he  now  produces  notes  or   shorter,    he   produces   a   series   of 

which    have    fixed    regular    intervals  notes — thousands  in  number  really — 

between   them,   like   the   notes   on   a  which    cannot    be    imitated    on    the 

piano.     When  we   speak   we   do   not  piano.     Now,    our    vocal    cords    can 

use    the    fixed    musical    intervals    of  have  any  tightness  or  slackness,  and 

pitch,  but  slide  the  voice  up  and  down,  so  it  is  possible  for  us  to  pitch  our 

without  taking  any  notice  of  the  fixed  voices,  as  we  speak,  at  any  point  we 

intervals  of  music  at  all.     It  is  true,  like,  just  as  if  the  violinist  were  to 

also,  that  as  a  rule,  when  we  speak,  stop  moving  his  finger  at  any  point 

we   may   keep   our   voice   within   the  along  the  string  of  his  instrument, 

limits  of,  perhaps,  half  an  octave  or  One  of  the  great  differences  between 

less,  while  when  we  sing  we  may  range  voices  is  in  the  person's  choice  of  the 

over  a  couple  of  octaves  or  more.     But  notes    he    speaks    on.     It    might    be 

though    this    is    evident    directly    we  supposed  that  if  one  did  not  sing,  it 

think  about  it,  it  is  not  the  real  differ-  would  be  all  the  same  what  notes  one 

ence   between   speaking   and   singing,  spoke  on;  but  we  all  know  that  there 

which  is  that  in  singing  we  use  only  are  people  to  whose  speaking  it  is  a 

notes    with    fixed    intervals    between  real  musical  delight  to  listen.     It  may 

them,   while  in  speaking  we  let  our  be  noticed  sometimes  that  well-trained 

voice  rest  just  where  we  please.     If  singers  who  sing  quite  well,  but  are 

we  think  of  a  violin,  we  can,  perhaps,  not  really  musical,  speak  unmusically, 

understand  this  better.     A  player  gets  and  everyone  knows  cases  of  people 

definite  notes  on  the  violin,  such  as  who  do  not  sing  at  all,  but  who  have 

the  notes  that  are  on  the  piano,  by  most   beautiful   speaking  voices.     To 

placing  his  fingers  firmly  on  the  strings  people    with    sensitive    ears    there    is 

at  fixed  intervals.  scarcely  a  greater  delight  in  life  than 

One  of  the  great  problems  for  the  to    be    surrounded    by    people    with 

player  is  to  get  his  fingers  always  at  beautiful  speaking  voices,  and  one  of 

exactly  the  right  places  on  the  string,  the  reasons  why  we  ought  to  study 

Now,  when  we  sing,  it  is  as  if  we  were  this    question    here    is    that    we    are 

using  just  those  intervals,  only  that,  running  a  grave  risk  today  of  losing 

as  we  have  seen,  we  do  not  get  our  the   beauty   of   our   speaking   voices, 

notes  by  the  violin  player's  method,  and  for  several  reasons. 


ISJt 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  great  care  that  should  be  taken 
OF  the  voice  in  large  families 

One  reason  is  simply  the  way  in 
which  we  crowd  together.  It  is  prob- 
ably safe  to  say  that  more  pleasant 
speaking  voices  come  from  small 
families  than  from  large  ones.  If  we 
are  one  of  twelve  children,  and  we 
want  to  be  heard — well,  we  are  rather 
apt  to  discover  which  is  the  most 
piercing  tone  we  can  produce,  and 
then,  perhaps,  we  use  that  all  the  rest 
of  our  life.  People  should  take  great 
care  of  their  children's  voices  in  this 
respect,  especially  when  there  are 
many  children,  and  they  all  want  to 
speak  at  once  and  be  heard. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  a  good  rule  to 
listen  first  to  the  one  who  spoke  most 
nicely  and  quietly. 

A  person  who  speaks  in  a  high- 
pitched,  harsh  tone — as  if  he  scarcely 
expected  to  be  heard,  but  meant  to 
have  a  try — tells  us  something  about 
himself  and  his  surroundings.  Con- 
trast that  with  the  woman  who 
speaks  in  a  voice  rather  low-pitched, 
quiet,  and  musical.  In  so  doing,  she 
almost  tells  us — does  she  not — that 
she  is  accustomed  to  live  in  surround- 
ings of  peace  and  quiet  where  people 
do  not  interrupt  each  other,  where  no 
one  shouts,  and  that  she,  indeed, 
would  rather  not  be  heard  at  all  than 
make  distressing  noises.  In  perhaps 
the  most  heart-breaking  scene  he  ever 
wrote,  Shakespeare  makes  poor  King 
Lear  say  of  his  daughter  Cordelia: 
"Her  voice  was  ever  soft,  gentle,  and 
low,  an  excellent  thing  in  woman." 

To  some  children  who  read  these 
words,  this  may  appear  not  very  im- 
portant; but  if  we  wait  until  we  are 
unhappy,  or  until  we  are  ill,  or  until 
we  have  to  live  with  one  and  the  same 
person  all  our  life,  then  we  shall  find 
out  what  a  difference  it  makes  to  be 
surrounded  by  people  with  soft  speak- 
ing voices. 


The  great  value  of  cultivating  a 

SOFT  and  gentle  VOICE 

There  are  doctors  and  there  are 
nurses  who  are  worth  far  more  than 
others  are  to  their  patients,  not 
because  they  are  more  skilful  or  more 
conscientious,  but  because  they  have 
the  kind  of  voice  that  often  goes  half- 
way to  making  a  sick  person  well. 

Every  year  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  dollars  are  spent  on  singing  lessons 
and  on  listening  to  singers.  That  is 
all  very  well  in  its  way,  but  it  is  a 
curious  thing  that  so  few  of  us  trouble 
at  all  about  speaking  lessons  or  about 
making  any  conscious  effort  at  all  to 
speak  nicely.  Parents  will  cheerfully 
spend  large  sums  of  money  on  having 
their  children  taught  to  sing,  and  will, 
at  the  same  time,  allow  those  children 
to  talk  regularly  in  a  way  which  would 
distress  any  dog. 

We  already  know  upon  what  the 
pitch  of  the  voice  depends,  and  we 
know,  too,  that  a  tone  of  any  given 
pitch  may  have  different  shades  of 
color,  or  quality.  This  is,  at  first, 
not  easy  to  understand,  but  it  becomes 
clear  as  we  study  sound. 
Why   we    can    sing    the    different 

VOWELS  on  the  same  NOTE 

The  fact  is,  that  when  w^e  speak  or 
sing  on  a  given  note,  that  note  is  really 
a  mixture  of  a  large  number  of  notes. 
The  lowest  of  these  is  the  principal 
one,  and  is  the  one  we  hear  best.  But 
mixed  up  with  it  there  are  several 
others,  called  over-tones,  which  color 
it  and  give  it  its  quality. 

Now,  we  all  know  that  it  is  possible 
to  speak  or  sing  any  of  the  vowels  on 
the  same  note.  When  we  read  this, 
we  should  quietly  say  or  sing  a,  e,  i,  o,  u 
to  ourselves  on  the  same  note — and, 
of  course,  these  are  by  no  means  all  the 
vowel  sounds  that  there  are.  Now,  if 
these  are  all  on  the  same  note,  what 
makes  the  difference  between  them? 
The    whole    difference    between    the 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


135 


vowels  consists  of  a  difference  in  the 
number  and  proportion  and  com- 
parative loudness  of  the  over-tones. 
When  we  sing  a,  e  on  the  same  note, 
the  difference  is  that  when  we  make 
the  e  we  do  something  which  alters  the 
over-tones  that  made  a;  and  so,  again, 
when  we  change  the  tone  to  o  or  to  ah, 
or  to  any  other. 

If  we  carefully  notice  when  we  do 
this,  we  shall  feel  that  something  is 
happening  inside  our  mouths.  We  are 
moving  our  throat  in  a  different  way; 
we  change  the  position  and  the  shape 
of  the  tongue,  or,  in  some  cases — as 
when  we  change  the  sound  to  o — we 
move  the  lips. 

How  WE  CAN  MAKE  DIFFERENT  SOUNDS 
BY  MOVING  THE  VOICE  ORGANS 

In  all  these  cases  the  larynx  is 
unchanged,  and  the  vocal  cords  are 
just  doing  what  they  did  at  first;  but 
we  are  altering  the  shape  of  the 
spaces  above  the  larynx — the  resona- 
tors, as  they  are  called — and  so  the 
over-tones  are  changed,  and,  instead 
of  the  particular  set  of  over-tones 
which  we  have  agreed  to  call  a,  there 
comes  another  which  we  have  agreed 
to  call  e,  and  so  on. 

Children  learn  to  make  these  sounds 
by  imitation.  That,  by  the  way,  is 
no  explanation  of  how  it  is  done,  but 
still  it  is  done.  Now,  youth  is  the 
time  for  learning,  and  afterwards  not 
only  is  it  difficult  to  learn  new  things, 
but  also  it  is  difficult  to  unlearn  what 
we  learned  in  youth.  Different  lan- 
guages have  different  vowel  sounds. 
Probably,  on  the  whole,  none  of  them 
is  more  difficult  to  learn  to  pronounce 
than  any  of  the  others.  The  question 
is  really  at  what  time  in  our  lives  we 
are  asked  to  do  so. 

Every  nation  calls  the  sounds  of  the 
words  of  every  other  nation  jaw- 
breaking  for  this  reason.  In  English, 
for  instance,  we  do  not  have  the  vowel 
sounds  represented  by  the  German  ii 


or  ue;  nor  has  our  o  exactly  the  same 
sound  as  the  Italian  o.  So  we  find  it 
very  difficult  to  make  those  sounds 
when  we  try  to  speak  those  languages, 
and,  as  a  rule,  we  do  not  make  them 
rightly.  We  may  talk  very  good 
German  or  Italian,  but  the  German 
or  the  Italian  knows  very  well  that 
these  are  not  the  languages  we  learned 
from  the  cradle. 

Why  a  foreigner  can  never  speak 
english  correctly 

In  just  the  same  way,  a  foreigner 
may  use  English  far  more  correctly 
and  wisely  than  we  do  ourselves,  but 
though  he  lives  half  a  century  in 
America,  rnd  though  he  may  be  a 
very  musical  person,  yet  he  will  not 
make  his  vowel  sounds  quite  correctly. 
The  lesson  of  this  is  to  teach  us  how 
marvelously  delicate  are  the  tiny 
movements  of  tongue  and  throat  and 
cheeks  and  lips  which  decide  the 
difference  between  ham  as  we  say  it, 
and  hara  as  a  German,  speaking 
English,  says  it. 

Another  of  the  consequences  of  the 
fact  that  children  learn  by  imitation  is 
that  if  people,  as  children,  have 
unfortunately  heard  the  vowel  sounds 
not  quite  rightly  made,  it  is  hard 
work,  and  perhaps  impossible,  for 
them  ever  afterwards  to  get  them 
quite  rightly.  Now,  to  make  the 
vowel  sounds  properly  is  a  mark  of 
having  a  delicate  ear,  and  of  having 
been  surrounded  by  people  who  rather 
cared  about  these  things,  and  so, 
though  a  man  may  speak  beautifully 
and  be  a  wicked  man,  or  talk  with  a 
"shocking  accent,"  as  we  say,  and  be 
a  hero,  it  is  worth  v/hile,  perhaps,  to 
pay  more  attention  to  this  matter 
than  many  of  us  do.  The  number  of 
possible  vowel  sounds  is  almost  end- 
less, for  every  possible  position  of  the 
parts  of  the  body  concerned  in  speech 
will  alter,  by  affecting  the  over-tones, 
the    sound    produced    by    the    vocal 


136 


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cords,  and  so  each  of  these  positions 
will  correspond  to  a  difiFerent  vowel 
sound.  But,  as  we  know  very  well, 
speech  consists  not  only  of  vowel 
sounds,  but  also  of  consonants,  like 
b,  c,  d,  f,  g,  and  so  on,  and  of  these, 
also,  there  are  a  very  large  number. 

The    difference    between    a    vowel 
sound  and  a  consonant  sound 

The  first  thing  for  us  to  learn  is, 
what  makes  the  difference  between  a 
vowel  and  a  consonant,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  at  all  as  to  the  answer. 
The  difference  between  a  vowel  and  a 
consonant  is  the  difference  between  a 
musical  note  and  a  noise — that  is  to 
say,  the  difference  between  a  series  of 
regular  sound  waves  and  an  irregular 
disturbance  of  the  air.  All  the  vowels 
are  musical  notes ;  to  be  more  accurate, 
they  are  blends  of  many  musical  notes 
— the  principal  one  and  its  over-tones. 
Now,  i  and  o  are  just  as  much  musical 
notes  as  a  or  ah;  but  if,  instead  of 
saying  ah,  we  say  ark,  we  are  using  a 
consonant,  and  it  takes  very  little 
time  to  prove  that  we  are  now  making 
a  sound  which  is  not  a  musical  note 
at  all,  but  a  noise.  There  are  many 
proofs  of  this. 

For  instance,  the  ear  tells  us  the 
difference  in  pleasantness  between  a 
language  full  of  harsh  consonants, 
such  as  German,  and  a  "liquid" 
language,  as  we  say,  like  Italian, 
where  two  consonants  of  different 
kinds  are  scarcely  ever  allowed  to  be 
next  to  each  other,  and  where  the 
most  is  made  of  the  vowels.  In 
general,  the  higher  the  proportion  of 
vowels  to  consonants  in  a  language, 
the  more  musical  we  call  it. 

Some  sounds  that  nobody  is  able  to 

SING 

Again,  we  know  that  it  is  possible 
to  sing  a  vowel,  and  though  we  may 
sustain  the  note  for  many  seconds, 
we  are  all  the  time  quite  certainly 
producing  the  sound  of  that  particular 


vowel — if  we  sing  properly.  But  no 
one  can  sing  a  consonant,  because 
every  consonant  is  really  an  inter- 
ruption, and  nothing  else,  to  the 
musical  tone  produced  by  the  larynx. 
We  seem  to  sing  the  letter  7n,  it  is  true; 
but,  in  fact,  when  we  listen  to  our- 
selves, we  find  that,  after  the  first 
instant,  we  are  simply  singing  through 
our  nose  a  note  which  is  neither  m  nor 
anything  else.  This  fact  of  the  nature 
of  consonants,  as  compared  with 
vowels,  is  very  important,  both  for 
the  singer  and  the  speaker,  but  in 
quite  different  ways,  and  everyone 
who  speaks  or  sings  knows  the  dif- 
ference. 

Why  a  SINGER  likes  to  sing  IN  ITALIAN 

The  first  business  of  the  singer  is  to 
sing — that  is  to  say,  to  make  music. 
But  the  singer  is,  as  a  rule,  asked  to 
sing  words,  though  sometimes  he  may 
be  allowed  to  sing  for  a  little  while  a 
mere  vowel  like  ah;  and  words  are 
made  up  of  vowels  and  consonants — 
that  is,  of  sounds  which  are  them- 
selves musical,  and  sounds  which 
are  the  very  opposite  of  musical;  some 
very  unmusical,  like  s,  and  some  less 
so,  like  /. 

Thus,  for  choice,  the  singer  will  use 
a  language,  such  as  Italian,  where  the 
proportion  of  vowels  to  consonants 
is  high,  and  when  the  consonants  do 
come  in,  which,  of  course,  they  must 
if  what  he  says  is  to  be  understood, 
he  makes  a  point  of  dealing  with 
them  very  quicklj\  Let  them  be 
definitely  uttered,  so  that  the  people 
may  hear  what  is  being  sung;  but  let 
this  be  done  very  quickly,  because  they 
are  noises  interrupting  the  music — 
every  one  of  them.  When  we  begin 
to  learn  to  sing,  we  are  all  liable  to  try 
to  sing  on  the  consonants,  and  the 
first  thing  we  have  to  learn  is  to  do  the 
singing  on  the  vowels,  which  alone  can 
really  be  sung.  It  is  interesting  to 
note,  by  the  way,  that  the  air-waves 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


137 


made  in  singing,  and  even  in  speaking, 
will  throw  scattered  powder  into 
patterns,  and  on  an  accompanying 
page  are  some  pictures  drawn  by  the 
human  voice. 

The  great  importance  to  a  speaker 
of  pronouncing  his  consonants  well 

To  return  to  speaking,  the  first 
business  of  a  speaker,  as  contrasted 
with  a  singer,  is  to  be  understood,  and 
when  we  come  to  study  the  words  of 
any  language,  we  find  that  the 
differences  between  them  are  due  more 
to  consonants  than  to  vowels.  The 
rule  for  the  speaker,  therefore,  is 
exactly  the  opposite  of  the  rule  for 
the  singer.  Whatever  happens,  he 
must  make  no  mistake  about  his 
consonants.  He  must  not  drop  his 
voice  at  the  ends  of  sentences  or  at 
the  ends  of  words.  It  may  be  just 
at  the  end  of  the  word  that  the  con- 
sonant comes  which  tells  people  what 
the  word  really  is.  The  fortunate  and 
rare  speaker  is  he  who  manages  to  get 
his  consonants  clearly  enough  sounded 
so  as  to  be  understood,  and  yet  is  not 
compelled  to  sacrifice  all  the  music  of 
his  vowels.  Such  a  speaker  is  a 
delight  to  listen  to,  for  he  satisfies 
both  needs  of  his  audience — the  need 
of  pleasant  sound  and  of  understand- 
ing without  effort. 

We  do  not  need  to  study  the  con- 
sonants very  long  before  we  find, 
either  by  noticing  what  happens  in 
ourselves  or  by  looking  at  other 
people,  that  they  can  be  classed. 
Certain  parts  of  the  organs  of  speech 
are  specially  used  in  making  one  set 
of  consonants,  and  other  parts  in 
making  other  sets.     For  instance,  we 


notice  that  we  make  p,  h,  and  m  with 
our  lips,  and  so  they  are  called  the 
labial  consonants,  after  the  Latin 
word  for  lip.  The  first  two  we  make 
by  a  little  explosion  of  the  lips,  the 
difference  between  them  being  due  not 
to  the  violence  of  the  explosion,  but 
to  the  quickness  of  it. 

The  use  of  the  tongue  and  the  teeth 
in  pronouncing  our  words 

Then  we  notice  that  the  tongue  is 
mainly  used  in  the  making  of  such 
vowels  as  I  and  r.  There  is  certainly 
no  doubt  about  the  r  if  we  roll  it. 
Then  there  are  certain  consonants 
where  there  is  no  doubt  that  we  use 
the  teeth,  as,  for  instance,  d  and  t, 
and  these  are  called  dentals ;  and  there 
are  others,  such  as  the  sound  ng,  in 
which  we  evidently  use  the  soft  palate 
— that  is,  the  back  part  of  the  roof  of 
the  mouth.  So  we  call  that  a  palatal 
consonant. 

The  larynx  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  consonants,  for,  as  we  have  seen, 
its  business  is  to  produce  musical 
tones.  We  have  also  seen  that  the 
quality  of  sound  produced  decides  the 
vowel,  and  that  this  is  decided  by  the 
position  of  the  tongue,  the  lips,  and 
so  on.  It  follows  that  if  we  allow  air 
to  pass  up  between  the  vocal  cords, 
but  without  using  them,  we  can  still 
produce  all  the  vowels  and  con- 
sonants; in  other  words,  we  can 
whisper,  and  that  is  what  whispering  is. 

Thus,  just  as  there  are  defects  in 
speech  due  to  defects  in  the  machine, 
as,  for  instance,  loss  of  the  teeth,  so 
also  there  are  defects  due  to  what 
controls  the  machine,  and  the  chief 
of  these  is  what  we  call  stammering. 


138 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


\       ^M 

l^!E»fmi&r.| 

\   Nerve  oi 
\    Smell       ^ 

r^^]^-==-c: 

W^.  Fibres  of  the 

/^tKtm 

/  ^^^^^^^^HB 

yHal^tt. 

'    /illllliPiKPP.    1 

/    -^^H^  partition  Bone  ', 
/  iHHHKf'^  the  Nasal  ca 

■^ 

\  ^^^^^^VnJnsMBiRBP* 

^^^1^ 

)  ^^1^^.^-^ 

^^H/F^         Tongue            ^[Hhk 

In  the  first  of  these  pictures  we  see  the  outer  side  of  the  nose,  with  the  nerves  of  smell  and  feeling,  and  the  second 
picture  shows  the  inner  part  of  the  nose,  with  the  dividing  plate  of  bone  between  the  two  nostrils. 


SMELL    AND     TASTE 


SMELL  and  taste  are  two  senses  have  been  carried  through  the  air  to 

which   are  of  very   trifling   im-  the   nose.     This  fact  that  smell  and 

portance  compared  with  hearing  taste  are  so  limited  in  their  range  makes 

and    vision,    and    we    certainly    need  them    very    inferior    to    hearing    and 

waste  no  time  in  troubling  to  ask  how  vision. 

they  may  be  taken  care  of;  but  they  Only  a  very  small  part  of  our  knowl- 

are,    nevertheless,     very    interesting,  edge  of  the  world  in  which  we  live 

These  two  senses  are  often  called  the  enters  by  these  two  gateways  of  knowl- 


chemical  senses. 
Unlike  hearing 
and  vision,  they 
do  not  depend  up- 
on waves,  whether 
in  the  ether  or  in 
the  air.  We  only 
smell  or  taste 
wdien  the  thing  is 
actually  touching 
the  parts  of  the 
body  which  have 
this  power;  we  see 
and  hear  at  a  dis- 
tance, so  to  speak, 
but  we  cannot 
smell  or  taste  at  a 
distance.  When 
we  seem  to  smell 
at  a  distance,  par- 
ticles of  the  thing 
we    are    smelling 


M'imatfi^^.    "    wm^ 

\ 

m''           IH^^^H 

1             '  IHkHH 

M^         .iUA"^^^^^^^^ 

'  ^^^KB^^^^Ktfx^£T^^^a£}:9''jr  -'^//f  i  i^  ^ 

Tast 

T-^^^^^^^jf 

oud 

t-^SKtlKBM^^KHi^^//  // ^ 

m:                   sam^^^^ 

I^^^^^H^p  /4'/ 

Buds            '  ■  -        ■  •  •".  !■  /'•■ 

In  this  picture  of  the  tongue,  the  side  has  been  removed 
to  show  how  the  nerves  run  from  the  sense  organs,  or  buds 
of  taste,  to  the  brain.  The  taste  buds  are  grouped  at  the 
back  and  tip  of  the  tongue. 


edge — the  senses 
of  taste  and  smell. 
We  know  that 
these  two  senses 
are  in  great  decline 
among  the  higher 
animals,  and  espe- 
cially in  mankind. 
While  the  senses 
of  vision  and  hear- 
ing have  become 
more  important, 
the  senses  of  taste 
and  smell  have 
become  less  so. 
These  two  senses 
are  closely  allied, 
and  they  very 
commonly  work 
together.  The 
taste  of  such  a 
thing  as  cinnamon 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  139 

is    very    like     its     smell.      A    very  so  does  a  thing  like  ammonia,  which  is 

large    part  of  what  we    usually    call  irritating,    besides    having    a    smell, 

taste  is    really    smell.      This   is    true  But  this  pair  of  nerves  is  not  affected 

not  only  of  the  aroma  of  coffee  or  tea,  at  all  by  scents  that  are  not  irritating, 

but   also   of   the   flavors   of   ordinary  The  other  pair  of  nerves  that  come 

articles  of  diet.     We  can  prove  this  to  the  nose  are  the  nerves  of  smell; 

for  ourselves  by  noticing  how  differ-  they  are  known  as  the  first  pair  of 

ently  our  food  seems  to  taste  when  the  nerves,  because  they  come  off  from  the 

nose  is  thrown  out  of  action  by  a  bad  brain  in  front  of  any  others.     These 

cold.  nerves   are   apt   to  wear  out,   so   to 

We  do  not  smell  with  the  whole  of  speak,  in  old  age,  so  that  old  people 
our  nose.  Careful  study  with  the  lose,  in  some  degree,  their  sense  of 
microscope  shows  us  exactly  what  part  smell,  just  as  they  often  become  deaf, 
of  the  nose  we  do  smell  with.  Rough-  As  everyone  knows,  there  is  an  end- 
ly  speaking,  we  may  say  that  it  is  the  less  number  of  possible  smells.  Nat- 
roof  of  the  nose  and  the  upper  third  urally,  we  wish  to  try  to  group  them 
of  it  that  we  smell  by.  in  the  same  manner  that  we  group 

The  rest  of  the  nose  is  lined  by  cells  tastes,  but  it  really  is  very  diflScult 

which    have    little    projections    that  to   classify    smells   in   any   way   that 

wave    backwards    and    forwards    and  people    would    agree    upon.     A    very 

keep  the  channel  clear;   but  the  smell  large  number  of  oils  found  in  plants 

region  of  the  nose  is  lined  by  special  have  rather  the  same  sort  of  smell, 

smell-cells,   which   correspond   to   the  though,  perhaps,  it  is  not  very  easy 

special  cells  that  we  found  in  the  inner  to    recognize    any    particular    resem- 

ear  and  in  the  retina.     Each  of  the  blance  between  such  smells  as  turpen- 

smell-cells   is   connected   with   a   tiny  tine  and  lavender, 

nerve-fiber  of  its  own.     We  find  that  family    likeness    of    smells 

this  tiny  nerve-fiber  really  grows  out  Still,  on  the  whole,  there  is  a  gen- 

of  the  smell-cell,  which  is  therefore  a  eral  family  likeness  between  the  smells 

nerve-cell  that  has  become  changed,  of  plants  and  flowers;    and,  when  we 

This  is   different  from   the  rods   and  examine    the    oils    that    cause    these 

cones  of  the  retina,  or  from  the  special  smells,  we  find  that  they  are  related 

cells  in  the  inner  ear,  because  they  are  to  each  other  in  their  chemical  build, 

not  changed  nerve-cells.     The  differ-  There    are    certain    other    groups    of 

ence   probably    indicates    to    us    how  smells,   such   as   the   group,  to  which 

very   ancient    the   sense   of   smell   is,  carbolic    acid    belongs;     and   we   can 

dating  back  to  a  time  in  the  history  of  learn  enough  to  see  that  there  is  a 

the  body  long  before  so  many  different  connection  between  the  chemistry  of 

cells  had  been  made  for  so  many  dif-  a  compound  and  its  smell,  but  that  is 

ferent  purposes  as  we  find  nowadays,  about  all  we  can  say.     It  is  interesting 

The    nerves    in   the    nose  to  notice  that  electricity  can  stimulate 

The  nose  is  supplied  by  two  pairs  of  our  sense  of  smell  as  it  can  stimulate 

nerves  coming  from  the  brain.     These  all  our  senses,   and  the  sensation   it 

two  pairs  of  nerves  are  quite  different  causes    is    rather    like    the    smell    of 

in  their  duties.     One  pair  has  nothing  phosphorus.     It  has  also  been  shown 

to  do  with  smell  at  all,  but  has  to  do  that  if  we  take  a  series  of  chemical 

with    ordinary    feelings    in    the    nose,  substances  which  differ  from  one  an- 

Any thing    tickling,    or    pricking,    or  other  in  a  regular  way,  their  properties 

hurting  the  nose  affects  these  nerves;  of  smell  also  differ  regularly. 


WHY  WE  SHOULD  BREATHE  THROUGH  THE  NOSE 


All  sensible  people  breathe  through  the  nose  and  not  through  the  mouth,  and  this  picture  shows  the  reason  why.  The 
little  hairs  lining  the  channels  of  the  nose  act  as  a  filter,  keeping  back  dust  and  other  harmful  things,  and  the  value  of 
ihis  filter  is  lost  if  we  breathe  through  the  mouth,  where  dust  and  germs  have  free  entrance  into  the  lungs.  This  pic- 
ture shows  also  the  little  cells  which  enable  us  to  smell,  and  the  picture  on  page  138  shows  more  clearly  the  nerve  of 
smell,  seen  at  the  top  of  this  picture.  When  we  smell  a  thing,  small  parts  of  it  break  away  and  touch  the  cells 
which  live  on  the  nerve  of  smell,  and  these  cells  can  detect  a  particle  of  musk  that  weighs  only  a  thirty-millionth  of  a 
grain,  the  sense  of  smell  being  more  acute  even  than  the  eye  aided  by  the  microscope. 

14& 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


m 


For  instance,  there  is  a  long  series 
of  chemical  substances  beginning  with 
marsh-gas.  This  has  no  smell — a  very 
unfortunate  fact  for  miners.  The 
next  member  of  the  marsh-gas  series 
has  a  faint  smell,  and  farther  on  in  the 
list  the  smells  become  very  strong. 
It  is  also  noticed  that  the  things  which 
have  the  most  smell  are  the  things, 
as  a  rule,  which  weigh  heaviest. 

Sir  William  Ramsay  advanced  a 
theory  about  smell,  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  ago,  which  is  probably 
nearer  ths  truth  than  anything  else 
we  can  say.  He  thought  that  the 
power  of  exciting  smell  increases  with 
the  size  of  the  molecules  of  a  substance, 
provided,  of  course,  that  it  is  a  liquid, 
or  a  gas,  and  not  solid.  Hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen  have  no  smell, 
probably  because  their  molecules  are 
too  small. 
What  smell  depends  upon  and  what 

TASTE  does  not  DEPEND  UPON 

The  first  member  of  the  series  of 
alcohols  has  no  smell;  the  next,  which 
has  a  larger  molecule,  has  a  faint 
smell;  and  the  still  heavier  alcohols 
have  very  decided  smells.  All  this  is 
very  far  from  fully  explaining  to  us 
what  happens  when  we  smell. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  sneez- 
ing cannot  be  excited  through  the 
nerves  of  smell,  though  it  can  be  ex- 
cited through  the  nerves  of  ordinary 
feeling  in  the  nose,  and  through  the 
nerves  of  sight.  Lastly,  it  is  noticed 
in  the  case  of  all  the  senses,  more  or 
less,  that  they  are  aroused  by  differ- 
ences outside  them,  and  soon  take 
much  less  notice  of  what  excited  them 
very  much  at  first,  if  it  remains  the 
same. 

This  is  more  striking,  perhaps, 
in  the  case  of  smell  than  in  that  of 
any  other  sense.  We  have  all  noticed 
how  quickly  we  cease  to  be  aware 
of  a  smell  which  at  first  was  perhaps 
very  unpleasant. 


Taste 

The  sense  of  taste  resides  mainly 
in  the  tongue,  but  does  not  depend 
alone  on  the  tongue.  The  special 
cells  which  are  concerned  with  it, 
corresponding  to  the  special  cells 
found  in  the  organs  of  the  other  senses, 
may  also  be  discovered  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  soft  palate,  and  scattered 
over  part  of  the  throat  in  front  of  the 
tonsils  on  each  side.  A  person  who 
has  lost  his  tongue  does  not  entirely 
lose  his  sense  of  taste. 

As  in  other  cases,  special  nerve- 
fibers  run  to  the  cells  of  taste,  which 
are  most  rich  on  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue,  along  the  upper  part  of  the 
edge  of  the  tongue,  and  its  tip.  Taste 
is  much  less  acute  on  the  front  part 
of  the  surface  of  the  tongue.  We 
can  notice  this  especially  if  we  place 
a  quinine  powder  there  and  then 
swallow  it. 

Tastes  can  be  classified  much  better 
than  smells.  Most  of  them  come 
under  the  headings  of  bitter,  sweet, 
acid,  alkaline,  and  salt.  The  last 
three  of  these  are  probably  not  pure 
tastes,  but  mixtures  of  taste  and 
ordinary  feeling,  so  they  can  become 
painful  when  they  are  very  strong. 
But  bitter  and  sweet  are  probably 
pure  tastes,  and,  however  strong,  and 
unpleasant,  they  can  never  cause  such 
pain  as  the  others  do. 

If  things  are  to  be  tasted,  they  must 
be  dissolved  in  a  liquid. 

With  great  labor  and  difficulty,  the 
nerve-fibers  that  have  to  do  with 
taste  have  been  traced  from  the 
tongue,  palate,  and  throat  to  the 
brain.  The  curious  thing  is  that 
there  are  not  separate  nerves  of  taste  as 
there  are  nerves  of  smell,  vision,  and 
hearing;  but  the  special  nerve-fibers 
of  taste  run  along  in  other  nerves 
which  have  nothing  to  do  with  taste, 
and  they  do  so  in  a  most  extra- 
ordinarily complicated  way. 


U2 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


In  the  left-hand  picture,  showing  a  nerve-cell  magnified,  we  see  the  nucleus  and  nerve-fibers.  These  fibers  may  inter- 
twine with  those  of  another  cell,  as  seen  In  the  right-hand  picture,  but  they  never  unite.  The  middle  picture  shows  a 
bundle  of  nerve-flbers  in  their  sheath,  with  smaller  bundles  branching  oft. 


THE      FOREST     OF      NERVES      WITHIN      US 


IF  we  feel  gently  at  the  back  of  the 
elbow,  rather  towards  the  inner 
side,  we  find  a  thing  that  feels 
like  a  sort  of  cord,  and  if  we  squeeze 
it  or  knock  it  accidentally,  we  discover 
that  it  is  what  we  call  the  "funny- 
bone."  It  is  a  nerve,  and  therefore 
belongs  to  the  most  marvelous  of  all 
marvelous  things.  If  we  take  a 
nerve  and  look  at  it,  we  find  that  it 
is  just  a  cord  made  up  of  tiny  threads 
which  are  called  fibers.  It  is  these 
fibers  that  are  the  real  nerves.  The 
big  cord  is  simply  a  bundle  of  them 
bound  together  into  a  larger  cord. 

A  nerve-fiber  is  a  thing  which  is 
probably  not  to  be  found  anywhere 
in  the  vegetable  world,  but  these 
things  begin  to  appear  quite  low  in  the 
scale  of  the  animal  world,  and  their 
importance  and  number  become  great- 
er and  greater  as  we  ascend.  There  is 
no  part  of  the  body  that  has  not  nerves 
supplied  to  it,  and  there  is  no  part  of 
the  body  that  does  not  suffer  in  some 
way  or  another  if  the  nerves  running 
to  it  be  damaged  or  cut. 

When  we  examine  a  nerve-fiber,  we 
find  that  it  is  a  very  long  thread, 
usually  surrounded  by  a  sheath  or 
coat  which  contains  a  quantity  of  a 
special    kind    of    fat.    There    are    a 


great  many  points  of  view  from  which 
we  can  think  of  a  nerve  as  if  it  were 
an  electrical  wire,  and  the  sheath  may 
be  regarded  as  what  is  called  an  in- 
sulator— a  thing  to  prevent  the  cur- 
rent that  flows  in  the  nerve  from  leak- 
ing outside  it.  It  is  very  interesting 
to  take  a  modern  electrical  cable  such 
as  men  lay  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
to  cut  it  across  and  see  what  it  looks 
like;  and  then  to  take  a  good-sized 
nerve  and  cut  it  across  and  magnify 
it  so  as  to  compare  it  with  the  cut 
cable.  We  see  at  once  that  men  have 
found  it  useful  to  make  their  cables 
on  exactly  the  same  principle  as  nerves 
are  made,  wath  bundles  of  fibers  big 
and  little,  all  carefully  insulated  from 
each  other.  Of  course,  the  nerve  is 
much  more  w^onderful,  but  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  the  way  in  which  the 
nerve-fibers  are  packed  together,  and 
the  way  in  which  each  is  sheathed  so 
as  to  prevent  any  leakage  of  its  pre- 
cious current,  are  really  just  the  same 
as  in  the  case  of  the  cable. 

When  we  excite  our  "funny-bone," 
as  we  call  it,  by  hitting  it,  we  feel  a 
tingling  in  our  fingers.  We  have  ex- 
cited the  fibers  which  carry  feeling 
along  the  nerve  from  the  fingers  to 
the  brain.     In  other  cases  when  we 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


US 


excite  a  nerve,  muscles  will  twitch. 
We  have  excited  fibers  which  carry 
orders  along  the  nerve  from  the  brain 
to  those  muscles.  This  shows  that 
nerves  carry  something,  and  may  do 
so  in  either  direction,  from  the  brain, 
or  to  the  brain.  The  nerve-fiber  is 
therefore  a  conductor.  It  is  just  like 
the  wires  in  the  cable.  They  do  not 
make  messages,  but  they  carry  them. 
What  runs  along  the  wire  will  run  in 
either  direction.  Any  particular  nerve- 
fiber  carries  what  it  carries  only  in 
one  direction;  however,  it  has  been 
proven  that  it  may  carry  messages  in 
either  direction. 

The  living  nerve  that  carries  mes- 
sages THROUGH   OUR   BODIES 

The  wire  carries  an  electrical  cur- 
rent. As  long  as  the  wire  is  not  bro- 
ken, and  is  properly  insulated,  the 
current  will  run.  The  wire  is  not 
alive,  and,  though  we  by  no  means 
understand  what  happens  in  it,  yet 
it  has  not  about  it  the  mystery  which 
we  find  when  we  look  at  a  nerve. 

For  the  noteworthy  thing  about  a 
nerve  is  that  it  will  only  carry  what  it 
carries  when  it  is  alive.  We  can  re- 
move a  piece  of  nerve  from  an  animal 
that  has  been  killed,  and  can  study  it 
in  various  ways.  If  we  keep  it  moist 
with  water  containing  a  little  salt, 
and  if  we  keep  it  warm  enough,  it  will 
live  for  quite  a  long  time,  and  as  long 
as  it  is  alive  things  that  disturb  one 
end  of  it  will  send  something  through 
it.  But  when  it  dies  it  will  no  more 
carry  messages  than  a  piece  of  string 
will. 

What  makes  the  difference  be- 
tween life  and  death  in  the  nerve  we 
cannot  understand  until  some  day, 
perhaps,  we  shall  learn  what  life  is. 
We  can  see  no  change  under  the 
microscope  to  account  for  this  differ- 
ence, for  we  have  to  kill  the  nerve  in 
order  to  look  at  it  under  the  micro- 
scope. 


The  MYSTERY  OF  THE   NERVE  CURRENT 
THAT    NO   MAN   CAN    UNDERSTAND 

The  thing  that  runs  along  the 
nerve  we  call  a  nerve-current,  or  a 
nervous  current.  Current  simply 
means  something  that  runs,  and  that 
is  really  almost  all  we  know  about  it. 
It  is  not  the  same  as  anything  else  in 
the  world;  it  directly  depends  upon 
the  life  of  the  nerve,  as  we  have  seen. 
It  is  not  electricity.  Curious  changes 
are  produced  in  a  nerve  when  a  nerve- 
current  runs  along  it,  and  among  these 
changes  is  the  production  of  electrical 
currents  of  various  kinds,  which  have 
been  long  and  carefully  studied.  These 
show  that  an  electrical  change  has 
been  produced  in  the  nerve  when  a 
nerve-current  runs  along  it,  and  the 
study  of  these  electrical  changes  may 
help  us  to  understand  the  nerve,  but  it 
is  a  very  great  and  serious  mistake  to 
suppose  that  the  nerve-current  is 
electrical. 

Electrical  currents  in  a  cable  or  any- 
where else  move  at  a  wholly  different 
speed  from  that  of  a  nerve-current. 
Nerve-currents  have  been  measured 
again  and  again,  and  they  travel  at 
rates  which,  compared  with  the  move- 
ment of  electricity,  are  very  slow. 
The  rate  of  a  nerve-current  seems  to 
be  about  the  same  as  the  rate  at  which 
a  baseball  can  be  thrown.  An  elec- 
trical current  is  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  times  faster. 

Nothing  seems  to  be  used  up  in  a 
nerve  when  it  conveys  a  current,  any 
more  than  in  the  case  of  a  telegraph 
wire.  So  we  cannot  make  a  nerve 
tired.  As  long  as  it  remains  alive,  it 
will  go  on  sending  currents  as  often 
as  we  choose  to  start  them  in  it.  The 
case  of  a  nerve-cell  is  very  different. 

The     NERVE-CELLS     UPON     WHICH    ALL 
OUR   FEELINGS    DEPEND 

We  have  only  been  talking  about 
conductors,  remember.  We  have,  so 
to  speak,  taken  a  piece  of  one  of  these 


m  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

conductors,  just  as  if  one  took  a  piece  have  one  fiber  coming  out  from  each 
out  of  a  cable,  and  we  have  studied  end  of  them.  The  fibers  from  any 
that.  But  if  we  wished  really  to  nerve-ce!l  are  very  often  found  going 
understand  telegraphy,  we  should  to  meet  the  fibers  from  another  nerve- 
have  to  study  what  is  at  the  ends  of  cell.  Suppose,  then,  we  can  trace  a 
the  cable,  and  that  applies  to  the  case  nerve-fiber  from  a  cell  somewhere  in 
of  the  nerve,  too.  We  found  that  we  the  brain,  for  instance,  and  we  find 
could  excite  a  nerve  by  hitting  it  that  it  meets  another  fiber  from 
against  something,  as  when  we  hit  our  another  cell,  perhaps  at  some  other 
funny-bone,  or  by  pinching  it;  and  place  in  the  brain.  It  is  interesting  to 
there  are  dozens  of  other  ways,  as,  know  whether  the  two  fibers  run  into 
for  instance,  by  giving  one  end  of  it  each  other.  Careful  study  shows  that 
an  electrical  shock,  dropping  chemi-  the  fibers  never  run  into  each  other, 
cals  on  it,  and  so  on.  But,  of  course.  At  their  extreme  ends  they  break  up 
that  is  not  what  happens  naturally  into  tiny  little  fingers,  so  to  speak, 
in  our  bodies.  We  must  find  where  and  the  fingers  of  the  two  fibers  will 
the  nerve  comes  from.  interlace;  but  they  never  run  into 
Every  nerve-fiber  grows  out  of  a  each  other.  If  we  study  parts  of  the 
nerve-cell.  It  is  part  of  that  cell,  brain  where  many  nerve-cells  and 
It  is  only  the  servant  of  the  cell,  nerve-fibers  exist  together,  we  find,  as 
carrying  orders  from  it  or  messages  to  someone  has  said,  that  it  is  very  like 
it.  The  real  thing,  where  the  greatest  a  dense  forest.  Their  leaves  and 
mystery  lies,  and  upon  which  every-  branches  intermingle  with  each  other 
thing  depends,  is  the  nerve-cell.  When  in  the  closest  possible  way;  but  they 
we  study  the  development  of  the  body,  never  actually  join.  We  shall  never 
we  find  that  every  nerve  grows  out  of  find  a  leaf  that  belongs  to  two  trees, 
the  cell  that  it  belongs  to;  we  find  What  the  simple  brain  of  a  bee  or 
also  that,  if  a  nerve  be  cut  across  the  wasp  is  like 
part  which  is  next  the  cell  is  unhurt  All  this  is  very  important,  because 
but  the  part  which  is  separated  from  it  teaches  us  that  just  as  a  gas  is 
the  cell  invariably  dies.  We  find  also  made  of  atoms,  just  as  the  body  as  a 
that,  if  a  nerve  cell  is  destroyed  or  whole  is  made  of  cells,  so  the  nervous 
poisoned,  the  nerve-fiber  running  out  system  is  made  up  of  true  units  which 
from  it  invariably  dies,  and  if  the  are  also  cells,  and  though  these  cells 
nerve-cell  has  been  actually  killed,  are  of  a  very  peculiar  kind  and  produce 
that   nerve-fiber   can   never    recover,  fibers    which    may    run    right    away 

So    these    "cable    wires"    are    not  from  the  body  of  the  cell  for  inches  or 

merely    alive,   but   they   are   created  even  feet,  yet  each  cell  remains  a  true 

by  living  cells,  of  which,  indeed,  they  unit. 

are  living  parts.     That  is  one  of  the  In  the  very  lowest  animals  that  have 

marvels   which   make  a  cable  a  very  nerve-cells  and  nerves,  the  number  is 

simple    thing   indeed   compared   with  very  few,  and  the  arrangement  very 

a  nerve.  simple.     They   are   usually   arranged 

The  dense   forest   of  nerves  that  merely  to  carry  feeling  from  the  out- 

GROWS  UP  IN  OUR  BODY  sidc  of  the  animal  to  its  inside.     But 

A   nerve-cell    may    have   only   one  as  we  ascend  the  scale,  nerve-cells  and 

fiber  coming  from  it,  or  it  may  have  nerves  get  more  numerous,  and  often, 

several.     Very  frequently,  for  certain  for  convenience,  numbers  of  them  get 

purposes,    we   find    nerve-cells   which  bunched    together    into    little    balls. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


U5 


each  of  which  is  a  sort  of  nervous 
center,  perhaps  somewhat  Hke  a  tele- 
phone exchange. 

When  these  collections  of  nerve- 
cells  become  very  large,  they  make  a 
thing  that  we  can  only  call  a  brain, 
and  such  are  the  brains  of  a  bee  or  a 
wasp,  for  instance.  The  whole  ar- 
rangement of  nerve-cells  and  nerve- 
fibers  is  called  a  nervous  system. 

When  the  first  backbones  came 
into  existence,  there  also  came  into 
existence  a  number  of  new  nerve- 
cells  and  nerve-fibers,  and  the  central 
home  of  this  new  nervous  system  was 
inside  the  backbone.  The  old  nervous 
system,  such  as  the  insects  have, 
remained,  and  communications  were 
established  between  it  and  the  new 
nervous  system. 

How    THE    BRAIN    SENDS    AND    RECEIVES 
MESSAGES  THROUGH  THE  NERVES 

In  all  animals  that  have  backbones, 
both  these  nervous  systems  are  found, 
and  we  may  say  very  roughly  that 
while  the  old  one,  which  we  ourselves 
inherit  from  the  days  before  backbones, 
looks  after  the  interior  life  of  the  body, 
it  is  the  new  nervous  system  that  is 
the  instrument  of  the  mind.  At  its 
upper  end,  the  long  tube  inside  the 
backbone  opens  out,  as  we  know,  into 
the  hollow  skull;  and  in  the  same  way 
the  nervous  matter  which  is  found  in 
the  backbone,  and  which  we  call  the 
spinal  cord,  becomes  enlarged,  and 
forms  what  we  call  the  brain. 

The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  form 
what  is  often  called  the  central  nervous 
system.  Through  holes  in  the  skull 
and  through  openings  in  the  backbone 
run  nerves  which  connect  the  central 
nervous  system  with  every  part  of 
the  body,  and  every  part  of  the  body 
with  the  central  nervous  system. 

It  seems  quite  clear  that,  whether 
we.  take  the  group  of  cells  that  forms 
a  mere  hair  or  any  other  of  the  least 
important    parts  of    the    body,    we 


always  find  that  it  has  a  perfect 
double  connection  with  the  central 
nervous  system.  The  brain,  or  the 
spinal  cord,  or  both,  can  send  to  it 
messages  upon  which  its  life  depends, 
and  it,  on  the  other  hand,  can  send 
messages  to  them. 

When  we  come  to  study  the  central 
nervous  system,  we  find  it  so  arranged 
by  means  of  this  double  connection 
that  every  tiniest  part  of  the  body  is 
really  in  true  communication,  when 
necessary,  with  every  other  part  of 
the  body  without  exception.  It  is 
this  amazing  fact  that  helps  to  explain 
how  the  body  becomes  a  whole  in 
spite  of  the  infinite  variety  and  num- 
ber of  its  parts.  In  no  city  on  earth, 
however  rich  in  telephones,  and  speak- 
ing tubes,  and  telegraphs,  and  post- 
offices,  and  messenger  boys,  is  there 
any  arrangement  a  thousandth  part  as 
wonderful  as  the  arrangement  by 
which  the  nervous  system  connects 
all  the  parts  of  the  city  of  Mansoul, 
as  John  Bunyan  called  it. 

The  FOREST  of  nerves  running  TO  AND 
FROM  EVERY  PART  OF  OUR  BODY 

We  have  already  learned  what  is 
necessary  regarding  nerves.  If  we 
simply  understand  that  the  lining  of 
the  heart,  the  wall  of  a  vein,  the 
base  of  a  nail,  every  muscle-fiber,  and 
all  other  parts  of  the  body  are  doubly 
connected  by  nerves  with  the  central 
nervous  system,  we  do  not  need  to 
inquire  how  and  where  these  nerves 
run;  though,  of  course,  the  doctor  has 
to  spend  long  months  and  years  in 
studying  this.  We  must  devote  our- 
selves now  to  the  central  nervous 
system,  and  especially  the  brain. 

The  central  nervous  system  con- 
sists, in  a  way,  of  a  number  of  levels, 
or  layers,  and,  as  the  bodies  of  animals 
have  become  more  and  more  wonder- 
ful, new  layers  have  been  piled  up  on 
the  older  ones,  and  each  new  layer  is 
the  master  of  all  the  layers  below  it. 


U6  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

It  is  in  this  way  that  we  can  come  to  business,  then  these  fibers  are  Uke  the 

understand  the  working  of  the  brain  private  wires  that  do  not  come  from 

and  the  spinal  cord.     The  spinal  cord  or  go  to  the  outer  world,  but  connect 

is  very  old;  its  business  nowadays  is  one  part  of  the  place  of  business  with 

to  attend  to  things  which  are  beneath  another. 

the  notice  of  the  brain,  as,  for  instance,  the  wonderful   box   in   which  the 

the  movements  of  the  stomach   and  central  nervous  system  is  kept 

that  kind  of  thing.     It  is  a  sort  of  The  usefulness  of  the  spinal  cord 

highly  trusted  and  responsible  foreman  very  largely  depends  upon  the  proper 

in  the  house  of  man,  and,  like  other  working   of   these   beautiful   arrange- 

foremen,    it   not   only   looks   after    a  ments   which   keep   every   part   of   it 

great  many  small  matters  on  its  own  informed  as  to  what  every  other  part 

account,    so    as    not    to    trouble    the  of  it  is  doing,  and  enable  different  parts 

master,   but   it    is   also   the   master's  of  it  to  act  in  harmony  when  they  so 

means  of  communication.     As  a  rule,  require — which  is  practically  always, 

the  master  gives  orders  to  the  foreman.  The  picture  on  another  page  shows 

and  then  he  does  the  rest.  us  the  central  nervous  system  as  it 

The  spinal  cord  that  acts  as  fore-  appears  when  taken  out  of  the  won- 

MAN  TO  THE  BRAIN  dcrful  box — tlic  skull  and  backbone — 


On  the  other  hand,  tradespeople  which  exists  to  protect  it.  We  see 
and  so  forth,  when  they  have  any-  how,  at  its  upper  end,  the  spinal  cord 
thing  to  say,  do  not  go  to  the  master,  becomes  slightly  thicker  so  as  to  form 
but  interview  the  foreman,  and  he  what  we  might  call  a  bulb.  That, 
takes  the  message  to  the  master;  so  indeed,  is  one  of  the  names  for  this 
also  does  the  spinal  cord.  When  we  part  of  the  brain.  It  contains  the 
close  our  hands,  the  brain,  which  gave  group  of  nerve-cells  which  controls 
the  order,  did  not  speak  directly  to  the  our  breathing,  and  the  destruction  of 
muscles  of  the  hand.  No  nerve-  which  means  instant  death;  also 
fibers  run  directly  from  the  brain  to  another  group  of  nerve-cells  which 
those  muscles,  but  nerve-fibers  do  run  controls  the  heart;  another  group 
from  the  brain  to  the  spinal  cord,  which  controls  the  size  of  the  blood- 
which  is  the  foreman.  They  give  vessels;  another  for  the  acts  of  sucking 
orders  to  certain  nerve-cells  in  the  and  swallowing;  another  which  con- 
spinal  cord,  and  from  those  nerve-  trols  perspiration;  and  there  are  prob- 
cells  there  run  fibers  which  go  to  the  ably  more.  All  of  these  are  contained 
muscles  of  the  hand.  in  a  little  portion  of  nervous  tissue 

If  we  cut  across  the  spinal  cord,  and  that  is  just  about  the  size  of  the  end 

take  a  very  thin  slice  of  it  and  stain  it  of    one's    thumb.     Above    the    bulb, 

with  various  dyes  that  will  show  up  the  things  become  very  complicated.     If 

way  in  which  it  is  made,  we  find  that  we  had  to  begin  with  the  study  of  the 

its  structure  exactly  corresponds  with  grown-up    human    brain,    we    should 

its  duties.     We  find  in  it  fibers  and  never  find  the  key  to  it;  but  if  we 

cells.     Some  of  these  fibers  are  running  study  the  brain  as  it  develops,  and  if 

to  the  brain,  some  from  the  brain;  a  we  study  the  brain  in  animals,   the 

great  many  of  them  arise  from  cells  in  thing   becomes   clear.     We   see   quite 

the  spinal  cord,  and  run  to  other  parts  plainly  that  what  is  the  lower  under- 

of  the  spinal  cord,  and  end  there.     If,  neath    part   of   the   brain   in   us,    all 

for  a  moment,  we  think  of  the  spinal  huddled   and   squeezed   together   and 

cord  as  a  huge  exchange,  or  place  of  completely    poked    out    of    sight    by 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  U7 

something  else  that  has  grown  over  it,  portant  that  our  control  of  movement 
is  the  old  brain,  the  first  brain  that  should  be  as  fine  as  possible, 
ever  was,  so  to  speak.  It  contains  It  can  be  proved  that  in  the  main 
countless  numbers  of  nerve-cells,  ar-  line  of  ascent  of  life,  more  and  more 
ranged  in  groups  with  different  duties,  delicacy  and  accuracy  of  movement 
It  is  mostly  concerned  with  move-  have  always  appeared.  Part  of  the 
ments  of  the  body,  and  in  lower  history  of  progress  is  the  replacing  of 
animals  it  is  also  the  place  where  strength  by  skill.  Babies  and  small 
hearing  and  seeing  and  feeling  are  children  are  very  clumsy,  and  as  they 
done.  In  ourselves  we  know  that  gradually  become  more  skilful,  this 
some  of  these  senses  have  become  so  means  mainly  that  the  cerebellum  is 
delicate  and  wonderful  that  they  developing  and  getting  the  powers 
require  new  machinery,  and  the  old  which  it  has  in  grown-up  people.  In 
centers  which  were  good  enough  for  proportion  to  size  of  the  whole  body, 
lower  animals  are  now,  in  us,  only  the  clumsy,  stupid  animals  are  those 
half-way  houses  towards  the  new  that  have  a  very  small  cerebellum, 
brain.  The  best  example  of  this  is  one  of  the 
Behind  the  old  brain  there  is  a  most  stupid  of  all  the  higher  animals, 
large  and  important  piece  of  nervous  the  hippopotamus.  We  can  under- 
tissue  which  has  a  name  that  really  stand  that  when  we  catch  anything, 
means  the  little  brain.  It  is  called  following  it  with  our  eyes,  and  then 
the  cerebellum.  This  cerebellum,  we  getting  our  hands  or  our  mouth  to  it, 
have  found,  gets  larger  and  larger  in  we  must  be  using  the  cerebellum, 
higher  forms  of  life,  but  we  cannot  The  hippopotamus  has  practically  no 
find  that  it  has  anything  to  do  with  idea  of  catching  at  all.  It  takes  a 
feeling.  We  do  not  hear  or  see  there,  very  long  time  to  even  see  things  that 
it  starts  no  movements,  and  certainly  it  likes,  and  if  they  get  into  a  corner, 
the  will  and  the  powers  of  thinking  it  is  so  clumsy  that  it  has  not  sense 
do  not  live  there.  We  find  that  it  is  a  enough  to  use  either  its  feet  or  its 
great  instrument  for  making  the  body  mouth  to  get  them  out  again, 
do  what  we  want.  The  power  of  the  little  brain  of  the  great  hippo- 
balancing  the  body  lives  there.  A  pot  am  us 
drunken  man  staggers  because  he  has  All  this  depends  upon  the  smallness 
poisoned  his  cerebellum.  Also  the  of  its  brain,  and  especially  of  its  cere- 
balanced  use  of  the  muscles  for  com-  bellum.  It  is  reckoned  that  the  brain 
plicated  and  delicate  actions,  like  of  the  hippopotamus  weighs  about  the 
painting  or  playing  the  violin,  depends  same  as  that  of  the  horse,  the  weight 
upon  the  control  of  the  cerebellum,  of  whose  body  is  only  one-fifth  as 
It  may  be  thought  that  these  duties  great.  It  has  been  proved  over  and 
are  not  very  exalted,  and  we  may  over  again  that,  in  the  history  of  life, 
wonder,  therefore,  why  the  cere-  success  has  always  gone  more  and  more 
bellum  should  get  bigger  as  we  ascend  to  brains,  to  skill  as  against  strength, 
in  the  scale  of  life.  But  we  have  to  mind  as  against  muscle.  The 
already  learned  that  the  one  thing  in  hippopotamus  is  a  remarkable  instance 
the  world  that  we  can  do  is  to  move  of  an  animal  that  has  survived 
things,  our  bodies  and  things  outside  through  long  ages  from  the  days  when 
them.  Through  this  power  of  move-  brains  in  general  were  much  smaller 
ment,  and  only  through  it,  our  minds  than  they  are  now,  and  the  explanation 
can  live  and  act.     So  it  is  very  im-  is  not  to  be  found  in  its  huge  size  and 


U8  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

strength,  but  entirely  in  its  mode  of  to  have  special  purposes  of  their  own, 

life.     Its  size  and  strength  could  never  and  every  finger  becomes  precious, 
have  saved  it  against  better  brains.  Cleverer  even   than   the   half-erect 

In  the  past  there  have  been  far  apes  is  man,  who,  after  crawling  baby- 
bigger  and  stronger  animals  than  even  hood  is  past,  frees  his  fore  limbs  for- 
the  hippopotamus,  and  they  have  all  ever  from  the  duty  of  locomotion, 
died  out,  but  the  hippopotamus  is  and  learns  how  to  use  every  one  of  his 
content  to  live  upon  grass  and  similar  fingers  separately,  as  with  the  type- 
plants  growing  in  rivers.  It  has  its  writer  or  the  piano.  There  has  there- 
nostrils  right  on  the  very  top  of  its  fore  been  an  immense  development  of 
face,  so  to  speak,  and  so  it  can  lie  with  skill  in  man — though  mere  strength 
its  whole  body  in  the  water,  and  just  has  decidedly  fallen  off — and  with  it 
leave  its  nostrils  above  to  breathe  by.  there  has  necessarily  gone  a  great 
In  this  way  it  saves  itself  by  hiding,  development  of  the  cerebellum, 
and  still  lives  on,  while  the  other  This  is  very  interesting,  because  it 
stronger  and  wiser  animals  have  com-  helps  us  not  only  to  understand  the 
pletely  disappeared  from  the  earth.  brain,  but  also  to  understand  children. 

As  we  pass  upwards  in  the  scale  of  Children  belong  to  a  race  that  lives 

life,  we  find  that  with  the  growth  of  in  the  world  by  its  ingenuity  of  all 

the  cerebellum,  and  the  development  kinds,   and   so   they   like   to   practice 

of  skill,  there  comes  a  time  when  even  their  skill.     This  is  why  children  love 

the  mouth,   that  dogs  and  cats  and  games  of  skill,  and  this  especially  is 

lions    and    sea-lions  are  so    quick    in  why,  ever  since  children  existed,  they 

using,   is  not  a  good  enough  instru-  were  fond  of  balls, 

ment  for  the  clever  brain.  Why  it  is  right  that  boys  and  girls 
The  use  of  the  arms  which  gives  should  play 

MAN  his  great  POWER  Of  coursc,  growu-up  people  do  not 

Something  even  better  is  required,  like   to   have   their  windows   broken; 

and  so,  in  the  main  line  of  ascent,  we  but  still  it  is  right  and  natural  for 

find  that  the  animals  called  lemurs,  children  to  play.     What  we  call  play, 

which  are  a  very  humble  and  ancient  and    stupidly    think    of    as    waste    of 

kind  of  monkey,    use   their  hands   a  time,  is  now  known  by  wise  people  to 

little  for  grasping  as  well  as  walking,  be  part  of  the  necessary  education  of 

though     they     prefer     to     use     their  a  child,  if    it    is    to    reach    the    best 

mouths,  as  anyone  can  see  who  feeds  possible  for  it  in  health  of  mind  and 

them  at  the  Zoo.     But  when  we  reach  body.     Its  play  is  really  an  essential 

the  highest  apes,  we  see  that  they  find  part  of  the  work  of  the  child, 
and  examine,  and  lift  their  food  with  It  is  a  pity  that  many  children  in 

their  hands,  and  then  carry  it  to  their  America   have   nowhere  to   play   but 

mouths.    The  arms,  then,  limbs  which  the  street,  no  one  to  teach  them  good 

for  countless   millions   of  years  have  games,    and    no    one    to    care    what 

been   used   by   all   sorts   of   different  becomes  of  them,  but  the  time  will 

animals  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  likely  come  when  all  children  will  be 

hind  legs,  and  for  no  other,  now  come  able  to  have  happy  playtimes. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


U9 


These  diagrams  enable  us  to  compare  a  man's  brain  with  the  brains  of  other  creatures.     The  size  of  each  is  drawn  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  creature's  body,  and  we  see  that  man's  brain  is  very  large. 


MYSTERY    OF    THE    BRAIN 


WE  now  know  that,  in  our- 
selves, the  highest  and  most 
important  part  of  the  ner- 
vous system  is  what  may  be  called  the 
new  brain.  One  of  our  illustrations 
shows  what  it  looks  like  when  viewed 
from  above,  and  the  first  thing  we 
notice  is  that  there  is  nothing  else  to  be 
seen  but  the  new  brain.  It  is  so  large, 
and  has  grown  out  so  far  in  all  direc- 
tions, that  the  whole  of  the  older  part 
of  the  nervous  system  is  hidden  under- 
neath it.  In  an  ordinary  way,  when 
we  talk  about  a  man's  brain  or  brains, 
it  is  entirely  of  this  new  brain  that  we 
are  thinking.  The  proper  name  for  it 
is  cerebrum.  The  word  cerebellum, 
which  we  already  know,  really  means 
little  cerebrum. 

Now,  our  first  glance  at  the  cere- 
brum shows  us  that  it  is  a  double 
organ.  It  has  a  right  half  and  a  left 
half.  These  two  are  just  like  each 
other,  though  it  is  probable  that  in 
right-handed  people  the  left  half,  and 
in  left-handed  people  the  right  half, 
is  very  slightly  larger.  We  have, 
therefore,  in  a  sense,  two  brains,  just 
as  we  have  two  arms;  for  our  bodies 
are  built  upon  the  principle  of  there 


being  two  halves  corresponding  to 
each  other.  If  we  slightly  separate 
the  two  halves  of  the  cerebrum,  and 
look  down  between  them,  we  see  a 
mass  of  white  nervous  tissue  which  is 
evidently  running  across  from  one  side 
to  the  other.  This  is  a  great  bridge 
between  the  two  halves  of  the  brain, 
by  which  they  are  made  to  work  and 
act  as  one.  When  we  look  at  the 
surface  of  the  brain,  we  see  at  once 
that  it  is  very  much  folded;  all  over 
it  the  surface  has  been  turned  inwards 
into  deep  valleys.  These  vary  in 
depth  and  length,  but  on  the  whole 
they    form   a   very    definite    pattern, 


The  left-hand  picture  shows  a  section  across  one  side  of 
the  brain,  and  we  see  by  the  shaded  border  the  thickness 
of  the  gray  matter  of  the  brain,  as  compared  with  the  white 
nerve-flbers.  On  the  right  is  a  tiny  specli  of  the  gray 
matter,  magnified  a  hundred  times,  showing  the  pyramid- 
like cells  and  the  fibers. 


THE     INSIDE     AND     OUTSIDE    OF    OUR    BRAINS 


In  this  picture  we  see  what  our  brain  would  look  like 
If  the  top  of  our  skull  could  be  lifted  like  a  lid.  The 
cerebrum,  or  new  brain,  is  the  part  by  which  we  reason 
out  things,  and  it  completely  covers  the  cerebellum. 


Here  we  are  looking  up  at  the  underneath  part  ol  the 
brain,  and  see  the  nerve-endings  of  the  various  sen.ses 
and  of  the  vital  organs,  all  cut  off  short,  except  the  nerve 
of  smell,  which  is  shown  ending  in  a  bulb. 


The  ends  ot  /|' 
IheNerves  V 
SL the  Brain  P 


V        thtfhet    


Ntr^  ^t/tffae»       rastt 


Ntr*^  ollht  Lar. 


irer  '    ^stomach 
Pi<tur«-dlaaram  of  a  section  thtough  the  Brain 


This  section  of  the  brain,  as  seen  from  the  side,  should  be  In  this  side-view  of  the  brain,  we  see  the  proportion  of 

compared  carefully  with  the  picture  of  the  brain  seen  the  skull  occupied  by  the  bram.  The  convolutions  or 
from  underneath  In  both  pictures,  the  nerves  are  shown  folds,  are  shown,  and  the  position  of  the  bram  in  relation 
In  the  order  in  which  they  leave   the  bulb,  or  old  brain.        to  the  spinal  cord  and  the  backbone  is  easily  seen 

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BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


151 


which  is  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the 
brain,  and  the  main  hnes  of  which  are 
the  same  in  all  human  beings.  All 
the  folds  and  the  spaces  between  them 
have  special  names. 

First  let  us   understand  what   the 
folding  means.     The  use  of  it  is  that 
it  permits  what  is  really  the  surface 
of   the   brain    to    be   enormously    in- 
creased, without  requiring  it  to  take 
up  more  room.     Now  the  surface  of 
the  brain,  as  we  shall  see,  is  the  all- 
important    part.     Brains    have    been 
growing  bigger  in  the  animal  world 
generally    for    countless    ages    past. 
This   means    that   there   has    been    a 
great    deal    more    room    required    to 
house  the  brain  in,  and  so  skulls  have 
been  getting  larger.     The  size  of  the 
skull  of  man,  compared  with  the  size 
of  his  whole  body,  is  simply  gigantic. 
But  though  this  is  so,  it  very  feebly 
indicates   what    the   huge   growth    of 
man's  brain  has  been,  simply  because 
the  brain  has  grown  far  more  quickly 
than  the  skull,  as  life  has  ascended, 
and  has  deeply  tucked  in  its  surface, 
here  and  there,  as  it  went  on  growing, 
until  there  is  now  as  much,  or  perhaps 
considerably  more,  of  the  surface  of 
the  brain  tucked  away  than  shows  on 
the  outside.     In  general,   the  higher 
the  type  of  brain,  the  more  is  its  sur- 
face folded.     We  can  show  this  wheth- 
er we  trace  the  brain  upward  in  differ- 
ent kinds  of  animals,  or  whether  we 
compare  different  human  brains  with 
one    another.     As    animals   have   be- 
come more  and  more  clever,  and  have 
trusted  more  and  more  to  brain  and 
skill,  rather  than  to  size  and  strength, 
the  surface  of  the  brain  has  become 
more  folded,  and  people  who  study  the 
subject    can    tell    in    a    moment,    by 
looking  at   the  surface  of   the  brain 
alone,   whether  it  belongs  to  one  of 
the  older  kinds  of  animals  or  to  one 
of  the  higher  animals  that  have  more 
lately  appeared  on  the  earth. 


The  many  folds  in  the  brains  of 
very  talented  men 

A  great  many  brains  of  famous 
men  have  been  examined;  many 
great  men,  indeed,  have  left  orders 
that  their  brains  should  be  examined 
for  the  advance  of  knowledge.  As  a 
general  rule,  these  brains  are  found  to 
be  very  highly  folded.  The  contrast 
is  very  great  between  them  and  the 
brains  of,  say  such  an  humble  type  of 
mankind  as  the  Bushman  of  South 
Africa.  Of  course,  this  means  that  if 
we  could  unfold  all  the  brains  in  ques- 
tion, and  stretch  out  their  surfaces 
quite  flat,  the  wiser  brains  would  be 
the  brains  with  the  biggest  surfaces. 

The  size  of  the  skull,  its  shape  and 
the  bumps  on  it,  can  tell  us  absolutely 
nothing  whatever  as  to  how  much  the 
brain  is  folded;  still  less  as  to  what 
we  shall  find  when  we  examine  more 
closely  what  the  foldings  are  made  of. 
There  is,  on  the  whole,  and  in  a  very 
rough  way,  some  correspondence  be- 
tween the  size  of  the  skull  and  the  size 
of  the  brain  inside  it.  But,  for  one 
thing,  skulls  vary  in  thickness;  and, 
for  another,  no  one  can  possibly  tell 
what  it  is  that  is  making  up  the  size 
of  the  brain.  Even  if  all  skulls  were 
the  same  thickness,  and  even  if  bumps 
corresponded  to  the  brain,  which  they 
never  do,  the  brain  inside  might  be 
large  because  certain  spaces  inside  it 
were  swollen  with  fluid,  or  it  might 
be  large  but  have  a  comparatively 
smooth  surface.  It  is  quite  easy  to 
understand  that  a  well-packed  brain, 
which  will  go  into  a  much  smaller 
skull  than  another,  may  yet,  if  un- 
folded, have  a  far  greater  surface. 

Why  the  skull  can  tell  us  nothing 
about  the  brain 

About  a  hundred  years  ago,  when 
practically  nothing  was  known  about 
the  brain,  men  thought  that,  by  feel- 
ing and  measuring  the  skull,  they 
could  learn  about  the  brain,  and  so  tell 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  character  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  belonged.  Our  modern  knowledge 
of  the  brain  has  taught  us  that  it  is 
hopeless  to  expect  this,  simply  because 
the  things  that  really  matter  do  not 
affect  the  skull  at  all.  If  a  surgical 
operation  were  performed,  so  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  brain  were 
exposed  and  could  be  seen,  then  we 
might,  perhaps,  make  a  very  rough 
guess  as  to  what  the  person  was  like; 
but  as  we  should  have  to  judge  how 
far  we  were  right  entirely  by  what  we 
knew  of  the  person  in  the  ordinary 
way,  it  is  difficult  to  see  where  the 
advantage  of  such  an  operation  would 
come  in. 

Now,  we  must  understand  why  it 
is  that  the  surface  of  the  brain  matters 
so  much.  When  we  cut  through  the 
cerebrum  of  any  of  the  higher  animals, 
we  find  at  once  that  it  consists  of  an 
outside  layer,  which  is  gray  in  color, 
and  an  inside  layer,  which  is  white. 
This  gray  layer,  which  covers  the  en- 
tire brain,  always  dips  down  and  up 
again  wherever  the  brain  is  folded. 
There  would  be  no  meaning  in  the 
folds  if  it  did  not.  It  is  often  called 
the  mantle,  that  is,  something  which 
is  stretched  all  over  the  outside  of  the 
cerebrum. 

The  real  brain  of  man  that  is  the 
most  wonderful  thing  we  know 

At  no  part  whatever  of  either  half 
of  the  brain,  whether  we  look  at  the 
part  it  rests  upon  or  in  the  depths  of 
any  of  the  folds,  do  we  find  this  won- 
derful mantle  lacking.  It  is  the  real 
brain,  and,  as  we  find  it  in  mankind, 
it  is  the  most  wonderful  thing  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge.  It  owes  its 
gray  color,  and  all  its  meaning  and 
wonder,  to  the  fact  that  it  is  mainly 
made  up,  not  of  nerve-fibers,  but  of 
nerve  cells.  The  rest  of  the  brain  is 
made  up  of  nerve-fibers  or  nerves, 
and  these  give  it  a  white  appearance, 
like  that  of  an  ordinary  nerve  in  the 


arm  or  the  leg;  but  the  gray  mantle 
contains  only  comparatively  few  nerve 
fibers,  which  connect  its  different 
parts  in  some  degree. 

How    THE    REAL    BRAIN    IS    MADE    UP    OF 
THOUSANDS  OF   MILLIONS   OF  CELLS 

What  really  makes  up  the  gray 
mantle  is  thousands  of  millions  of 
nerve-cells.  These  nerve-cells  are 
vastly  more  wonderful  even  than 
those  we  find  in  the  spinal  cord,  or 
those  which  are  in  the  medulla  and 
control  our  breathing,  for  they  have 
to  do  with  thinking,  not  to  mention 
seeing  and  hearing,  and  so  on. 

Only  a  very  few  years  ago,  it  used 
simply  to  be  taught  that  when  we 
take  a  very  thin  layer  of  this  gray 
mantle,  and  look  at  it  under  the 
microscope,  we  see  five  layers  of  cells 
in  it;  one  on  the  very  surface  of  the 
brain,  and  so  on,  until  the  fifth  lies 
next  the  white  matter  inside  the 
brain.  We  can  recognize  these  five 
layers  because  the  cells  in  the  different 
layers  differ  rather  from  one  another 
in  their  size  and  shape  and  number. 
But  now  we  can  go  much  farther  than 
that.  It  is,  in  general,  true  that  we 
find  about  five  layers  of  cells  in  any 
part  of  the  gray  mantle  that  we  care 
to  examine,  but  we  also  find  that  the 
cells  differ  very  definitely  in  different 
parts  of  the  brain.  Also,  if  we  care- 
fully examine  corresponding  parts  of 
the  brain  in  large  numbers  of  animals 
of  quite  different  kinds,  we  find  that 
the  same  arrangement  of  cells  occurs 
in  corresponding  places. 

The  LIKENESS  BETWEEN  THE  BRAIN  OF  A 
MAN  AND  THE   BRAIN   OF  AN   ANIMAL 

If  a  microscope  slide  containing  a 
large  number  of  cells  shaped  like 
pyramids  and  arranged  in  a  certain 
way  were  shown  a  man  who  had 
studied  the  subject,  he  very  likely 
could  not  be  sure  what  animal  the 
brain  has  belonged  to,  but  he  could 
say  in  a  moment  that  that  was  the 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


153 


part  of  the  brain  which  the  animal 
used  when  it  wished  to  move  its 
muscles. 

Again,  if  he  saw  certain  curious 
little  groups  of  cells  lying  not  very  far 
from  the  surface  of  the  brain,  he 
would  say,  without  hesitation,  "that 
comes  from  the  part  of  the  brain  the 
animal  smelled  with."  No  one  has 
the  least  idea  yet  what  this  particular 
group  of  nerve-cells  has  to  do  with 
smelling,  but  we  always  find  them  in 
the  smell  part  of  the  brain,  and 
nowhere  else.  This  is  equally  true  of 
creatures  like  the  dog,  in  whom  that 
part  of  the  brain  is  large,  and  of 
creatures  like  ourselves,  in  whom  it 
is  comparatively  small. 

The  parts  of  the  brain  which  have 
to  do  with  sight  and  with  hearing  are 
just  as  definite  in  their  structure,  so 
that  it  is  vastly  easier  to  tell  that  we 
are  looking  at  something  taken  from 
the  vision  part  of  the  brain  than  to 
tell  what  animal  it  was  taken  from. 

The  whole  of  the  surface  of  the 
brain  has  been  mapped  out  now  very 
completely. 

Why    a    MAN'S    BRAIN    IS    BETTER    THAN 
AN  ANIMAL'S 

Now,  when  we  have  carefully  learned 
to  map  out  the  various  brain  ccjiters, 
as  they  are  called,  for  the  motion  of 
muscles,  for  feeling  from  the  skin,  for 
sight,  hearing,  taste,  and  smell,  we 
find  that  still  the  greater  part  of  the 
whole  surface  of  the  brain  is  actually 
untouched.  It  is  almost  as  if  the 
greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
brain  had  no  duties.  We  cannot  find 
that  it  has  anything  to  do  with  any 
of  the  duties  that  we  can  think  of. 

Now,  when  we  begin  to  examine  the 
brains  of  other  animals,  it  soon 
becomes  possible  to  take,  shall  we  say, 
twenty  different  brains,  and  arrange 
them  in  an  ascending  order,  beginning 
with  the  brain  of  some  simpler  kind 
of  animal,  as,  for  instance,  a  rabbit. 


and  ending  with  the  brain  of  man.  If 
we  do  this  we  find  a  very  wonderful 
thing.  It  is  that  the  lower  we  go 
down,  the  nearer  together  in  the 
brain  are  the  different  special  centers 
which  we  have  already  found  in  the 
brain  of  man. 

Indeed,  when  we  go  low  enough,  the 
whole  brain  practically  consists  of 
these  various  centers — for  motion, 
and  seeing,  and  so  on — all  lying  right 
up  next  to  each  other.  They  make 
the  brain.  But  to  look  at  it  the  other 
way,  as  brains  improve  and  get  bigger, 
what  happens  is,  not  that  these 
various  centers  get  bigger,  but  that 
they  become  gradually  separated  from 
each  other  by  the  growth  of  new  parts 
of  the  brain  which  appear  and  come 
to  lie  between  the  old  centers.  This 
process  goes  on  and  on,  until  at  last 
in  mankind,  and  only  in  mankind,  it 
has  reached  the  stage  at  which  the 
various  special  centers,  which  long 
ago  lay  all  together  and  were  the 
brain,  have  become  mere  patches  that 
lie  here  and  there  on  the  surface  of 
man's  huge  brain. 

What,  then,  is  the  meaning  and  the 
duty  of  these  great  new  places  that 
have  come  into  existence,  and  to 
which  the  growth  in  the  size  of  the 
brain  is  really  due?  When  we  ques- 
tion them,  they  are  silent ;  indeed,  they 
have  been  called  the  silent  areas.  We 
shall  surely  get  some  help  in  our 
studies  if  we  can  trace  the  course  of 
the  nerve-fibers  that  run  out  from  the 
nerve-cells  in  these  particular  areas. 

The  wonderful  fibers  that  link  all 
OUR  senses  together 

As  regards  the  special  centers,  we 

find  that  the  fibers  from  the  cells  in 

them  run  just  where  we  should  expect. 

The  fibers  from  the  seeing  centers  run 

straight  to  the  eye,  the  fibers  from  the 

hearing  center  are  connected  with  the 

ear,    the   fibers   from   the   center   for 

movement  run  down  into  the  spinal 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


cord  and  are  connected  with  the 
nerves  that  go  to  the  muscles.  These 
facts,  of  course,  help  to  give  us  the 
key  to  the  duties  of  these  centers.  If 
now  we  can  find  where  the  nerves  run 
to  from  the  silent  areas,  we  shall  guess 
what  these  areas  really  do,  and  it 
must  be  something  very  important 
indeed,  because,  whatever  it  is,  it 
seems  to  explain  the  real  difference 
between  clever  animals  and  stupid 
ones,  high  ones  and  low  ones. 

We  find,  then,  that  these  fibers 
from  the  silent  areas  run  in  every 
possible  direction,  but  in  very  definite 
groups  and  ways,  to  the  other  centers 
of  the  brain.  What  they  do  is  to 
associate  one  part  of  the  brain  with 
another.  I  think  we  can  understand 
that  if  there  were  no  such  things,  then, 
though  an  animal  might  see  very  well, 
nothing  that  it  saw  would  connect 
itself  in  that  animal's  mind  with 
anything  that  it  had  heard,  or  felt,  or 
smelled.  Now,  when  we  come  to 
study  the  way  in  which  we  act,  the 
way  in  which  we  put  two  and  two 
together;  when  we  notice  how  one 
thing  makes  us  think  of  another 
thing,  we  begin  to  understand  how 
it  is  that  the  association  fibers  make 
all  the  difference  in  the  world  between 
a  high  brain  and  a  low  one. 

Where  a  man's  brain  differs  from 
the  brain  of  a  dog 

If  we  compare  the  spinal  cord  or 
the  medulla  of  a  dog  with  that  of  a 
man,  there  is  nothing  worth  mention- 
ing to  choose  between  them.  If  we 
compare  the  new  brain  of  a  dog  with 
that  of  a  man,  we  find  a  difference, 
but  it  is  one  which  mainly  consists 
in  association  fibers  and  cells.  If  we 
compare  the  vision  center  of  a  dog 
with  that  of  a  man,  we  find  the  two 
in  the  same  part  of  the  brain  '  i  each 
case,  and  with  the  same  special  type 
of  cells. 

The  difference,  however,  is  that  the 


gray  mantle  in  the  case  of  man  is 
much  thicker;  and  when  we  come  to 
inquire  into  what  makes  it  thicker, 
we  find  that  it  contains  a  vastly 
greater  number  of  fibers,  which  are 
running  to  it  from  other  parts  of  the 
brain,  and  of  new  cells,  which  have 
nothing  to  do  with  seeing  itself,  but 
which  send  fibers  out  from  the  seeing 
center  to  all  the  other  parts  of  the 
brain.  In  general,  then,  we  may  say 
that  the  differences  between  a  high 
brain  and  a  low  brain  are,  first,  that 
in  the  various  special  centers  the  gray 
mantle  is  much  thicker  in  the  high 
brain,  because  it  is  crammed  with  new 
association  cells;  and  second,  that  in 
the  high  brain  the  special  centers  are 
forced  apart  by  the  growth  in  between 
them  of  new  parts  of  the  brain,  which 
do  not  mean  the  invention  of  any  new 
kinds  of  senses,  but  mean  bringing  all 
the  parts  of  the  brain  into  closer  rela- 
tion and  connection  with  one  another. 

Some  of  our  senses  that  are  more 
noble  than  others 

There  are  one  or  two  very  interest- 
ing exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  they 
have  a  meaning.  It  must  have  struck 
all  of  us,  if  we  ever  think  of  our  senses, 
that  some  of  them  are  more  noble 
than  others.  We  agree,  do  we  not, 
that  it  is  a  more  dignified  thing  to 
enjoy  a  picture  than  to  enjoy  a 
chocolate.?  Someone  may  say:  "Well, 
in  either  case,  we  are  simply  using  one 
of  our  senses;  why  is  not  one  as  good 
as  another?"  But  when  we  suppose 
that  vision  and  hearing  are  more 
noble  than  taste  and  smell,  we  are 
quite  right,  and  the  reason  is  that 
they  are  more  human.  They  reach 
a  higher  development  in  us  than  in 
any  other  creature,  while  so  far  as 
concerns  smell,  about  which  a  great 
deal  has  been  learned,  it  is  probable 
that  our  brains  are  far  inferior  to  those 
of  almost  any  other  creature  that  has 
a  brain  at  all. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  155 

The  sense  of  smell,  that  is  weak  in  sense  is  the  highest  thing  about  it? 

MAN  AND  STRONG  IN  ANIMALS  ^ot  at  all.     The  point  is  the  extent  to 

If  we  study  the  smell  part  of  the  which  we  can  use  the  information  that 

brain  in  different   kinds   of  animals,  the  sense  gives  us,  and  the  way  it  is 

we  find  that  smell  reached  its   per-  linked  up  with  every  other  part  of  our 

fection    ages    ago,   when   vision    and  minds.     The  vulture  can  see  a  speck 

hearing    scarcely    existed.     But    such  on  the  desert  sand  at  a  tremendous 

a   sense   as   vision   is   far   finer   than  distance,  but  will  the  vulture  enjoy 

smell,  because  not  only  does  it  act  a   fine   picture,    or   feel   itself   made 

at  very  great  distances,  but  it  gives  humble   and   pure   before   a   sunset? 

us  a  thousand  times  more  information  Of  course,  when  we  ask  questions  like 

than  smell  can  possibly  give.  this,  we  see  at  once  what  it  is  that 

Therefore,    part  of    the  history  of  really  makes  a  sense  high.     No  known 

progress  in  the  world  of  life  has  been  animal  has  in  the  vision  center  of  its 

that    sight    has    improved    and    has  brain   anything   like   the   depth   and 

largely  taken  the  place  of  smell.     This  variety  of  structure  that  we  have  in 

is    most    marked    in    ourselves.     The  ours.     This  is  the  great  fact  for  us  to 

dog  is  a  very  high  kind  of  animal,  and  remember  about  the  place  where  the 

belongs  to  an  order  which  ranks  next  seeing  is  really  done, 

to  the  monkeys  themselves,  and  we  all  We  have  seen  that  smell  and  taste 

know  how  splendid  the  dog's  scent  are    comparatively    unimportant    in 

may  be.     But  in  our  own  brains  the  man,  and  in  both  cases  there  was  long 

part  which  corresponds  to  smell  has  argument,  and  much  work  had  to  be 

shrunk  to  almost  nothing;  it  is,  indeed,  done,  before  we  could  be  sure  in  what 

so  small  that  it  took  a  very  long  time  part  of  the  brain  these  two  senses  really 

to  find  where  it  was;  while  the  vision  lived.     It  might  be  supposed  that  the 

part  of  the  brain  has  become  huge.  sense  of  touch  would  not  be  greatly 

The  great  growth  of  the  back  of  the  developed  in  man,  and  that  perhaps 

cerebrum  in  man  is  due  to  the  im-  it    is   rather   falling   into   the   back- 

portance  of  vision  to  him,  for  it  is  the  ground,  like  smell  and  taste.     This  is 

extreme  back  part  of  the  cerebrum,  a    very    great   error,    however.     The 

on  both  sides,  that  we  see  with.     Our  most   intelligent  of   all   birds   is   the 

real  eyes  are  at  the  back  of  our  heads,  parrot.     We  notice  this  not  only  in 

We   have   already   learned   that   the  its  power  of  imitating  sounds,  but  in 

cerebellum  is  very  large  in  us;  but  even  many  other  ways, 

though  this  is  so,  the  vision  part  of  why  the  sense  of  touch  is  called 

the  cerebrum  has  grown  so  enormously  the  mother  of  all  the  senses 

that    the    cerebellum    is    completely  Now,  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that 

hidden  from  our  sight  by  the  cere-  the  parrot  has  a  far  more  delicate 

brum,  when  we  look  down  upon  the  sense  of  touch  than  any  other  bird.     It 

brain  from  above.  really  has  quite  a  good  notion  of  using 

The  difference  between  one  kind  of  its  claws  as  fingers.     It  has  the  idea  of 

SENSE  AND  ANOTHER  stroking  and  feeling  what  a  thing  is 

It  might  be  supposed  that  there  is  like  as  we  say.     Now  it  is  not  just  a 

something  wrong  here,  because  many  chance  that  the  most  intelligent  bird 

animals,  such  as  birds  of  prey,  have  is   the   bird  with   the  best  sense  of 

far  keener  sight  than  man  has.     That,  touch.     It  is  what  we  should  expect, 

indeed,  is  so;  but  are  we  right  in  sup-  The  sense  of  touch  is  the  mother  of 

posing  that  the  mere  keenness  of  a  all  the  senses,  in  a  way,  and  good 


156  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

education  of  the  sense  of  touch  is  the  creature.     Not   in   a   thousand   years 

foundation  of  all  good  education.  could  any  other  creature  but  man  be 

Probably  some  of  those  who  read  taught,  for  instance,  to  read  with  the 

this  will  disbelieve  it,  but  all  the  great  fingers,  even  if  that  creature  had  a 

students  of  the  mind  know  that  it  is  brain  that  could  understand, 

perfectly  true,  and  have  been  saying  The  great  brain  puzzle  that  baffled 
so  for  scores  of  years.     We  are  learning  men  for  years 

to  understand  what  games  mean  for         For   a    long   time   it   was    a    great 

children,  because  they  train  the  sense  puzzle   to   find   the   touch   center   in 

of  touch  and  teach  it  how  to  work  man's    brain.     It    lay,    so    to    speak, 

with  sight;  and  we  are  also  beginning  under  our  very  eyes;  but  we  never 

to  learn  that  drawing  and  carpentry,  thought   of   looking  for   it   there.     A 

and  the  sort  of  things  that  children  very  large  area  of  the  gray  mantle  on 

do    in    kindergarten,    are    invaluable  each  side  of  the  brain  is  the  center  for 

foundations  of  education.     There  was  voluntary  movement,  and  it  is  here 

a    time    when    it    was    thought    that  that  the  will  of  man  gives  its  orders, 

anything   good   for  a  child   must   be  For  many  years  we  knew  this,  and 

something  that  it  disliked,  and  that  called  it  the  motor  center;  and  when 

anything     it     liked     must     be     mere  we  were  looking  for  the  center  of  the 

amusement.     Who  would  think  that  touch    sense    we    never    thought    of 

the  real  meaning  of  the  word  school  is  looking    there.     But    now    we    have 

leisure — doing  what  we  feel  inclined  found   that   the   center   for   will   and 

to  do?     Yet  so  it  is.  movement    is    the   center   for   touch. 

Now    there    is    nothing    we    notice  The  two  lie  mixed  up  together,  and 

more  positively   about  an  intelligent  the  connection  between  them  is  the 

child,    and    any    child    is    intelligent  closest    of    all     connections     in    the 

until  foolish  grown-up  people  begin  to  nervous  system. 

interfere,  than  that  it  loves  using  its  jhe  wonderful   nerves  of  hearing 
fingers.     Of  course  it  gets  into  mis-  that  enable  us  to  enjoy  music 

chief,    but   the  child   that   never   got  The  sense  of  hearing  lives  low  down 

into     mischief,     and     never    touched  on  the  side  of  the  brain.     As  we  all 

things  it  ought  not  to  have  touched,  know,  this  sense  of  hearing  has  led  to 

was  never  yet  taught  to  read.     There  the  possibility  of  music  and  all  that 

are  such   children,   but  they   can   be  that  means.     As  in  the  case  of  seeing, 

taught    nothing,    and    we    call    them  of  course  there  must  be  good  machin- 

imbecile.  ery  outside  the  brain  if  a  sense  is  to 

Whatever     happens,     the     healthy  develop,  and  the  history  of  hearing, 

child  must  constantly  use  its  sense  of  like  the  history  of  vision,  is  partly  the 

touch;   it   must   forever   be   fingering  history  of  the  ear  and  the  history  of 

things.     Now  we  find  that  the  touch  the    eye.     Here,    however,    we    must 

part  of  man's  brain  is  simply  magnifi-  merely  learn  that  the  hearing  center 

cent.     It    is    the    delicacy    and    the  of  the  brain  is  very  large  in  mankind, 

variety  of  his  sense  of  touch  and,  far  and  that  when  we  examine  the  cells 

more  than  that,  it  is  the  marvelous  contained   in   it   we   find   a   state   of 

way  in  which  man's  sense  of  touch  is  things    that    exactly    compares    with 

connected  with  all  his  other  senses,  what  we  found  in  the  case  of  vision. 

that  accounts  for  our  skill,  which  is  It  may  be  that  some  animals  can  hear 

almost    the    most    wonderful    thing  sounds  so  slight  that  we  cannot  hear 

about  us  as  compared  with  any  other  them. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


15? 


"Thought,"  as  Expressed  by  Three  Famous  Artists 

The  first  of  these  pictures  is  from  Michaelangeio's  statue  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  the  second  is  from  a  painting  by  Sir 
John  Millais,  and  the  third  is  from  a  statue  Ijy  a  great  French  sculptor,  Augusta  Rodin. 


HOW    WE    THINK 


THE  putting  of  things  together  in 
the  mind,  or  association,  as  it 
is  called,  is  the  beginning  of 
all  the  powers  of  which  we  are  most 
proud;  but  though  the  usual  name  for 
it  is  the  association  of  ideas,  yet  it 
does  not  apply  only  to  ideas,  but 
to  everything  that  can  enter  the 
mind — a  scent,  a  pain,  a  tone  of 
voice,  and  thousands  of  other  things 
that  cannot  be  called  ideas  at  all. 

We  know  that  there  is  a  stage  be- 
yond seeing,  and  that  is  perceiving, 
and  the  proper  name  for  a  thing  per- 
ceived is  a  percept.  Like  everything 
else,  except  mere  sensation  itself,  per- 
ception depends  upon  memory.  The 
case  of  a  puzzle  picture,  where  we 
look  for  a  long  time  and  at  last  per- 
ceive a  face,  is  a  good  instance  of  the 
difference  between  seeing  and  per- 
ceiving, and  the  same  applies  to  hear- 
ing sounds  and  recognizing  them  as  a 
tune. 

But  these  things  that  we  perceive 
and  make  percepts  are  not  ideas;  they 
are  simply  a  certain  set  of  sensations 
put  together  and  made  into  a  whole. 
Perception  is  a  great  advance  upon 
sensation,  no  doubt,  but  there  is 
something  better  still,  and  the  proper 
name  for  that  is  conception,  or  con- 


ceiving, as  when  we  say,  "I  conceive 
that  the  stars  must  all  be  suns."  That 
was  the  great  idea,  or  conception,  of 
Giordano  Bruno,  and  it  is  evidently 
something  beyond  the  mere  perceiv- 
ing, or  recognizing,  that  certain  colors 
and  shadows  we  see  make  a  chair. 

We  have  passed  from  the  mere  level 
of  things  looked  at,  or  sounds  heard, 
to  the  region  of  thinking.  Here  is  an 
idea,  or  a  concept — a  thought.  Two 
memories  have  been  put  together  in  the 
mind  and  connected,  or  held  together, 
by  it  in  a  certain  way.  Previously 
there  were  in  the  mind  the  memories 
of  certain  percepts;  first,  the  stars, 
and  secondly,  the  sun.  But  the  mind 
performed  the  great  act  of  conceiving; 
it  associated,  or  put  together,  the  two 
percepts,  the  stars  and  the  sun,  and 
it  made  a  new  and  different  thing — the 
thought  that  the  stars  are  suns. 

For  thousands  of  years  men  had 
not  only  seen  the  stars  and  the  sun, 
but  had  perceived  them,  and  had 
carried  in  their  minds  clear  memories 
of  the  stars  and  the  sun,  so  that  they 
could  recognize  them  when  they  saw 
them  again.  But  not  until  the  mind 
of  Bruno  said  'The  stars  are  suns  and 
the  sun  is  a  star"  had  anyone  per- 
formed this  great  association  of  ideas. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


to  use  the  old  name.  This  instance 
we  have  chosen  is  a  great  one,  but 
we  perform  Httle  associations  of  ideas 
every  day,  whenever  we  think  at  all. 
A  great  instance  has  purposely  been 
chosen,  because  what  we  are  trying  to 
understand  is  the  building  up  of  the 
mind,  and  such  a  case  as  this  helps  us 
to  realize  the  orderly  stages  of  the 
mind's  wonderful  ascent  from  the 
mere  sensation  of  seeing  up  to  one  of 
the  greatest  ideas  in  the  world.  Let 
us  just  observe  for  ourselves  how  the 
stages  follow  upon  one  another. 

How    A    CHILD'S    MIND    IS    GRADUALLY 
BUILT    UP 

John  Locke  said  that  there  is 
nothing  in  the  mind  except  what  was 
first  in  the  senses,  and  that  every- 
thing which  comes  to  be  in  the  mind  is 
built  up  out  of  sensations  and  reflec- 
tions upon  them.  Now,  this  is  true, 
even  in  such  a  tremendous  idea  in 
astronomy  as  that  the  stars  are  suns. 
This  begins  with  mere  sensation.  The 
mind  begins  its  existence  in  babyhood 
and  childhood  without  any  inborn 
ideas  of  any  kind.  Its  first  experi- 
ences are  mere  sensations.  The  eye, 
as  we  know,  is  made  from  a  part  of 
the  brain  which  has  come  forward 
outside  the  skull — "The  brain  comes 
out  to  see,"  as  has  been  said.  The 
eyes  are  turned  upwards,  and  certain 
impressions  of  light  are  gained.  These 
are  mere  sensations. 

If  there  were  no  such  thing  as  mem- 
ory, they  might  be  repeated  every 
night  during  a  lifetime,  and  nothing 
would  come  of  it.  But  living  matter 
remembers. 

So,  beginning  with  sensation  and 
with  the  necessary  help  of  memory, 
we  pass  to  the  stage  of  perception 
where  the  points  of  light  seen  one 
night  are  more  than  seen,  for  they  are 
perceived  to  be  the  same  as  the  points 
of  light  that  have  been  seen  on  former 
nights. 


Real   thinking    is    putting   things 
together  in  the  mind 

Percepts  are  remembered  just  as 
sensations  are,  and  so  we  may  go 
about  with  the  percepts  in  our  mind 
of  the  stars  and  the  sun.  Then  one 
man  singled  out  from  the  rest  puts  the 
two  percepts  together,  and  so  makes 
a  concept  by  this  process  of  conception, 
or  thought,  and  says  the  stars  are 
suns.  This  teaches  us  the  slow  and 
necessary  order  in  which  the  mind  is 
built  and  grows,  and  the  dependence 
of  its  highest  deeds  upon  its  humblest 
deeds.  It  is  also  a  good  instance  of 
the  truth  that  all  thinking  is  associa- 
tion of  ideas.  The  word  conceive 
means  "to  take  together;"  the  word 
associate  means  "to  make  compan- 
ions;" and  all  thinking  is  putting 
things  together — making  companions 
of  them,  making  a  relation  between 
them. 

To  some  extent  we  all  do  this  with- 
out effort  or  intention,  but  beyond  a 
certain  point  we  are  very  apt  not  to 
trouble  about  it.  The  point  where  we 
stop  the  process  is  the  point  at  which 
our  interest  ends.  Thinking  is  not  a 
thing  that  happens  to  us,  but  a  thing 
that  we  do,  and  in  all  doing  a  motive 
power  has  to  come  from  somewhere. 
The  motive  power  in  this  great  doing 
of  the  mind,  which  we  call  thinking,  is 
interest.  Here  we  come  to  the  key  of 
one  of  the  great  differences  between 
men,  and,  if  the  study  of  the  associa- 
tion of  ideas  taught  us  nothing  else, 
it  would  still  be  well  worth  while  to 
study  for  this. 

The  SECRET  of  success  in  all  great 

THINKERS 

We  are  right  to  admire  the  "kings 
of  thought,"  but  we  are  very  wrong  in 
our  notions  of  what  makes  them  great. 
It  is  true  that  in  certain  departments 
there  are  very  special  powers  which  one 
brain  has  and  another  has  not;  this  is 
true  of  mathematics,  for  instance,  and 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE  159 

of  music.     But,  apart  from  that,  there  good  in  it  as  a  fancy;  but  the  great 

is  nothing  more  certain  than  that  most  object  of  our  minds  is  to  make  our 

of  the  great  thoughts,  and    most  of  thoughts     genuinely     correspond     to 

the    great    discoveries    of    mankind,  things. 

might  have  been  thought  or  made  by  The  great  thinker  is  he  who  not 

anyone  if  they  had  been  interested  only  associates  ideas,  but  makes  the 

enough.  associations  correspond   to   the  asso- 

The  secret  of  most  of  the  great  deeds  ciations  in  nature.     The  virtue  and 

done  by  the  minds  of  men,  in  the  way  value  of  the  thought  that  the  stars 

of  pure  thought  or  association  of  ideas,  are  suns  is  that  that  relation  between 

has  been  the  great  difference,  not  in  the  the  two  in  our  minds  is  the  relation 

way  in  which  the  great  minds  asso-  between  them  in  nature.     The  reflec- 

ciate,  but  in  the  fact  of  interest  and  tion  of  things  in  the  mirror  of  our 

patience  leading  them  to  go  on  think-  minds  is  so  far  perfect, 

ing,  endlessly  revolving  the  ideas  in  If  association  is  an  act  of  the  mind 

their  minds,  and  at  last  finding  out  the  requiring  power  to  do  it,  if  it  is  vastly 

truth.  important    as    it    is    because    right 

For,  of  course,  associations  of  ideas  thinking   goes    a   long   way   towards 

may  be  false  or  true,  or  they  may  be  right  doing,  and  if  interest  is  the  great 

merely  fanciful,  not  pretending  to  be  motive  which  makes  the  mind  think, 

true,  as  when  we  say  the  moon  is  made  then,  certainly,  it  is  our  business  to 

of    green    cheese.     But    the    greatest  find  out  how  far  we  can  help  and 

business   of   the  human   mind   in   its  foster  this  interest  in  our  minds,  and 

power  of  association  is  the  discovery  also  to  find  out  whether  one  kind  of 

of  truth,  and  we  ought  to  have  a  right  interest  differs  greatly  from  another 

notion  in  our  heads  of  what  we  mean  in  its  value  for  this  purpose. 

by  truth.  How  we  may  help  ourselves  to  be- 

We  may  think  of  our  mind  as  a  kind  come  real  thinkers 

of  mirror  in  which  the  outside  world  In   the   first   place   it   is    certainly 

is  reflected.     Outside  then  there  are  possible  for  us  to  foster  interest  in  our 

things  and  the  reflection  of  things  in  own  minds  and  in  the  minds  of  other 

our  minds  ought  to  correspond  to  the  people,  and  there  are  few  more  useful 

things   as   they   are.     Things   outside  tasks  than  that  of  the  people  who  go 

and   thoughts   inside   ought   duly   to  about  trying  to  open  other  people's 

reflect  each  other.     Very  often  they  eyes,  as  we  say,  so  that  they  shall  see 

do   not.     Our  image   of  the   outside  the   interest   of   things   and   thereby 

world    is    distorted    and    twisted,    or  start  thinking  about  them, 

there  are  huge  gaps.     But,  to  some  There  are  false  or  doubtful  kinds  of 

extent,  our  thoughts,  the  associations  interest,  as  well  as  good  ones.     A  man 

of  our  ideas,  do  genuinely  correspond  may  be  interested  simply  in  making 

to  the  associations  of  things  in  the  money,  and  the  machinery  of  associa- 

outside  world;  and  then  we  can  say  tion  in  his  mind  will  work,  in  conse- 

that  our  thoughts  are  true.  quence,    with    astonishing    skill    and 

The  things  that  make  a  man  a  great  rapidity;  or  a  boy  may  be  interested 

thinker  only  in  passing  an  examination,  and 

Anyone   can   associate   any   ideas;  so  his  machinery  of  association  works 

there  is  no  difficulty  about  that.     We  hard  for  a  time  at  something  or  other, 

may   say   the   stars    are   night-lights,  and  after  the  examination  he  seldom 

and  a  fancy  like  that  may  have  some  or  never  thinks  of  it  again. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  blame  is  not  his  but  that  of  the 
system  that  makes  a  victim  of  him. 
Worst  of  all,  perhaps,  in  its  results,  is 
the  kind  of  interest  which  sets  men 
studying  things  only  in  order  to  defeat 
someone  else,  or  to  prove  that  they 
are  right,  or  to  make  a  success  for  the 
party  or  the  class  or  the  church  to 
which  they  belong  against  some  other 
party  or  class  or  church.  This  kind 
of  interest  is  extremely  powerful  and 
very  general  and,  according  to  the 
universal  laws  of  the  mind,  it  pro- 
duces its  due  result.  Unfortunately 
interest  of  this  kind  and  interest  in 
money  are  the  driving  power  of  most 
of  the  work  of  association  or  thinking 
that  is  done  in  the  world. 

The  harm  of  letting  our  thinking 
be  guided  by  wrong  interests 

If  association  done  under  interests 
of  this  kind  resulted  in  the  discovery 
of  truth,  that  would  be  good;  but,  as 
a  rule,  it  does  not.  Interest  in  the 
success  of  our  party  or  our  class  or  our 
religion,  or  of  the  people  who  have 
paid  us  to  think  and  argue,  destroys 
the  true  working  of  association  of 
thinking  in  two  distinct  ways — both 
are  disastrous.  One  of  them  is  obvi- 
ous, and  the  other  is  not. 

The  obvious  one  is  that  it  is  to  our 
interest  now  to  make  the  worse  appear 
the  better  reason.  We  do  not  now 
make  all  the  possible  associations  in 
our  minds  until  we  find  the  one  which 
seems  the  truest,  but  we  simply  make 
the  associations  w^liich  best  suit  our 
case,  and  then  we  try  to  persuade 
other  people  that  they  are  true. 
Things  are  so  complicated  that  most 
men,  if  they  think  a  little — and  their 
interest  sees  to  it  that  they  do — can 
make  the  worse  appear  the  better 
reason,  and  so  associations  are  formed 
which  are  false.  This  may  benefit 
the  person  or  the  class  or  the  country 
or  the  party,  but  in  the  long  run  it 
must  injure  mankind.     We  must  be- 


lieve that  truth  is  far  more  worth 
while  than  falsehood,  or  else  we  had 
better  stop  thinking  at  all.  But 
there  is  the  second  less  obvious  way 
in  which  the  false  kinds  of  interest 
lead  men  astray.  In  the  last  case 
men  deliberately  deceive  other  people, 
but  in  this  case  they  unconsciously 
deceive  themselves.  This  is  because 
the  whole  process  of  association  can 
be  upset  and  changed  by  feeling. 
Long  ago  this  was  quite  forgotten  by 
men  of  science. 

The  way  in  which  our  feeling  af- 
fects OUR  thinking 

There  was  a  time  when  men  thought 
that  the  intelligence,  or  intellect — the 
part  which  knows  and  thinks — was 
practically  the  whole  of  the  mind. 
They  took  no  notice  of  feeling,  and 
they  thought  that  our  deeds  proceeded 
only  from  the  resvilts  of  what  we 
thought.  It  is  very  strange  how  men 
could  have  thought  this,  for  everyone 
knows  how  largely  our  feelings  de- 
termine our  deeds. 

But  today  we  do  not  make  the 
mistake  of  supposing  that  the  intellect 
is  the  whole  of  the  mind,  and  so  we 
are  prepared  to  understand  how  much 
the  intellect  is  affected  by  other  parts 
of  the  mind.  Thinking,  or  association, 
is  a  kind  of  doing,  and  we  have  just 
said  that  doing  is  largely  determined 
by  feeling.  When  we  feel  angry  we 
are  apt  to  kick,  or  hit,  and  so  on. 

Now,  what  is  true  of  other  more 
obvious  kinds  of  doing  is  also  true  of 
that  very  wonderful,  though  less 
obvious,  kind  of  doing  which  is  called 
thinking.  What  we  feel  often  decides 
what  we  think.  We  want  to  win,  for 
money  or  for  glory  or  for  spite;  we 
are  fighting  another  country  and  we 
want  to  prove  that  we  are  right ;  or  we 
are  fighting  for  our  class  or  our  church 
against  people  who  dress  rather  dif- 
ferently, or  who  arrange  the  service 
rather  differently  in  their  places  of 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


161 


worship.  We  fancy  that  we  are 
seeking  the  truth,  but  we  are  not 
seeking  the  truth;  and  just  for  that 
reason  we  do  not  find  it. 

The  wrongfulness  of  believing  only 
what  we  want  to  believe 

This  upsetting  of  the  judgment  by 
feeUng  so  that  as  happens  every  day 
all  over  the  world,  men  come  to  believe 
what  they  want  to  believe,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  facts  in  the  life 
of  mankind,  and  accounts  for  half  the 
facts  of  human  history.  If  we  are  at 
all  sensible  and  watchful,  we  can  soon 
notice  for  ourselves  what  happens, 
because  it  is  apt  to  happen  to  every 
one  of  us;  and  we  need  not  wait 
long  for  a  chance  of  observing  it. 
What  we  shall  find  is  probably  this: 
that  somehow  or  other  all  the  facts 
and  ideas  and  memories  which  suit 
what  we  want  to  believe,  or  to  prove 
or  persuade  other  people  stand  out 
strongly  in  the  foreground  of  our 
minds.  We  know  that  the  secret  of 
attention  is  interest,  and  these  things 
which  we  want  to  believe  interest  us 
most,  and  so  we  attend  to  them  most. 

Unfortunately,  we  attend  to  them 
so  much  that  we  do  not  attend  to  the 
other  facts  and  ideas  which  do  not  suit 
our  case.  But  we  cannot  form  associa- 
tions unless  we  attend,  and  so  the  asso- 
ciations which  we  do  form,  and  the 
arguments  which  we  use,  are  all  based 
upon  the  things  we  have  attended  to, 
the  things  that  interested  us  most, 
the  things  that  suited  our  case. 
The  REASONS  why  men  do  not  always 

SEARCH  FOR  TRUTH 

We  may  be  arguing  with  someone 
else  who  is  interested  to  prove  the 
opposite.  Just  as  the  points  which 
favor  us  press  up  into  our  minds,  so 
the  points  which  favor  his  case  press 
up  into  his.  But  really  we  do  not 
listen  to  his  arguments,  and  he  does 
not  listen  to  ours,  and  neither  of  us 
convinces  the  other. 


This  is  the  sort  of  thing  that  happens 
in  politics,  and  most  of  the  things  men 
quarrel  about.  There  is  a  certain 
amount  of  deliberate  deception,  but 
the  great  key  to  the  differences  of 
opinion  which  divide  even  intelligent 
men  is  self-deception,  depending  upon 
the  way  in  which  our  processes  of 
association  are  spoiled  by  our  feelings 
and  our  interests. 

This  danger  comes  into  everything, 
even  into  the  discovery  of  truth. 
There  are  many  reasons  why  it  enters 
there  also.  It  is  not  the  discovery  of 
truth,  but  trying  to  persuade  people 
that  we  have  discovered  truth,  that 
often  leads  to  money  or  glory.  Quite 
apart  from  that,  when  a  man  has  said 
a  thing,  he  likes  to  prove  himself 
right  and  that,  of  course,  is  not  quite 
the  same  as  liking  to  find  the  truth. 

Then  there  are  motives  like  jealousy, 
or  motives  like  trying  to  prove  that 
something  which  is  believed  by  our 
church  or  our  class  or  the  particular 
school  to  which  we  belong  is  right. 
All  this  only  causes  disaster.  It  means 
that  a  man,  instead  of  looking  at  all 
the  facts,  looks  only  at  some  of  them; 
it  means  that  he  sees  the  importance 
of  facts  that  suit  his  case,  and  cannot 
see  the  importance  of  those  which  do 
not,  and  so  he  goes  wrong. 

But  everywhere  in  all  ages  there  are 
a  few  men  who  are  real  lovers  of  truth. 
They  would  rather  give  up  their 
beliefs  than  believe  what  is  untrue; 
they  would  rather  believe  the  truth 
and  be  despised  and  hated  than  per- 
suade men  of  something  that  is  not 
true  and  be  honored. 

Why  a  thinker  should  be  interested 
only  in  seeking  the  truth 

The  success  which  in  some  measure 
always  attends  these  people,  so  that, 
if  their  brains  are  of  a  high  order,  they 
become  the  great  thinkers  of  the  world, 
like  Newton  or  Darwin,  depends  abso- 
lutely upon  the  quality  of  the  interest 


162 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


which  drives  them.  We  must  have 
interest  in  order  to  make  us  think,  or 
associate,  but  we  must  have  the  right 
kind  of  interest  if  we  are  to  think 
rightly. 

We  can  see,  if  we  study  the  work  of 
such  a  man  as  Darwin,  exactly  the 
way  in  which  this  interest  in  truth, 
and  in  truth  only,  keeps  a  thinker 
right.  He  is  afraid  of  only  one  thing, 
and  that  is  of  going  wrong.  If  his 
object  were  to  prove  anything  in 
particular  he  would  be  more  jnterested 
in  one  set  of  facts  than  in  another,  but 
as  it  is  he  is  equally  interested  in  all 
facts,  because  all  facts  lead  equally  to 
the  truth.  They  do  not  all  lead 
equally  to  his  theory,  perhaps,  but 
that  does  not  really  matter — it  is  so 
much  the  worse  for  his  theory,  and 
so  much  the  better  for  the  truth. 

The  man  who  tries  to  find  facts,  and 
the  man  who  tries  to  prove  a  case 

Darwin  began  with  a  theory  which 
came  into  his  head,  and  then  he  spent 
twenty  years  working  at  it.  People 
say  that  he  spent  twenty  years  trying 
to  prove  it,  but  that  is  simply  not  the 
case.  If  we  study  Darwin's  mind, 
and  the  lines  of  the  work  he  did,  we 
shall  agree  that  it  is  nearer  the  truth 
to  say  that  he  spent  twenty  years  try- 
ing to  disprove  his  theory.     Indeed, 


he  was  trying  to  prove  or  disprove 
nothing,  but  simply  to  find  the  truth. 
The  success  of  the  successful  lawyer 
is,  of  course,  entirely  different.  His 
business  is  to  win  his  case.  He  there- 
fore lays  all  the  emphasis  on  the  facts 
which  favor  it,  and  purposely  keeps  in 
the  background  the  facts  which  do 
not.  He  gets  the  verdict  of  the  jury 
but  that  is  not  the  method  to  follow  if 
we  wish  to  gain  the  verdict  of  no  jury, 
not  even  of  all  mankind,  but  the  ver- 
dict of  Truth  herself. 

A  WISE  MAN  WHO  KNOWS  LITTLE,  AND  A 
FOOLISH   MAN   WHO  KNOWS   MUCH 

It  is  of  no  use  to  store  things  in 
the  mind  if  we  cannot  recall  the  right 
things  when  they  are  wanted.  But 
people  who  have  not  studied  the  mind 
constantly  make  this  mistake.  A  man 
may  be  a  walking  encyclopedia,  and 
yet  be  very  foolish.  His  mind  is 
crammed  with  facts,  but  he  cannot 
associate  them  rightly;  they  do  not 
suggest  each  other  to  him  in  their 
true  relations,  and  so  they  are  simply 
useless.  Another  man  may  have  only 
one-thousandth  part  of  the  knowledge, 
but  a  thousand  times  more  wisdom, 
because  the  facts  in  his  mind  are 
properly  sorted  and  arranged  and  con- 
nected and  classified  and  compared, 
or,  in  a  word,  the  facts  are  associated. 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


163 


HOW      TO      REMEMBER 

We  know  the  great  difference  between  seeing  and  perceiving,  and  we  must  now 
consider  the  memory,  without  which  there  could  be  no  real  perceiving.  It  is  just 
because  memory  makes  perceiving  and  even  higher  things  possible  that  its  impor- 
tance is  so  tremendous.  If  we  could  not  remember,  we  should  be  nothing.  Without 
memory  there  would  be  no  recognizing,  there  would  be  no  learning,  no  knowing. 
We  are  so  accustomed  to  use  this  power  of  memory  that,  we  think,  we  cannot  realize 
what  we  should  be  without  it.  We  see  something  coming  along  a  road,  far  away,  and 
then,  after  a  while,  we  perceive  that  it  is  a  human  being.  Later,  by  the  dress,  we  can 
tell  that  it  is  a  man  and  not  a  woman,  but  who  it  is  we  cannot  tell.  Finally,  we  find 
that  it  is  someone  we  know.  Here  we  see  that  the  memory  acts  even  in  the  simplest 
kinds  of  perceiving,  and  that  it  is  worth  while  to  devote  some  time  to  the  study  of  it. 


NOWADAYS,  in  dealing  with 
such  a  great  question  as  that 
of  memory,  we  do  not  make 
the  absurd  mistake  of  trying  to  under- 
stand our  memories  without  studying 
every  kind  of  memory  wherever  we 
can  find  it;  and  the  first  great  dis- 
covery we  make  is  that,  in  some  de- 
gree or  other,  memory  is  a  property 
of  every  kind  of  living  creature. 
Formerly  it  was  said  that  memory 
was  a  property  of  every  kind  of  nerve 
and  nerve-cell,  and  that  is  perfectly 
true,  but  it  is  not  the  whole  truth. 

During  late  years  men  have  studied 
the  behavior  of  humble  forms  of 
plants,  and  of  animals  so  simple  and 
lowly  that  no  nerves  or  nerve-cells 
are  as  yet  developed  in  them.  Yet 
even  here,  almost  at  the  beginnings  of 
life,  long  before  there  is  the  least 
shadowy  hint  of  even  the  simplest 
kind  of  brain,  we  find  some  proofs  of 
memory. 

All  living  matter  is  called  proto- 
plasm, and  it  is  a  fact  that  memory 
is  a  property  of  all  living  protoplasm 
everywhere.  No  matter  how  simple 
creatures  are,  we  find  that  their  be- 
havior can  be  made  to  change  by 
changing  their  surroundings.  This 
means  that  in  some  degree  they  re- 
member; they  act  differently  because 
something  has  occurred  perhaps  three 
times  before,  and  the  fourth  time  it 
occurs  they  do  not  behave  exactly  as 
they  did  the  first  time.  What  it  is  in 
living  matter,  whether  of  a  nerve-cell 


or  of  any  other  kind  of  cell,  that 
enables  it  to  remember,  we  cannot 
say;  neither  can  we  say  in  advanced 
cases  of  memory,  as  when  we  remem- 
ber an  idea.  But  even  in  the  humblest 
cases  of  memory,  as  where  an  animal 
behaves  differently  towards  light  be- 
cause it  is  the  second  time  and  not  the 
first  time  it  has  seen  it,  we  can  only 
guess  what  happens.  The  light  the 
first  time  somehow  made  some  kind 
of  mark,  as  we  might  say,  in  the  living 
cells,  and  altered  them,  so  that  the 
next  time  the  light  came  they  were 
different. 

It  is  supposed  by  many  people  that 
living  matter  never  forgets.  When  we 
say  we  forget,  what  we  mean  is  simply 
that  we  cannot  recall.  But  the  thing 
we  say  we  forget  is  still  there  in  our 
mind,  and  when  someone  names  it  we 
recognize  it;  if  we  had  really  forgotten 
we  should  not  recognize  it. 

But  even  where  we  cannot  recall 
a  thing  for  ourselves,  and  where  we 
cannot  recognize  it  when  it  is  recalled 
for  us  by  somebody  else,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  we  have  really 
forgotten.  There  are  many  cases  on 
record  where  a  man  appears  to  have 
utterly  forgotten,  for  instance,  cer- 
tain words  of  some  language  which  he 
learned  and  spoke  when  he  was  a 
child;  he  cannot  recall  them,  and  they 
mean  nothing  to  him  when  they  are 
recalled;  but  he  proves  that  they  are 
still  there  in  his  mind  when,  perhaps, 
he  is  suffering  from  a  very  severe  ill- 


164 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


ness.  His  brain  is  greatly  upset,  and 
these  words,  which  he  may  not  have 
heard  or  used  for  fifty  years,  or  more, 
come  from  his  hps.  Very  hkely  they 
are  used  without  any  sense,  and  he 
does  not  know  what  they  mean,  but 
there  they  are.  The  brain  has  not 
really  forgotten  them. 

The    difference     between     remem- 
bering  AND   RECALLING 

Such  cases  as  these  teach  us  that  in 
all  probability  living  matter  does  not 
forget,  but,  more  than  that,  they  show 
us  that  what  we  call  memory  is  very 
far  from  being  a  simple,  single  thing. 
In  what  we  call  an  ordinary  act  of 
memory  there  are  three  things  in- 
volved. There  is  the  pure  remember- 
ing, with  which  we  have  not  much 
more  to  do  than  a  table  has  to  do  with 
remembering  a  dent  made  in  it ;  there 
is  the  recognizing  of  what  we  remem- 
ber; and  there  is  the  power  of  recall- 
ing. Everyone  who  has  been  asked  at 
an  examination,  "What  is  this.''"  and 
who  knows  perfectly  well  that  he  has 
seen  it  a  hundred  times  before,  but 
cannot  put  a  name  to  it,  knows  that 
memory  is  not  such  a  simple  thing  as 
we  sometimes  suppose. 

But  in  every  act  of  memory  the 
beginning  of  it  is  the  making  of  an 
impression  on  the  brain.  No  doubt 
this  is  a  vastly  different  thing  from 
making  a  dent  on  a  table,  but  we  do  no 
harm  if  we  think  of  it  as  if  it  were 
something  like  that;  and,  indeed,  the 
only  word  which  we  can  use  to  de- 
scribe it,  such  as  the  word  impression, 
which  just  means  "pressing  in,"  sug- 
gests a  comparison  of  this  kind.  Now, 
as  this  is  the  beginning  of  all  memory, 
it  is  very  important  for  us  to  know  how 
far  and  in  what  way  we  can  improve 
this  power  of  ours. 

When  the  power  of  the  memory  is 
at  its  best 

We  shall  make  nothing  but  mistakes 
unless   we    learn   first   to    distinguish 


this  part  of  memory  from  the  other 

parts;   and,  secondly,  to  discover  any 

natural  changes  in  this  power  during 

the  time  that  we  grow  from  childhood 

to  age.     It  is  very  likely  that,  on  the 

whole,  memory  is  at  its  greatest  when 

we  are  young,  and  tends  to  diminish 

steadily  as  we  grow  old.     There  is  an 

apparent  exception  to  this,  because  at 

certain  ages  boys  and  girls  seem  to  be 

able  to  learn  poetry  and  many  other 

things    by    heart    with    greater    ease 

than  they  could  have  done  a  year  or 

two  before.     But  this  is  because  the 

brain  is,  as  it  were,  just  being  finished 

in  its  making.     It  is   likely,    on  the 

whole,  that  after   that   the  power  of 

being  impressed  steadily  diminishes. 

This  explains  to  us  some  facts  about 

memory    which    seem    peculiar.     For 

instance,  we  know  that,  in  a  general 

way,  we  are  more  likely  to  remember 

things   that  have   recently   happened 

than  things  that  happened  long  ago. 

This    is    probably    only    because    the 

things   that   happened   long   ago   are 

lower  down  in  the  mind,  so  to  speak, 

and  have  been  overlaid  by  many  newer 

things. 

Why  old  people  remember  best  the 
things  of  long  ago 

Now  we  often  find  that  old  people 
instead  of  remembering  the  latest 
things  best,  remember  them  very 
badly;  but,  though  they  are  doubtful 
about  recent  events,  they  remember 
quite  clearly  something  that  happened 
perhaps  many  years  before.  The  ex- 
planation is  that  the  newer  impression 
was  made  on  a  brain  that  was  losing  its 
power  of  being  impressed,  but  the 
older  one  was  made  on  a  young  and 
very  impressionable  brain;  and  the 
passage  of  time  has  not  destroyed  the 
deep  impressions  made  in  youth. 

When  we  compare  different  people, 
we  find  that  there  are  differences  be- 
tween them  in  this  quality  of  memory. 
It  is  supposed  by  nearly  everybody 


BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


166 


that  education  accounts  for  these 
differences,  and  makes  them.  So  one 
of  the  great  objects  of  education  is  to 
"train  the  memory."  But,  if  by 
training  the  memory  we  mean  making 
the  brain  more  impressionable  than 
it  is  by  nature,  nothing  can  be  more 
certain  than  that  this  was  never  yet 
done  by  any  kind  of  education,  and 
never  will  be. 

To  begin  with,  these  differences 
between  people  are  natural.  The 
amount  that  a  man  remembers  will, 
of  course,  depend  upon  the  amount 
that  he  has  tried  to  remember,  and  so 
his  education  is  immensely  important, 
because  it  largely  means  giving  us 
opportunities  for  remembering.  But 
that  is  an  absolutely  different  thing 
from  any  effect  in  actually  improving 
the  power  to  remember,  so  far  as  this 
first  part  of  memory  is  concerned. 

The   only   excuse   for   learning   a 
thing  by  heart 

The  differences  between  people  in 
this  respect  are  enormous,  but  they 
are  natural  differences,  and  we  simply 
have  to  accept  them  as  they  are. 
Of  course,  they  make  a  tremendous 
difference  in  our  lives,  because  we 
have  seen  that  memory  is  the  basis  of 
everything  else;  and  though  different 
kinds  of  memory  are  needed  for 
different  people — as  for  instance  the 
painter,  the  engineer,  and  the  musician 
— yet  these  differences  in  memory  are 
the  beginnings,  at  any  rate,  of  the 
differences  in  what  the  people  achieve. 

It  is  quite  certain,  then,  that  the 
brain's  natural  power  of  being  im- 
pressed cannot  be  increased  by  any 
of  the  methods  which  have  been  too 
long  adopted  for  that  purpose.  There 
may  be  a  good  reason  for  learning  by 
heart,  simply  because  there  are  things 
which  it  is  well  to  have  in  the  mind, 
and  which  can  be  made  to  stick  by 
repetition.  But  no  kind  of  learning 
by  heart  increases  the  brain's  power 


of  retaining  things.  Learning  by 
heart  does  not  train  the  memory;  it 
very  often  disgusts  the  mind  and 
disheartens  it  from  thinking. 

The  only  possible  defence  for  learn- 
ing anything  by  heart  is  that  the 
thing  is  worth  knowing.  There  are 
plenty  of  such  things,  and  the  time 
will  come  when  we  shall  carefully  take 
children  at  just  those  ages  when 
learning  by  heart  is  easiest,  and 
deliberately  use  those  years  to  put 
into  their  minds  the  best  possible 
selection  we  can  make  of  the  things 
which  everyone  ought  to  know. 
The  things  that  we  must  know  and 

THE  things  that  WE  SHOULD  KNOW 

There  are  things  that  people  must 
know  and  there  are  things  that  they 
should  know  if  possible.  The  number 
of  these  things  is  a  million  times 
greater  than  could  be  remembered  by 
the  wisest  and  most  learned  man  that 
ever  lived.  We  must  therefore  do  our 
best  for  each  child,  and  that  best  will 
mean  the  careful  selection  of  the 
things  it  should  learn  and  the  using  of 
the  time  when  remembering  is  easiest. 
We  must  break  up  and  vary  the 
lessons  so  as  to  avoid  fatigue,  because 
when  fatigue  begins,  memory  ends. 
Though  education  cannot  improve  the 
natural  memory,  yet  there  are  certain 
things  which  education,  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  word,  can  do  or  fail  to  do. 
Whatever  the  brain  is  meant  to  be 
by  nature,  and  whatever  is  in  its 
power  to  become,  yet  the  building  and 
the  health  of  its  cells  and  nerves,  and 
therefore  the  success  of  their  duties, 
depend  upon  the  supply  of  blood  they 
receive,  and  upon  their  never  being 
subjected  to  over-use. 

What  we  call  education,  which  is 
sometimes  just  the  opposite  of  real 
education,  very  often  means  that  we 
injure  the  brain  and  spoil  the  memory 
at  the  very  time  when  we  think  we 
are    training    it.     School    hours    are 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


often  too  long.  Light,  and  especially 
air,  may  be  defective.  Foul  air  means 
fold  blood,  everywhere  and  always; 
and  foul  blood  means  that  the  brain 
also  is  being  poisoned. 

A  HEALTHY  OUTDOOR  LIFE  IS  THE  BEST 
AID  TO  MEMORY 

Our  great  business,  therefore,  in 
taking  care  of  our  memories  when  we 
are  young,  is  to  lead  healthy  lives  as 
much  in  the  open  air  as  possible;  and 
no  doubt  w^e  shall  find  that,  in  after 
years,  for  every  one  thing  we  remem- 
ber that  happened  indoors  when  we 
were  children,  we  shall  remember  two 
things  that  happened  out-of-doors. 

Next  we  have  to  consider  the  various 
special  methods  of  impressing  the 
memory.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
method  of  repetition.  We  all  know 
that  repetition  helps  us  to  remember, 
and,  indeed,  this  method  of  going 
over  a  thing  again  and  again  is  the  one 
which  has  been  most  believed  in  since 
teaching  began.  This  applies  equally 
to  our  learning-memory  and  our 
doing-memory,  as  we  recognize  w^hen 
we  say  that  practice  makes  perfect. 
Now,  so  long  as  we  clearly  understand 
that  repetition  and  learning  by  heart 
do  no  good  to  the  memory  itself,  but 
merely  help  to  impress  it,  we  are 
quite  right  to  use  this  method,  and 
there  are  certain  things  w^ell  worth 
noticing. 

The  best  way  of  remembering  what 
WE  have  heard 

One  of  the  great  methods  of  learning 
is  to  listen  to  something  spoken  and 
take  notes  of  it.  Now  in  such  cases 
we  notice  that  the  two  processes  of 
listening  and  w  riting  down  and  read- 
ing over  result  in  much  better  remem- 
bering if  they  are  close  together.  If 
we  read  our  notes  the  same  day  as 
w^e  take  them  down,  we  shall  remem- 
ber more  a  month  hence  than  if  we  go 
over  them  a  few  days  later.  When 
the  repetition  comes  close  on  the  first 


impression,  it  is  as  if  the  iron  were 
made  hot  by  the  first  impression,  and 
the  second  impression  is  more  effective 
than  if  we  wait  for  the  first  to  cool. 

Another  most  important  fact  is  that 
one  kind  of  repetition  is  very  different 
from  another,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
mistakes  that  almost  all  of  us  make. 
We  may  hear  without  "taking  a  thing 
in;"  we  may  read  or  write  a  thing,  or 
we  may  repeat  it  out  loud,  while  our 
attention  is  somewhere  else.  In  such 
cases  all  our  labor  is  wasted,  as  cer- 
tainly wasted  for  remembering  the 
thing  as  it  is  wasted  for  "training  the 
memory."  It  is  no  use  trying  to  learn 
when  we  are  tired  or  when  we  are 
feeling  cold,  thirsty  or  hungry. 

Why  reading  helps  us  to  remember 
better  than  writing 

It  is  worth  noting  that  intelligent, 
careful,  attentive  reading  of  anything 
is  a  more  effective  kind  of  repetition 
than  copying  it  out,  though  we  should 
not  suppose  so.  In  copying  out,  as  a 
rule,  too  much  of  our  attention  is 
devoted  to  the  mechanical  part  of 
what  we  are  doing,  and  so  we  are  not 
really  attending  so  well,  though  we 
seem  to  be  working  harder. 

The  secret  of  mere  remembering 
lies,  on  the  whole,  more  in  attention 
than  in  anything  else.  It  is  most 
difficult  to  find  out  exactly  what 
attention  is,  and  exactly  what  happens 
wdien  we  attend.  The  difference  be- 
tween attending  and  not  attending  is 
probably  that,  when  we  are  not 
attending,  the  disturbances  that  reach 
the  brain  from  the  outside  world  are 
scattered  in  all  sorts  of  directions 
throughout  the  brain.  The  effects 
of  them  are  almost  wasted,  because 
they  scarcely  go  anywhere  in  particu- 
lar; and  it  may  be  also  that  perhaps 
the  most  important  parts  of  the  brain, 
when  we  are  not  attending,  are  really 
not  in  action  at  all,  so  that  the  results 
of  what  is  going  on  never  reach  them. 


MEMORY  TESTS   ON   THE  BOOK  OF  OUR  OWN  LIFE 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  EYE 

What  evidence  have  we  that  plants  have 
eyes? 

What  insect  possesses  most  powerful  eyes? 

Why  does  the  house  fly  avoid  a  flame? 

How  are  bees  able  to  distinguish  one  flower 
from  another? 

In  what  respect  is  the  vision  of  ants  su- 
perior to  ours? 

In  what  respect  does  the  eye  of  a  back- 
bcned  animal  differ  from  that  of  an  invertebrate? 

What  is  the  main  purpose  of  the  eyelids? 
THE  PARTS  OF  THE  EYE 

How  does  the  cornea  of  the  eye  resemble 
and  how  differ  from  a  curved  piece  of  glass? 

What  purpose  does  the  iris  serve? 

What  determines  the  color  of  the  iris? 

In  what  respect  is  the  lens  of  the  eye 
superior  to  an  artificial  lens? 

Why  does  a  near-sighted  person  hold  the 
book  close  to  him? 

What  is  the  effect  of  age  upon  near- 
§ightedness? 

How  is  a  cataract  removed? 
SEEING  COLORS 

What  is  light? 

What  relation  exists  between  the  numbers 
of  ether  vibrations  required  to  produce  the  sen- 
sation of  red  and  the  number  required  to  pro- 
duce violet. 

In  what  three  ways  do  colors  vary? 

How  many  colors  are  there? 

Name  the  three  primary  colors. 

What  is  the  cure  for  color-blindness? 

What  forms  does  color-blindness  assume? 

Why  are  red  and  green  lights  used  for 
railroad  signals? 

THE  MARVEL  OF  HEARING 

How  many  senses  have  we? 

What  purposes  are  served  by  the  outer 
ear? 

Why  can  a  dog  judge  better  of  the  di- 
rection of  a  sound  than  a  man? 

How  do  we  judge  of  the  direction  of  a 
sound? 

By  what  means  is  the  canal  of  the  ear  kept 
clean? 

To  what  is  deafness  in  old  age  generally 
due? 

What  control  have  we  over  the  intensity 
of  sounds? 

BALANCING  THE  BODY 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  sense  of 
balance? 

What  four  different  things  aid  us  in  pre- 
serving our  balance? 

How  does  a  fish  so  easily  preserve  its 
balance? 

Explain  the  connection  between  fish-gills 
and  the  semi-circular  canals,  ears  and  larynxes 
of  higher  animals? 

Are  the  lower  animals  "dumb?" 

What  three  duties  does  the  larynx  perform? 


TALKING  AND  SINGING 

In  speech  are  all  the  words  given  in  the 
same  key? 

Give  the  derivation  of  "monotone." 

Give  the  derivation  of  "cant." 

What  is  the  essential  distinction  between 
speech  and  song? 

What  is  meant  by  a  "musical  voice?" 

Give  the  connection  between  over-tones 
and  vowel-sounds. 

SMELL  AND  TASTE 

Explain  the  intimate  relation  existing  be- 
tween taste  and  smell. 

What  part  of  the  nose  do  we  smell  with? 

With  what  two  pairs  of  nerves  is  the  nose 
supplied? 

Through  which  pair  is  sneezing  excited? 

What  connection  exists  between  smell  and 
the  weight  of  the  substance  scented? 

Where  is  the  sense  of  taste  located? 

Give  the  five  principal  classes  of  tastes. 
THE  FOREST  OF  NERVES  WITHIN  US 

In  what  way  does  a  bundle  of  nerves  re- 
semble an  ocean  cable? 

Will  a  nerve  fiber  carry  messages  in  both 
directions? 

How  does  the  movement  of  a  nerve- 
current  compare  with  that  of  an  electric  current? 

Of  what  is  a  nerve-fiber  a  part? 

What  oflBce  does  the  spinal  cord  perform 
in  the  economy  of  the  body? 

What  is  the  function  of  the  cerebellum? 

MYSTERY  OF  THE  BRAIN 

What  connects  the  two  halves  of  the  cere- 
brum? 

Why  is  the  surface  of  the  brain  folded  in 
convolutions? 

Is  phrenology  based  upon  sound  principles? 

Whence  do  we  derive  the  power  of  associa- 
tion? 

In  what  sense  are  our  eyes  at  the  back 
of  our  head? 

HOW  TO  REMEMBER 

When  we  say  we  have  forgotten  a  thing, 
do  we  mean  that  there  is  no  record  of  it  in  the 
brain? 

Distinguish  between  memory  and  recol- 
lection. 

What  is  the  beginning  of  a  memory? 

Why  is  it  easier  to  remember  recent  events 
than  those  which  occurred  long  ago? 

The  converse  holds  with  aged  persons. 
Why? 

HOW  WE  THINK 

What  mental  process  follows  perception? 

Give  Bruno's  great  conception. 

What  is  the  motive  power  of  thought? 

What  effect  has  perverted  interest  upon 
our  thoughts? 

Explain  how  the  judgment  may  be  led 
astray  by  feeling. 

What  is  the  distinction  between  a  "walk- 
ing encyclopedia"  and  a  great  thinker? 


167 


STATUE  OF   LIBERTY   ENLIGHTENING   THE  WORLD 

Sculptured  by  Bartholdi  and  erected  at  the  entrance  of  New  York  Harbor  as  emblematic  ot  the  civilizmg  influences  ot 

liberty  upon  modern  civilization. 


168 


Book  for  Parent  and 
Teacher 


THE  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM  OF  CHILD  TRAINING 

Underlying  Ideas  of  the  System  Montessori   Exercises    and 
Purpose  and  Educational  Value         Games 

of  the  Montessori  Devices  Use  of  the  Apparatus 

Necessity  of  the  Montessori  Spirit  Discipline  and  Obedience 

How    a    Montessori    School    Is  Memory   Tests   on   Montessori 

Conducted  System 


I 


THE  SCHOOL  OF  REAL  LIFE 

What  a  Boy  Must  Do  to  Sue-     What  a  Girl  Must  Do  to  Suc- 
ceed ceed 


PRACTICAL  ARITHMETIC  AND  PROBLEMS 

Tlie  Fundamental  Processes 

Addition  —  Subtraction  —  Multiplication  —  Division  — 
Fractions  —  Decimals  —  Denominate  Numbers  —  Per- 
centage —  Interest  —  Taxes  —  Insurance 

Problems  and  Calculations  in  Connection  with: 

Education  and  Industry  —  Fencing  —  Drainage  — 
Plowing  —  Wheat  —  Corn  —  Potatoes  —  Birds  and 
Insects  —  Hay  —  Orchards  and  Spraying  —  Poultry  — 
The  Dairy  —  Roads  —  Silos  —  Problems  with  the  Lever 
—  Animal  Power 

Handy  Values,  Weights  and  Measures 


FARM  SCIENCE  AND  PRACTICE 

Choosing  a  Farm  Fifty  Farm  Birds 

Rotation  of  Crops  Stock  Feeding 

Preserving  Foods  Fertilizers 

Plant  Life  Concrete  Construction 


IM 


DR.  MARIA  MONTESSORI 

The  famous  Italian   physician  and  educator  who  founded   the   Montessori 
system  of  child  education 


17(y 


MONTESSORI     SYSTEM     OF     CHILD     TRAINING 


FOR     HOME     OR     SCHOOL 

This  Book  explains  how  to  train  and  develop  the  special  senses;  how  to  keep 
children  properly  occupied;  how  to  train  their  bodies;  how  to  use  all  necessary 
apparatus;  and  how  to  enforce  discipline  and  obedience. 


THE  Montessori  method  is  a  new 
system  of  education  for  very 
small  children  devised  by  an 
Italian  woman  physician.  One  of  the 
first  facts  rediscovered  by  Dr.  Mon- 
tessori  is  the   old   threadbare  truism 


Underlying  idea  of  the  system 

And  here  Dr.  Montessori  found  her- 
self in  accord  with  another  fundamen- 
tal principle  of  the  growth  of  child- 
hood, which  she  had  discovered  or 
rediscovered  and  which  may  be  said 


that  every  child  is  different  from  every  broadly  to  be  the  master  idea  of  her 
other  child.  She  found  not  only  that  system.  The  central  idea  of  the 
but  also  that  not  being  a  fixed  and  in-  Montessori  system,  on  which  every 
animate  object,  he  is  in  a  constant  bit  of  apparatus,  every  detail  of  tech- 
state  of  flux,  and  differs  from  himself,  nic  rests  solidly,  is  a  full  recognition 
from  day  to  day,  as  he  grows.  His  of  the  fact  that  no  human  being  is 
attention,  his  memory,  his  mental  en-  educated  by  anyone  else.  He  must 
durance,  his  intellectual  interest  and  do  it  himself  or  it  is  never  done.  The 
curiosity,  are  not  only  unlike  those  of  learner  must  do  his  own  learning,  and 
the  child  next  him  in  school,  but  will  this  granted,  it  follows  naturally  that 
be  tomorrow  different  from  what  they  the  less  he  is  interfered  with  by  arbi- 
are  today.  It  was  evident  to  her  that  trary  restraint  and  vexatious,  unneces- 
Ihe  usual  "class  recitation"  and  "class  sary  rules,  the  more  quickly,  easily 
lessons"  were  out  of  the  question,  and  spontaneously  he  will  learn, 
since  they  could  at  the  best,  possibly  Everyone  who  wishes  to  adopt  her 
fit  the  needs  of  only  one  child  in  the  system,  or  to  train  children  according 
class.  And  yet  it  is  obviously  im-  to  her  method,  must  learn  constantly 
possible,  as  the  world  is  made  up,  to  to  repeat  to  himself  and  to  act  upon, 
have  a  teacher  for  every  child.  There  at  every  moment,  this  maxim,  "All 
was  only  one  way  out — things  must  growth  must  come  from  a  voluntary 
somehow  be  so  organized  and  ar-  action  of  the  child  himself." 
ranged  that,  for  most  of  the  time,  the  The  system  must  fit  the  child 
child  can  and  shall  teach  himself.  In  this  respect  again  Dr.  Montes- 

171 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


sori  took  the  stand  that  education 
must  be  made  to  fit  the  child,  and  the 
child  not  forced  to  fit  a  preconceived 
idea  of  what  education  ought  to  be 
or  do.  She  laid  down  the  principle 
that  one  of  the  essentials  of  education 
is  that  children  shall  get  that  indi- 
vidual attention  they  need  so  much, 
by  giving  it  to  themselves,  each  child 
being  his  own  teacher.  She  now 
further  stated  as  another  essential 
element  that  education  should  be  so 
organized  that  the  child  shall  ardently 
desire  to  teach  himself  and  shall  en- 
joy doing  it  more  than  anything  else. 


Basic     principles     of 

SYSTEM 


MONTESSORI 


To  reduce,  then,  to  the  barest  out- 
line this  new  system  of  training  chil- 
dren, one  can  say  that  it  rests  upon  a 
full  conviction  of  these  three  facts 
about  the  nature  of  children: 

First. — Children  are  all  different 
from  each  other,  and  hence  need  for 
their  fullest  development,  the  greatest 
possible  liberty  for  their  individualities 
to  grow;  and  that,  though  of  course 
there  are  many  points  in  common, 
they  must  not  be  treated  in  the  lump, 
but  individually. 

Second. — Children  cannot,  so  to 
speak,  learn  from  the  outside.  That 
is,  that  the  impulse  to  learn  must 
come  from  within  their  own  minds. 
There  are  absolutely  no  exceptions  to 
this  rule.  Children  must  wish  to 
learn,  or  it  is  a  physical  impossibility 
for  them  to  do  so. 

Third. — Children  are  so  made  that, 
given  proper  conditions,  they  prefer 
educating  themselves  to  any  other 
occupation. 

A  DAY  WITH  THE  CHILDREN'S  ACTIVITIES 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  is  al- 
most certain  to  have  aroused  in  the 
minds  of  many  readers  the  question, 
"How  in  the  world  does  Dr.  Mon- 
tessori  accomplish  all  this.'*"  or,  per- 


haps the  more  skeptical  exclamation, 
"It  can't  be  done,  by  Dr.  Montessori 
or  anyone  else!"  How  can  children 
teach  themselves?  How  can  they 
learn  without  detailed  verbal  instruc- 
tions from  a  teacher? 

How  does  a  boy  learn  to  climb  an 
apple  tree?  By  being  turned  loose  in 
company  with  the  tree  at  that  period 
of  his  life  when  he  feels  a  surging  nat- 
ural impulse  to  climb  trees.  A  boy  of 
three  can  play  about  the  foot  of  an 
apple  tree  day  after  day  and  no  more 
think  of  climbing  it  than  we  of  walking 
the  ridge  pole  of  our  house.  A  man 
of  twenty-one  can  play  tennis,  or 
plough,  under  the  tree's  branches  with 
a  similar  lack  of  monkey-like  desire 
to  climb  from  branch  to  branch.  But 
somewhere  between  those  ages,  there 
is  a  period  in  every  normal  life  when, 
if  the  opportunity  is  present,  a  vast 
amount  of  muscular  agility,  strength 
and  accuracy  are  acquired,  together 
with  considerable  physical  courage, 
some  daring,  some  prudence,  and  a 
fair  amount  of  good  judgment,  all 
without  the  slightest  need  either  to 
force  or  persuade  the  child  to  the 
acquisition  of  these  desirable  qualities = 

The  purpose  and  educational  value 
OF  the  montessori  devices 

Now,  for  all  intents  and  purposes, 
the  Montessori  apparatus,  so  much 
talked  of,  so  scientifically  and  in- 
geniously devised,  is  simply  composed 
of  supplementary  apple  trees.  Jt  is 
made  up  of  devices  and  inventions 
which  are  intended,  first,  to  stimulate 
the  little  child's  natural  desire  to  act 
and  learn  through  action;  second,  to 
provide  him  with  action  which  shall 
give  him  a  better  control  of  his  own 
body  and  will-power;  and  third, 
which  shall  lead  him  naturally  from  a 
simple  action  to  a  more  difficult  one. 
Trains  the  five  senses 

In  the  case  of  very  little  children 
this  is  (as  far  as  concerns  the  formal 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


173 


SELF-EDUCATION  BY  THE  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


% 


At  undirected  play  with  the  didactic  'or  seuse>traiiiing  materials 


nh  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

Montessori  apparatus  sold)  largely  when  they  feel  like  it,  a  quiet,  gentle, 
connected  with  the  training  of  the  alert,  nearly  always  silent  superintend- 
senses.  The  importance  of  this  de-  ent,  to  whom  all  those  little  self-teachers 
tailed,  direct  education  of  the  five  turn  for  advice  in  their  educational 
senses  may  not  be  at  first  apparent,  career;  a  piano  in  one  corner  of  the 
But  it  is  evident  that  our  five  senses  room,  to  the  music  of  which  once  in  a 
are  our  only  means  of  conveying  in-  while  those  children  who  feel  like  it 
formation  to  our  brains  about  the  dance  and  play.  There  are  soft  rugs  on 
external  world  which  surrounds  us,  the  floor,  on  which  those  children  who 
and  it  is  equally  evident  that  to  act  feel  tired  may  lie  down  and  rest  when- 
wisely  and  surely  in  the  world,  the  ever  they  like.  On  the  walls  there  are 
brain  has  need  of  the  fullest  and  most  pleasant  pictures  of  subjects  suitable 
accurate  information  possible.  Hence  for  little  children.  There  are  window- 
the  education  of  all  the  senses  of  a  boxes  of  plants,  tended  by  the  little 
child  to  rapidity,  agility  and  exacti-  pupils;  there  are  in  one  corner  some 
tude,  is  of  great  importance — not  at  little  wash-stands  with  small  bowls 
all  for  the  sake  of  the  information  and  pitchers  where  the  children  wash 
acquired  at  the  time  by  the  child,  but  their  own  faces  and  hands,  whenever 
for  the  sake  of  the  five,  finely  accurate  they  are  dirtied  by  their  work  or  play, 
instruments  which  this  education  puts  In  fact,  the  room  and  its  furnishings 
under  his  control.  are  exactly  like  what  every  mother 
Montessori  spirit  is  the  first  would  like  to  give  her  own  children  in 
ESSENTIAL  her  own  home.  The  Casa  dei  Bam- 
Much  has  been  written  and  said  bini  is  truly  a  "Children's  Home" — 
about  the  Montessori  Didactic  Ap-  a  place  for  self-reliant  work  and  con- 
paratus,  but  the  use  of  her  apparatus  tented  play, 
without  an  understanding  of  the  under-  Feel  a  responsibility 
lying  principles  and  without  the  spirit  The  children  learn  to  feel,  because 
that  animates  all  true  Montessori  they  are  allowed  to,  a  real  responsibility 
work  will  result  only  in  confusion  and  for  the  condition  of  this,  their  very  own 
disorder.  The  Montessori  Didactic  home.  Before  they  begin  the  morn- 
Apparatus  is  a  part  of  the  system,  ing's  work,  they  clean  the  school- 
but  the  most  vital  element  is  the  room,  using  tiny  brooms  and  dust- 
Montessori  spirit.  The  mother  on  a  pans,  just  the  right  size  for  their 
desert  island  who  is  dominated  by  little  hands,  and  they  make  their 
Dr.  Montessori's  love  and  respect  for  own  morning  toilets  neatly  and  cheer- 
the  child  would  accomplish  much  fully  at  the  little  washstands.  They 
more  without  the  formal  apparatus  all  seem  like  brothers  and  sisters  of 
than  a  mother  who  uses  it  without  one  big  family,  living  the  happiest 
the  sympathy  and  understanding  and  sanest  of  family  lives  together  in 
requisite  for  success.  one  big,  well-furnished  nursery.  They 
The  casa  dei  bambini  form  groups  of  two  or  three,  over  some 
If  you  wish  to  see  a  typical  Casa  dei  difficult  problem;  or  four  or  five  in  a 
Bambini  (which  means  Children's  game  with  some  part  of  the  apparatus 
Home)  you  are  to  imagine  thirty  child-  which  needs  a  number  of  children 
ren  turned  loose  in  a  big  room,  fur-  together;  or  ten  or  twelve  in  a  ring- 
nished  with  little  chairs  and  tables,  around-the-rosy  game  to  the  music  of 
with  room  outdoors,  close  at  hand,  the  piano.  Out  in  the  playground, 
where  the  children  may  run  and  play  bright  with  flowers  and  plants  of  their 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  175 

own  tending,  there  are  always  some  bility  of  setting  the  tables,  bringing  in 
children  playing  "blackman"  or  the  soup  tureens,  and  serving  their 
"blindman's  buff."  No  one  makes  the  little  mates.  There  is  no  better  de- 
slightest  effort  to  induce  them  to  stop  scription  of  this  most  interesting  and 
playing  in  order  to  come  and  learn  valuable  part  of  the  routine  of  the  day 
their  letters  or  the  simpler  processes  than  the  passage  in  Dr.  Montessori's 
of  arithmetic.  They  do  so  of  their  own  book,  The  Montessori  Method^ 
own  accord.  It  has  been  found,  first,  page  348:  "Any  one  who  has  watched 
that  although  they  are  free  to  do  so  if  them  setting  the  table  must  have 
they  wish,  they  no  more  w4sh  to  spend  passed  from  one  surprise  to  another, 
all  their  time  in  playing  children's  Little  four-year-old  waiters  take  the 
games  than  workers  in  a  candy  factory  knives  and  forks  and  spoons  and  dis- 
desire  to  consume  chocolate  drops  all  tribute  them  to  the  different  places; 
the  time.  they  carry  trays  holding  as  many  as 
Value  of  free-will  over  enforced  five  water  glasses,  and  finally  they  go 
ATTENTION  from  table  to  table,  carrying  tureens 
The  second  discovery  is  of  even  full  of  hot  soup.  Not  a  mistake  is 
greater  importance  than  the  first;  made,  not  a  glass  is  broken,  not  a  drop 
is  in  fact  of  such  vital  importance  of  soup  is  spilled.  All  during  the  meal, 
that  it  cannot  be  too  often  stated,  unobtrusive  little  waiters  watch  the 
This  is  the  discovery  that  one  moment  table  assiduously;  not  a  child  empties 
of  real  attention,  given  of  the  child's  his  soup-plate  without  being  offered 
own  free  will,  with  actual  vivifying  more ;  if  he  is  ready  for  the  next  course, 
interest  back  of  it,  is  worth  more  a  waiter  briskly  carries  off  his  soup- 
educationally  than  hours  of  enforced  plate.  Not  a  child  is  forced  to  ask  for 
listening  to  a  teacher  teach.  Such  a  more  soup,  or  to  announce  that  he 
moment  of  real  attention  is  worth  more  has  finished, 
because  it  is  worth  everything,  while  Exercise  their  own  choice 
the  enforced  listening  to  teaching  is  After  lunch,  the  children  again  choose 
worth  nothing.  freely  their  own  occupations.  Some  run 
Luncheon  in  the  casa  dei  bambini  out  to  play  on  the  playground;  some 
— The  children,  as  a  rule,  busy  them-  water  the  plants  under  their  especial 
selves  happily  with  the  different  parts  care;  some  take  naps  as  long  as  they  like, 
of  the  apparatus  most  of  the  morning.  By  far  the  greater  number,  however. 
Towards  noon,  preparations  for  lunch-  return  to  the  Montessori  apparatus 
eon  begin.  The  children  take  turns  and  occupy  themselves  with  that  fas- 
in  doing  this  work,  four  or  five  being  cinating  material  until  time  for  them 
charged  every  day  with  the  responsi-  to  go  home. 


MONTESSORI     EXERCISES     AND     GAMES 


TWENTY-NINE  LESSONS  WITH  FULL  DIRECTIONS 
TO  MOTHER  AND  TEACHER 
Including:  How  to  fix  the  child's  attention  on  size  and  form.  How  to  co-ordi- 
nate movements  of  the  fingers.  How  to  distinguish  differences  in  size  and  form. 
How  to  develop  the  sense  of  touch.  How  to  train  the  sense  of  hearing.  How  to 
teach  the  child  to  write.  How  to  teach  the  child  the  abstract  from  the  concrete. 
How  to  teach  the  child  the  use  of  colors.  How  to  train  the  child  in  bodily  move- 
ments. How  to  teach  the  child  the  alphabet.  How  the  child  learns  self-care. 
First  steps  in  numbers.  Arithmetical  games.  How  to  teach  discipline  and  obedi- 
ence.    How  to  supplement  Montessori  apparatus. 


WE  IN  America  who  have  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of 
two  and  seven  can  not  as  yet 
send  our  children  to  one  of  the  special 
schools.  Therefore,  if  we  wish  our 
children  to  profit  by  the  great  work  of 
Dr.  Montessori,  we  must  do  the  next 
best  thing,  and  give  them  the  Montes- 
sori training  in  our  own  homes.  The 
fact  that  we  have  only  the  children  of 
our  own  home  to  deal  with  should  not 
lessen  the  sense  of  responsibility  or  the 
diligence  with  which  we  strive  to 
make  daily  application  of  the  Montes- 
sori principles. 

A  SCHOOL   IN  THE   HOME 

The  mother  has  some  advantages 
which  the  superintendent  of  the  Mon- 
tessori schoolroom  does  not  have. 
She  has  the  children  constantly  with 
her,  and  she  can,  if  she  will,  turn  into 
a  Montessori  exercise  almost  every- 
thing the  child  does  in  the  course  of 
his  waking  hours.  These  valuable 
and  constantly  present  opportunities 
for  supplementary  Montessori  work  in 
ordinary  home  life  will  be  touched 
upon  as  the  regular  apparatus  is  de- 
scribed and  explained  in  the  following 
lessons. 

Let  us  suppose  that  the  dox  con- 
taining the  Montessori  apparatus 
comes  into  the  home  when  the  three- 
year-old  child  for  whom  it  is  intended 
is  asleep.  The  mother  takes  her  time 
to  look  over  the  large  collection  of 
queer-looking  objects  and,  if  she  is 
wise,  puts  away,  for  the  present,  every- 


thing but  the  simplest  of  the  Buttoning 
Frames  and  the  three  sets  of  Solid 
Geometric  Insets. 

EXERCISE   ONE 

TO    FIX   THE   CHILD'S    ATTENTION    ON 
SIZE  AND   FORM 

Solid  Geometrical  Insets. — ^These 
comprise  three  series  of  wooden  cyl- 
inders set  in  corresponding  holes  in 
a  thick,  smoothly  planed  board.  There 
are  ten  cylinders  to  each  of  the  three 
series.  In  the  first,  the  height  of  the 
cylinders  is  constant  and  the  diam- 
eter varies;  in  the  second  series,  the 
diameter  is  constant  and  the  height 
varies;  in  the  third  series,  the  cylin- 
drical form  alone  is  constant,  height 
and  diameter  varying.  With  these 
insets,  the  child,  working  independ- 
ently, learns  to  discriminate  objects 
according  to  thickness,  height  and 
size,  and  the  material  used  controls 
the  error. 

When  the  child  wakes  up,  he  is  told 
there  are  some  new  playthings  in  the 
house,  and  one  of  the  Solid  Geometric 
Series  is  shown  him.  As  a  rule,  he 
needs  no  further  supervision  in  the 
use  of  this  piece  of  apparatus,  since  it 
is  self-corrective.  If  he  gets  a  small 
cylinder  in  the  big  hole,  when  he  comes 
to  the  small  hole,  the  big  cylinder  will 
not  go  in  it,  and  he  is  forced  to  look 
back  to  correct  his  own  mistake. 
Here,  as  in  the  use  of  all  the  Montes- 
sori apparatus,  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  the  best  thing  one  can  do  for  the 
child  is  to  let  him  alone  as  much  as 


176 


The   Long   Stair 

(To  be  used  in  Exercise  Six) 


Solid   Geometrical   Insets 

(To  be  used  in  Exercise  One) 

MONTESSORI  SENSE-TRAINING  APPARATUS 

vn 


Sandpaper  Boards 

(To    be   used    in    Exercises   Seven    and    Eight) 


Color  Boxes 

(To  be  need  in  Exercises  Sixteen  and  Seventeen) 


Plane   Geometric   Forms 

<To    be    used    in    Exercise    Thirteen) 


Part   of  Movable   Alphabet 

(To    be    used    in    Exercise    Nineteeo^ 


Computing   Boxes 

(To  be  used  in  Exercises  Twenty-three  and  Twenty-four) 


Sound   Boxes 

(To    be    used    in    Exercise   Ten) 


Plane   Geometric   Insets 

(To    be    used    in    Exercises    Eleven  and  Twelve) 

MONTESSORI  SELF-INSTRUCTING  DEVICES 

178 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


179 


possible.  "Hands  off!"  is  the  motto 
for  adults  in  adopting  the  Montessori 
system  for  a  child.  The  important 
thing  is  not  that  the  cylinders  shall 
all  be  put  back  in  the  right  holes,  but 
that  the  child  shall  do  it  himself! 

Any  ordinarily  active,  right-minded 
baby  of  three  will  fight  for  this  right 
himself,  pushing  away  help  and  cry- 
ing "Let  me,"  and  the  adults  should 
religiously  respect  this  desire  to  begin 
a  life  of  self-independence.  And  yet, 
of  course,  adult  brains  can  often  de- 
vise some  method  of  using  the  ap- 
paratus which  will  make  the  process 
of  learning  self-independence  easier 
for  the  child.  One  of  the  discoveries 
made  by  Dr.  Montessori  is  that  the  sense 
of  touch  is  very  much  more  developed 
in  little  children  than  the  sense  of 
sight;  that  is,  they  can  tell  more 
about  an  object  after  they  have 
handled  it  than  if  they  have  merely 
looked  at  it.  So  that  it  is  well  to 
explain  to  a  child  who  has  difficulty 
in  gettirig  the  cylinders  back  in  the 
right  hole  that  if  he  holds  a  cylinder 
by  the  little  knob  with  the  fingers  of 
his  left  hand  and  passes  the  forefinger 
of  his  right  hand  around  the  base  of  it, 
and  then  around  the  opening  into 
which  he  thinks  it  ought  to  fit,  that 
he  will  probably  be  more  accurate 
than  if  he  merely  looks  at  the  two 
objects. 
Traits  of  child  nature  appealed  to 

It  is  well  that  the  mother  should 
understand  just  why  the  child  should 
be  interested  in  these  exercises.  There 
are  two  fundamental  traits  of  child- 
hood involved:  first,  any  normal  child 
takes  a  great  interest  in  putting 
objects  in  rows;  second,  any  child  is 
delighted  when  he  can  put  an  object 
into  an  opening.  Combining  these 
two  traits  of  childhood,  we  have  a 
fascinating  educational  device.  The 
child  is  not  only  happily  employed  but 
he  is  learning  something  that  is  of 


value.  He  is  learning  to  discriminate 
between  different  objects.  Although 
he  does  it  unconsciously,  he  is  forming 
an  idea  of  spacial  relations. 

When  the  child  can  successfully  put 
the  various  cylinders  in  their  respec- 
tive openings,  the  exercises  can  be 
made  more  complex  by  giving  all  the 
cylinders  to  the  child  and  only  one  of 
the  bases.  This  requires  a  greater 
discrimination,  making  the  exercise 
more  complex.  The  cylinders  can 
also  be  used  a  little  later  in  teaching 
nomenclature,  to  show  the  difference 
between  thick  and  thin,  thicker  and 
thinner,  high  and  low,  higher  and  lower, 
etc. 

After  he  has  mastered  the  simpler 
exercises,  the  child  may  be  blind- 
folded or,  looking  in  another  direction, 
place  the  various  cylinders  into  the 
openings.  These  exercises  bring  into 
play  the  tactile  and  muscular  senses, 
both  of  which  are  very  acute  in  small 
children.  Since  the  child  delights  to 
feel  of  objects,  it  will  not  be  long  until 
he  will  take  a  great  interest  in  the 
game  of  "seeing  with  his  fingers." 
These  sets  of  cylinders  are  perhaps  the 
simplest  of  all  the  equipment  and  at 
the  same  time  they  have  proved  the 
most  fascinating  for  small  children. 

The  tracing  of  forms,  "the  begin- 
nings" OF  writing 

The  child  should  be  cautioned  (and 
his  mother  should  take  pains  about  this 
in  all  Montessori  exercises)  to  make  the 
motions  always  from  the  left  to  the 
right,  in  the  directions  in  which  writ- 
ing is  done,  for  these  exercises,  un- 
likely as  it  seems,  are  the  beginnings 
of  writing  and  reading.  Then  he 
should  be  left  to  "play"  with  this  new 
toy,  as  long  as  his  interest  lasts, 
which  will  vary  greatly  according  to 
the  degree  of  development  reached, 
the  temperament  of  the  child,  and 
even  his  state  of  health.  When  he 
is  perfectly  well  and  rested  and  not 


EXERCISE    TWO 


180  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

hungry,  he  can  do  much  better  work  most  cases  he  at  once  sets  to  work, 

than     otherwise.     His     attention     to  and  even  though  his  first  efforts  seem 

the  exercise  must,  of  course,  be  spon-  to    the    observing    mother    incredibly 

taneous,  brought  about  by  the  interest  clumsy  and  slow,  she  must  keep  her 

of  the  task  given,  and  if  the  task  does  hands  off,  and  let  him  work  out  his 

not  happen  to  interest  that  particular  own  problems, 

child    at    that    particular     moment,  Putting  away  the  apparatus 

nothing  can  be  gained  by  forcing  him  The  only  rule  should  be  that  if  he 

or  even  coaxing  him  to  go  on  with  it.  does  not  wish  to  play  witn  the  ap- 

He  will  return  to  it  another   day,  or  paratus,  or  when  he  grows  tired  of  its 

perhaps   even    an    hour    later,   of  his  use,  he  should  put  it  away;    and  for 

own  accord.  that  purpose  it  is  very  essential  that 

there  should  be  a  well  defined  place, 
which  the  child  can  easily  reach,  for 

FOR   co-ORDmATiNG   MOVEMENTS   OF  gvery  one  of  his  belongings— not  only 

for  the  Montessori  apparatus,  but  for 
The  Buttoning  or  Dressing  Frames,  his  other  toys  and  for  his  clothing. 
— There  are  eight  of  the  dressing  or  The  hooks  should  be  low,  so  that  little 
buttoning  frames.  Any  one  or  more  arms  can  reach  them,  and  the  drawers 
of  these  can  be  used  effectively  with-  where  clothing  is  put  away  should  be 
out  association  with  the  others.  On  easy  to  open  and  shut.  Three  years 
six  wooden  frames  are  mounted  six  is  none  too  young  to  begin  the  habit 
pieces  of  cloth  of  varying  textures,  of  order,  which,  like  so  many  other 
to  be  joined  by  means  of  large  but-  good  habits,  may  be  acquired  pain- 
tons  and  buttonholes,  automatic  fast-  lessly  at  an  early  age,  although  so 
eners,  small  buttons  and  buttonholes,  nearly  impossible  to  inculcate  after 
hooks  and  eyes,  colored  ribbons  for  the  bad  habits  have  become  fixed, 
bow-tying,  and  lacing  through  eye-  The  exercises  with  the  dressing  frames 
lets.  The  remaining  two  frames  are  are  not  necessarily  for  the  developing 
mounted  with  leather  pieces,  one  of  of  the  different  senses.  The  primary 
which  simulates  shoe  lacing  and  the  object  is  to  develop  the  muscular  co- 
other  shoe  buttoning,  the  latter  in-  ordination  to  strengthen  the  child's 
volving  the  use  of  the  button  hook,  little  fingers.  These  materials  carry 
These  exercises  are  for  the  develop-  out  Dr.  Montessori's  ideas  of  sim- 
ment  of  co-ordinate  movements  of  plicity,  self-correction  and  general 
the  fingers.  The  child  is  taught  to  attractiveness.  They  are  so  simple 
dress  himself  without  his  really  know-  that  the  child  at  once  understands 
ing  that  a  lesson  is  being  taught  him.  the  meaning  of  the  game,  and  in  work- 
The  Buttoning  Frame,  or  the  frame  ing  with  these  various  materials  his 
with  "hooks  and  eyes,"  should  be  little  fingers  and  hands  are  so 
brought  out  first,  and  the  method  of  strengthened  that  he  may  success- 
fastening  and  unfastening  explained  fully  take  up  more  complex  and 
in  the  usual  Montessori  way;  that  is,  difficult  work. 

as  briefly  as  possible.     It  is  often  best  Of  course,  one  of  the  incidents  of 

not  to  say  anything,  but  merely  to  go  this  work  is  that  he  learns  to   dress 

through  the  exercises  one's  self,  un-  and  undress  himself.     This,  it  should 

buttoning    or    unhooking    the    cloth,  be  remembered,  is  not   the   primary 

buttoning  or  hooking  it  up  again,  and  factor    that  Dr.    Montessori    has   in 

handing  the  frame  to  the  child.     In  mind, 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


181 


EXERCISE  THREE 

Supplementary  exercises  teaching 

the  practical  application  of 

knowledge  gained  with 

the  apparatus 

One  obvious  result  sought  in  all 
these  exercises  is  the  beginning  in  the 
child's  mind  of  the  habit  of  concentra- 
tion to  the  task  in  hand.  The  insets 
are  primarily  intended,  as  already 
stated,  to  teach  the  child  to  distinguish 
between  differences  in  dimension  and 
form,  and  this  can  be  taught  by 
supplementary  exercises  in  almost  any 
room  of  the  house. 

First. — In  the  dining-room  he  can 
be  given  a  pile  of  spoons  of  differing 
size,  teaspoons,  tablespoons,  soup- 
spoons, coffeespoons,  etc.,  and  the 
suggestion  made  to  him  that  it  would 
be  fun  to  separate  them  into  piles 
according  to  their  sizes.  In  most 
cases,  this  impromptu  Montessori 
exercise  can  be  depended  upon  to 
amuse  the  child  for  an  astonishingly 
long  period,  and  it  is,  of  course,  excel- 
lent training  for  his  capacity  to  dis- 
tinguish accurately  between  objects 
similar  but  of  different  size. 

Second. — Out  of  doors,  a  pile  of 
stones  of  differing  sizes  can  be  divided 
into  several  piles  of  the  same  size. 
Most  mothers  will  be  surprised  at  the 
vast  and  inextinguishable  interest 
taken  in  such  simple  exercises  by  the 
average  healthy  child  of  three  or  over. 
The  gain  in  accuracy  of  eye  and  brain 
is  too  obvious  to  need  discussion. 

Third. — The  buttoning  frames  are 
intended  first  of  all  to  teach  the  child 
to  use  his  hands  and  fingers  accurately 
and  well,  and  next  to  enable  him  to 
dress  himself  as  far  as  may  be.  This 
is  very  important,  for  the  first  thing 
to  be  done  for  a  little  child  is  to  release 
him  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the 
prison  of  babyishness — to  make  it 
possible  for  him  to  take  care  of  himself, 
and  not  to  depend  upon  the  services 


of  others.  As  his  clothes  are  nearly 
always  fastened  with  buttons,  it  is 
essential  that  considerable  time  be 
devoted  to  teaching  him  how  to 
manage  these,  or,  rather,  that  he 
shall  be  allowed  to  take  the  time 
necessary  to  learn  this.  For  he  has  a 
natural  fund  of  desire  to  manage 
himself  which  makes  him  eager  to 
learn. 

The  buttoning  frames,  being  of 
cloth  tightly  stretched  on  wood,  are 
easier  for  him  to  manage  than  the 
buttons  on  his  own  clothes,  although 
as  soon  as  he  begins  to  try  to  button 
his  own  coats  and  waists,  he  should 
be  allowed  all  the  time  he  needs  for 
his  first  clumsy  and  ineffectual  at- 
tempts. Remember,  he  should  be 
allowed  all  the  time  he  needs — not  all 
the  help  he  needs!  For  if  he  is  often 
helped,  he  will  fall  into  the  vicious, 
invalid's  habit  of  waiting  for  other 
people  to  serve  him. 

Fourth. — The  lace  and  ribbon  frames 
are  more  difficult  to  use  and  are,  of 
course,  to  be  held  back  until  the  child 
is  older,  perhaps  four  or  five.  From 
time  to  time,  they  should  be  brought 
out  and  a  simple  experiment  made 
of  the  child's  capacity  to  deal  with  it. 
If  he  does  not  at  once  show  interest 
in  the  problem  of  bow-knots  and  laces, 
and  more  of  a  capacity  to  struggle  with 
the  construction  of  them  than  on  the 
last  trial,  the  frame  should  be  taken 
away,  without  comment,  and  not 
tried  again  until  more  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  other  exercises.  It 
must  be  remembered,  as  a  general  rule 
for  the  use  of  the  Montessori  exercises, 
and  in  general  in  the  training  of  little 
children,  that  no  prolonged  attempt 
should  ever  be  made  to  coax  them  to 
continue  an  exercise  which  does  not 
interest  them.  If  they  show  no  spon- 
taneous interest,  they  are  not  ready  for 
it,  and  time  is  only  wasted  by  any 
attempt    to    force    their    inclination. 


182 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


When  they  are  ready,  they  can  learn 
in  ten  minutes  what  three  hours  of 
dreary  enforced  practice  was  not  able 
to  teach  them. 

EXERCISE  FOUR 

Exercises    four,    five   and   six   are 

also  for  the  further  cultivation 

of  the  child's  visual  perception  of 

difference  in  dimension  and  form 

The  Block  Tower.— After  the  child 
has  had  a  day  or  so  of  practice  with 
the  Geometric  Insets  and  Buttoning 
Frames,  allowing  him  to  take  them  up 
and  lay  them  down  at  will,  it  is  time 
to  bring  out  the  blocks  composing  the 
Tower.  The  Tower  is  a  series  of  ten 
wooden  cubes,  decreasing  in  size. 
Almost  every  nursery  possesses  such 
blocks,  but  few  mothers  are  aware  of 
their  educational  value  or  of  the  dis- 
tinctive use  to  which  blocks  of  gradu- 
ated size  should  be  put.  Their  use 
should  not  be  confused  with  that  of 
the  ordinary  "building  blocks," — 
cube  blocks  of  unvarying  size.  With 
the  Tower  blocks  there  are  definite 
problems  of  classification  and  dis- 
crimination to  be  solved,  and  to  get  the 
benefit  of  them,  the  child  must  use 
them  in  the  one  correct  way. 

Teaching  the  child  to  build 
the  tower 

The  mother  builds  up  the  Tower 
before  the  child's  eyes,  placing  the 
largest  block  first,  then  the  next 
smaller  one,  and  so  on  down  to  the 
tiny  little  cube  at  the  top.  Then  she 
knocks  it  all  down,  and  if  her  child  is 
the  average  child,  he  needs  no  more 
incentive  to  duplicate  the  performance 
and  to  begin  to  educate  himself  as  to 
graduations  of  size.  When  he  begins 
to  construct  the  Tower  himself,  the 
difficult  thing  for  the  mother  to  do  is 
to  avoid  giving  him  elaborate  instruc- 
tions: "No,  no,  Jimmy — not  that  one 
— that's  not  the  next  size — don't  you 
see  the  one  by  your  hand  is  bigger?" 
etc.,  etc.,  etc.     The  only  good  Jimmy 


can  get  of  this  exercise  is  by  learning 
to  see  for  himself  which  is  the  bigger 
block,  and  to  do  this  his  mother  must 
let  him  alone.  She  need  not  be  sur- 
prised if  he  makes  one  odd  mistake 
continually,  even  after  he  has  learned 
quite  deftly  to  construct  the  Tower. 
A  great  many  children  find  it  difficult 
to  begin  the  Tower  with  the  biggest 
block.  They  begin  it  with  the  next 
biggest,  and,  when  they  have  finished, 
find  that  they  cannot  place  the  largest 
one  without  tearing  down  the  whole 
structure.  The  psychological  proc- 
esses involved  in  this  mistake  are 
too  complicated  to  explain  here.  I 
mention  it,  lest  some  anxious  mother 
should  think  her  own  three-year-old 
especially  deficient  in  the  capacity  to 
distinguish  between  sizes. 

One  exercise  that  can  be  profitably 
carried  out  is  to  give  the  Tower  to 
the  child  and  have  him  carry  it,  let 
us  say,  from  one  part  of  the  room  to 
another.  In  all  probability,  his  first 
attempt  will  be  far  from  successful. 
Let  him  take  his  own  time  in  the 
building  of  it,  and  then  make  another 
attempt.  Finally,  he  will  be  able  to 
carry  it  very  successfully  from  one 
part  of  the  room  to  another,  thus 
showing  the  self-control  that  is  de- 
veloped. 

EXERCISE  FIVE 
Broad  stair 

After  the  Tower,  the  next  exercise 
is  the  Broad  Stair.  It  is  a  set 
of  ten  rectangular  wooden  blocks, 
decreasing  in  height  and  width, 
length  only  being  constant.  This  is 
another  of  the  visual  perception  ex- 
ercises. Here  it  may  be  well  to 
mention  that  when  a  new  exercise  is 
given  a  child,  the  older  ones  are  by  no 
means  taken  away.  They  are  left  in 
the  nursery,  where  he  can  get  at  them 
himself  whenever  he  wishes  to,  and  the 
new  ones  simply  added  to  the  store 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  183 

of  his  riches.     Often,  when  the  more  EXERCISE  SIX 

elaborate  exercises  are  quite  mastered.  The  long  stair 

a  child  will  take  pleasure  in  returning         After    the    Tower  and    the    Stair 

for  a  time  to  the  simpler  old  friends  comes    the    third    set    of    blocks,    or 

with  which  he  began.     He  should  be  rods,    called    the   Long    Stair.      This 

allowed  to  do  this  quite  as  he  wishes,  is  the  most  important    of  the    three 

his  own  instinct  being  a  sure  and  ac-  sets,  as  it  is  the  foundation  for  instruc- 

curate  guide  to  what  is  best  for  him  tion  in  arithmetic.     With  this  set  of 

in  this  respect.     He  is  doing  what  w^e  short     rectangular     rods,     the     child 

all  like  to  do  occasionally — he  is  "re-  learns,  as  he  grows  older,  a  number 

viev/ing"   what  he  has   learned,   and  of  the  simpler  processes  of  numeration, 

making  sure  of  his  grasp  on  something  At  first  they  are  presented  to  the  child 

which  he  has  not  thought  of  for  some  just  as  a  series  of  rods   differing  in 

time.  length,    the   smallest    one    being  one 

The  Broad  Stair  is  brought  out  in  tenth  of  the  length  of  the  longest  one. 

the   same  quiet   manner  with   which  The    mother    builds    up    the    series, 

the  child  has  been  introduced  to  his  having  the  child  notice  that  all  the 

other  Montessori  "playthings."     The  rods  are  red  on  one  end,  and  that  the 

mother  arranges  the  blocks  in  regular  stairs  have  a  regular  number  of  red 

order,  starting  either  with  the  biggest  and  blue  spaces  from  one  to  ten,  or 

or  the  smallest,  and  laying  the  others  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the 

side  by  side,  until  a  regular  stair  is  stairs.     Then    the    series    is    knocked 

constructed.     Then     she     mixes     the  over,  the  rods  mixed  up,  and  the  child 

blocks  up,  and  goes  away.     The  child,  left  to  put  it  together  again  himself, 

if  he  is  ready  for  this  exercise,  at  once  Children  who  cannot  definitely  count 

takes  it  up,  and  in  struggling  to  repeat  can  often  manage  this  series,  and  it  is 

his  mother's  feat,  constructs  the  stair,  the  greatest  pleasure  for  the  child  who 

intellectually   as   well   as   physically,  has  just  learned  to  count  to  be  able 

and  learns  a  new  variety  of  dimension,  to  verify  his  numbers  in  this  concrete 

Since  all  these  blocks  are  .the  same  way.     For  the  present,  this  is  all  that 

length,  and  only  differ  in  height  and  is  done  with  the  Long  Stair,  but  as  the 

thickness,  his  problem  is  one  degree  child  progresses  and  develops,  it  will 

more  difficult  than  in  the  construction  be  found  one  of  the  most  valuable 

of  the  Tower.  parts  of  the  apparatus,  because  the 

It    sho'-ld    be    remembered    about  rods  can  be  combined  in  many  different 

these  blocks,  as  about  all  Montessori  ways,   and  illustrate  in  the  plainest 

apparatus,  that  they  should  be  used  and  most  unmistakable  manner  many 

for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  of   the   simpler   processes   of   mathe- 

in tended  and  for  no  other.     The  child  matics  —  addition,     subtraction,    etc. 

should  always  have,  in  addition,  an  But  this  all  comes  later,  and  after  the 

ordinary  set  of  plain  building  blocks,  child    has     mastered     other    of     the 

with  which  he  can  play  in  any  way  he  apparatus. 

pleases,   and  if  he  begins  to  "make  Order  of  exercises  to  be  modified 
houses,"    etc.,    with    his    Montessori  according  to  circumstances 

blocks,  his  little  mind,  incapable  of         It  is  not    desirable    that    we    give 

more  than  one  idea  at  a  time,  should  be  directions  for  the  exact  use  and   the 

redirected  to  the  regular  exercise  in-  order  of  succession  of  the  remainder  of 

volving     the     dimensions     of     these  the    apparatus.       Children    differ   so 

blocks.  widely  that  the  mother  will  be  forced 


18Jt 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHILDREN    DIRECTING    THEIR    OWN    LESSONS 


A  spontaneous 
writing  lesson.  These 
children  have  reach- 
ed the  point  where, 
as  Montessori  says, 
they  "explode  into 
writing." 


%.'9^^' 


Montessori  Long  Stair  Game 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER                          185 

to  depend  somewhat  on  her  own  judg-  touch,  over  the  two  surfaces,  and  the 

ment  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  child  asked  to  give  the  right  name  to 

child.     She  will  have  grasped  by  this  what  he  is  touching.     At  the  first  sign 

time  the  purpose  of  the  exercises  with  of  mental  fatigue  or  confusion,   this 

the  Montessori  apparatus,  which  is  to  exercise      should      be      discontinued, 

give  the  child  the  fullest  possible  control  although  it  may  be  taken  up  again 

over  his  own  body  and  will-power.     The  after  a  half-hour's  rest  and  change  of 

order  of  exercises  as  hereafter  indicated  occupation.        The      child's      fingers 

is  to  be  followed  with  any  ordinary  should  always  be  trained  from  left  to 

child,  but  this  must  be  modified  accord-  right, 

ing  to  circumstances.  EXERCISE  EIGHT 

EXERCISE  SEVEN  Sandpaper  board  number  two 

Developing  the  sense  of  touch  When  the  simpler  of  the  sandpaper 

Sandpaper  Board  Number  One. —  boards  has  been  mastered,  the  child 

As  a  rule,  the  next  piece  of  apparatus  may  go  to  the  next  form,  in  which  the 

to  be  taken  up  is  the  Sandpaper  Board,  sandpaper    is    arranged    in    alternate 

a  small  board,   one-half  of  which  is  strips  on  the  smoothly  planed  board, 

smooth  and  the  other  half    covered  This  is,  of  course,  more  complicated, 

with  sandpaper.     This  fixes  the  child's  and  the  blindfolded  child  may  soon 

attention   on   the   difference   between  "lose  his  head"  and  not  be  able  to 

surfaces.     Sometimes  this  is  one  of  the  distinguish    accurately    between    the 

very  first  apparatus  to  be  used,  as  a  sensations.     He  should  be  encouraged 

distinction  between  rough  and  smooth  is  to  take  plenty  of  time,  and  to  allow  his 

apttobeone  which  arouses  the  interest  finger-tips   to   play   freely   across  the 

of   a   very   little   child.     His    mother  surface.     When    he   can   tell   quickly 

takes  the  board  in  her  lap,  or  lays  it  on  accurately,  and  without  mental  fatigue, 

the  child's  small  table,  and  draws  the  whether   he   is   touching   a   rough   or 

little    finger-tips    over    the    smoothly  smooth    strip,    the   beginning   of   the 

planed  board,  saying  at  the  same  time,  child's  education  of  his  tactile  sense 

"smooth,  smooth."     Then  she  draws  is  well  made.     He  has  taken  the  first 

the  finger-tips    (always   from   left   to  step,  which  counts  so  much,  and  will 

right)  over  the  rough  sand-paper,  say-  go  on  steadily   to  more  complicated 

ing,  "rough,  rough."     The  child  very  conquests.     In  this  exercise,  the  child 

soon   associates   the   sound   with   the  is    also    learning    to    follow    a    raised 

sensation,  to  which  his  finger-tips  are  surface  with  his  little  fingers.     This  is 

more  alive  than  are  deadened  adult  of  great  value  to  him  as  a  preliminary 

fingers,  and  says  himself,  as  he  touches  to   the    sandpaper   letters.     After   he 

the  two  surfaces,  "smooth,  smooth —  has  mastered  this  simple  exercise,  he 

rough,  rough."     After  this  distinction  has  one  of  the  first  requisites  necessary 

has  been  thoroughly  learned  (it  may  for  successful  work  with  the  sandpaper 

take  only  one  lesson,  or  it  may  take  letters. 

two  or  three  days),  it  is  a  good  plan  to  EXERCISE  NINE 

try  to  see  if  he  can  make  the  distinc-  for   the   further    development   of 

tion  accurately  when  he  is  not  looking  the  child-s  tactile  sense 

at  the  board,  purely  by  the  sense  of  In  the  formal  Montessori  apparatus, 

touch.     The   finger-tips    should    then  the   small    cabinet    containing    seven 

be   passed,    always   with   the   utmost  drawers  is  filled  with  various  fabrics, 

delicacy  and  with  the  lightest  possible  These   fabrics   consist  of  two   pieces 


186  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

of  the  following  materials:  velvet,  triumph  when  the  matching  bit  of 
silk,  wool,  fine  and  coarse  linen,  and  velvet  is  discovered.  It  may  be  said 
fine  and  coarse  cotton.  It  is  very  in  passing  that  it  is  usually  well  to 
important  that  absolutely  pure  fabrics  begin  with  either  velvet  or  silk,  as 
should  be  used  for  these  first  exercises;  those  fabrics  are  so  markedly  different 
in  short,  the  mother  should  be  quite  from  others  that  the  problem  is  easier 
sure  that  the  linen  she  is  using  is  not  for  a  beginner.  If  two  children  play 
partly  cotton.  Of  course,  if  the  regu-  this  "game,"  the  victor  is  the  one  who 
lar  Montessori  apparatus  is  used,  all  first  finds  the  piece  of  velvet  without 
of  these  precautions  are  provided  for.  looking  at  his  pile. 
These  can  be  supplemented  by  any  Second. — The  mother's  ingenuity 
ragbag,  and  from  the  infinitely  diver-  can  devise  many  other  variations  on 
sified  fabrics  used  in  the  furnishing  of  this  game,  and  can  see  to  it  that  the 
any  home.  When  this  "playing"  with  child  goes  on  observing  the  fabrics 
fabrics  is  first  begun,  the  child  is  used  in  different  parts  of  the  house, 
allowed  to  handle  the  different  pieces  the  materials  of  which  his  own  dresses 
of  cloth,  and  his  attention  is  called  are  made,  the  stuff  used  in  upholstery, 
to  the  difference  in  their  texture.  He  table  linen,  curtains,  etc.  He  can  also 
is  told  their  names,  one  or  two  at  a  be  told  the  names  of  the  different 
time,  the  mother  taking  the  greatest  materials  used  in  building  a  house — 
pains  to  pronounce  the  words  clearly,  wood,  iron,  tin,  glass,  stone,  and  brick; 
distinctly,  and  slowly.  When  he  and  the  materials  of  cooking  utensils — 
has  learned  to  distinguish  them  by  china,  tin,  copper,  etc.  There  is  an 
looking  at  them,  the  next  step,  as  with  infinite  variety  of  material  in  the 
the  sandpaper  boards,  is  to  distinguish  humblest  home  which  can  be  the  most 
them  by  the  sense  of  touch  only.  The  valuable  educational  apparatus  for 
child  can  be  blindfolded,  or  can  look  the  well-trained  child,  even  in  quite 
up  at  the  ceiling,  and,  sitting  in  front  early  childhood.  Once  the  child's 
of  a  mixed-up  pile  of  the  pieces,  takes  interest  in  this  problem  is  aroused,  he 
them  up  one  at  a  time,  pronouncing  will  in  most  cases  go  on  educating 
their  names.  When  he  has  done  this  himself,  and  all  the  parent  needs  to 
enough  times  so  that  he  is  quite  sure  do  is  to  have  the  patience  necessary 
of  himself  (usually  after  a  week  of  to  answer  innumerable  questions, 
playing  with  the  pieces  at  intervals)  Third. — Games  with  Balls,  Squares, 
he  can  go  on  to  some  of  the  fascinating  Triangles,  etc. — Another  "game"  for 
"games"  to  be  played  with  them.  developing  the  sense  of  touch  with 
Supplementary  exercises  and  games  materials  other  than  fabrics  is  played 
INVOLVING  THE  SENSE  OF  TOUCH  in  the  Casa  dei  Bambini  with  solid 
First. — The  pieces  are  divided  into  wooden  geometric  forms  of  differing 
two  piles,  each  having  the  same  number  shapes — balls,  squares,  triangles,  etc. 
of  pieces  of  the  same  fabrics.  Then  The  child  is  blindfolded,  and  pulls 
the  mother  picks  out  a  piece  of  velvet,  these  things,  one  at  a  time,  out  of  a 
without  naming  it,  asks  the  child  if  he  bag,  identifying  them  solely  by  finger- 
can  find  a  piece  like  it  in  his  pile  (of  ing  them  over.  In  the  home  this  can 
course,  without  looking).  This  is  be  "played"  with  any  material  at 
always  productive  of  much  excited  hand  with  which  the  child  is  familiar, 
fumbling  in  the  pieces,  and  much  He  can  be  blindfolded  and  try  to 
delicate  fingering  of  them  by  sensitive  identify  objects  in  a  miscellaneous 
little    finger-tips,    and    finally    much  heap  on  the  table  before  him,  consist- 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


187 


ing  of  toy  animals,  spoons,  forks, 
brushes,  combs,  dolls,  trays — any- 
thing in  the  room  which  will  not  hurt 
him,  and  is  not  breakable.  Very 
little  children  always  experience  the 
greatest  joy  in  thus  proving  that  they 
can  see  "with  their  fingers." 

EXERCISE  TEN 

Training  the  sense  of  hearing 

Sound  Boxes. — But  the  sense  of 
touch  is  not  the  only  one  of  the  child's 
five  senses  which  can  be  improved  by 
direct  training.  The  sense  of  hearing 
is  greatly  developed  and  made  more 
serviceable  for  after  years,  if  given 
reasonable  practice.  The  Montessori 
apparatus  provides  the  wooden  Sound 
Boxes,  filled  with  different  substances 
— sand,  gravel,  flaxseed,  stones,  etc., 
which  give  out  sounds  differing  in 
quality  and  loudness,  when  shaken. 
The  child's  attention  can  be  thus 
fixed,  for  the  first  time,  on  a  definite 
attempt  to  distinguish  between  loud 
and  low  noises,  as  he  shakes  these 
little  boxes  close  to  his  ear,  and 
attempts  to  arrange  them  in  order 
according  to  their  degree  of  noise. 

In  all  probability,  the  child  has 
heard  noises  of  this  character,  but 
he  has  not  had  an  opportunity  to 
compare  or  to  contrast  such  noises. 
This  exercise  affords  an  opportunity 
for  such  discrimination.  As  a  rule, 
the  children  take  a  great  deal  of  interest 
in  this  simple  exercise  and  they  show 
a  marked  difference  in  their  ability 
to  discriminate  between  the  various 
substances. 

Supplementary  exercises  and 

"GAMES" 

But  this  simple  exercise  needs 
to  be  supplemented  by  other 
"games"  which  fix  the  attention  on 
sounds.  These  can  be  devised  most 
easily  with  "hide-and-seek"  games. 
The  mother  hides  and  blows  very 
softly  a  little  horn,  by  means  of  which 


the  child  traces  her;  or  she  calls  the 
child's  name  in  the  lowest  possible 
whispers,  as  he,  blindfolded,  tries  to 
locate  her  in  the  room  by  his  hearing. 
Any  of  the  common  children's  games, 
"blindman's  buff,"  "still  -  pond  -  no- 
more-moving,"  etc.,  played  with  a 
blindfold,  are  excellent  exercises  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Out  of  doors,  long-distance  calling 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  to  accus- 
tom the  child  to  determine  the  direc- 
tion from  which  any  noise  comes. 

As  to  musical  sounds,  most  children 
who  are  young  enough  for  this  Mon- 
tessori training  are  too  young  to  dis- 
tinguish pitch  at  all  accurately.  Of 
music  they  receive  practically  nothing 
but  rhythm,  although  they  are  fond  of 
marching  to  a  tune  which  has  strongly 
marked  time,  and  this  is  a  good 
exercise  for  them,  in  its  place. 

EXERCISE  ELEVEN 

Preparatory  exercise  for  teaching 
the  child  to  write 

Plain  Geometric  Insets.  —  Very 
soon  after  the  child's  first  introduc- 
tion to  the  Montessori  apparatus,  he 
can  begin  his  use  of  the  Plain  Geomet- 
ric Insets.  These  sets  consist  of  a  six- 
drawer  cabinet,  thirty-six  geometrical 
insets,  and  a  pattern  in  an  adjustable 
frame,  making  possible  any  desired 
combination  of  forms.  The  insets 
are  made  of  pieces  of  smooth  wood, 
painted  blue,  cut  in  different  shapes, 
and  with  a  little  knob-like  handle  in 
the  center.  These  insets  fit  into  holes 
or  openings  cut  in  a  rectangular 
natural  colored  piece  of  wood.  The 
first  of  the  series  of  six  drawers  contains 
insets  of  strongly  contrasted  forms; 
the  second  drawer  contains  a  series  of 
six  Polygons ;  the  third  drawer,  a  series 
of  six  Circles,  diminishing  in  size;  the 
fourth  drawer,  a  series  of  Quadri- 
laterals containing  one  square  and  five 
rectangles;  the  fifth  drawer,  a  series  of 


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six  Triangles,  and  the  sixth  drawer 
contains  Oval,  Ellipse,  Flower  Forms, 
etc.  These  have  such  a  vital  part  to 
play  in  the  training  of  the  child  to 
write,  that  the  mother  should  be 
especially  careful  in  the  way  they  are 
used. 

The  entire  thirty-six  different  shapes 
should  not,  of  course,  be  put  before 
the  child  at  the  beginning  but  only  a 
drawer  of  the  most  strongly  contrasted 
shapes — triangles,  oblongs,  etc.  He 
should  be  taught  at  the  very  start  (as 
in  the  case  of  the  solid  geometric  insets) 
to  aid  his  sight  by  touch.  While  he 
holds  the  inset  by  the  little  knob  with 
his  left  hand,  he  traces  the  outline 
of  the  inset  with  his  right  forefinger, 
and  from  left  to  right,  or  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  writing  is  done.  Then, 
while  still  holding  the  inset,  he  traces 
around  the  outline  of  the  depression 
into  which  he  thinks  the  inset  he  holds 
would  fit.  It  is  quite  important  to 
establish  this  habit  of  tracing  the  out- 
line with  his  fingers,  as  it  has  a  vital 
bearing  on  learning  to  write. 

As  the  child  masters  the  tray  of  the 
more  simple  forms  so  that  he  finds  it 
easy  for  him  to  place  the  insets  in  the 
corresponding  opening,  the  less  simple 
forms  should  be  given  him,  a  few  at  a 
time.  After  learning  to  distinguish 
between  a  triangle  and  a  circle  quickly 
and  accurately,  the  next  day  he  should 
be  given  two  triangles  and  two  circles 
of  different  sizes,  to  sharpen  his  sense 
of  shape  and  dimension.  After  a 
time,  he  should  be  able  to  replace  in 
the  correct  openings  six  triangles  of 
differing  shapes,  and  six  circles  of 
differing  sizes. 

It  is  perhaps  well  to  give  here  the 
warning  which  can  never  be  too 
often  sounded — not  to  force  the  child's 
attention  to  this,  any  more  than  to 
any  other  problem.  When  mental 
fatigue  sets  in,  and  at  the  least  sign 
of    inattention,   the     tray    of     insets 


should  be  put  away  and  some  romp- 
ing game  outdoors  played,  or  a  quiet 
story  told. 

EXERCISE  TWELVE 

Replacing  the  insets  blindfolded 

When  the  insets  have  become  old 
friends,  it  is  well  to  try  blindfolding 
the  child,  and  setting  him  the  new 
problem  of  replacing  the  geometric 
forms  by  the  sense  of  touch  only. 
Here  it  is  well  to  go  back  again  to  first 
principles  and  to  begin  once  more  with 
the  easiest  forms,  until  he  grows 
accustomed  to  depending  on  his  touch 
only.  This  is  splendid  practice,  and 
a  child  who  has  had  it  grows  astonish- 
ingly keen  in  his  capacity  to  take  in 
accurate  impressions  from  his  finger- 
tips. How  valuable  the  ability  to 
work  without  looking  at  what  is  being 
done,  can  be  estimated  from  the 
experience  of  almost  any  variety  of 
hand-worker.  The  old  grandmother 
who  knits  without  once  looking  at  her 
needle  can  work  all  day  long  without 
a  particle  of  fatigue,  while  the  knitter 
who  needs  to  be  verifying  each  stitch 
by  her  eyes  soon  tires  them  out  and 
must  either  stop  working  or  suffer 
a  violent  headache.  The  stenog- 
rapher who  writes  by  touch  has  a  tre- 
mendous advantage  over  the  other  who 
needs  to  use  her  eyes. 

Dr.  Montessori  lays  great  stress 
upon  the  value  of  the  work  with  these 
wooden  geometric  insets.  They  are 
so  practical  and  at  the  same  time  so 
fascinating  that  the  child  learns  a 
great  deal  in  working  with  them.  The 
primary  object  is  that  the  child  should 
learn  form;  that  is,  that  he  should  see 
the  difference  between  various  objects. 
Ordinarily,  this  is  a  very  tedious  task 
for  the  child,  but  Dr.  Montessori,  by 
means  of  her  self-correcting  apparatus, 
has  made  a  game  that  appeals  to 
normal  children.  The  mother  should 
not  be  at  all  surprised  if  after  a  few 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


189 


weeks  of  play  with  this  apparatus  the 
child  should  begin  to  point  out  various 
objects  in  his  environment,  comparing 
them  with  certain  insets  he  has 
learned  to  know. 

EXERCISE  THIRTEEN 

With  which  the  child's  comprehen- 
sion   PASSES  FROM    SOLID    OBJECTS    TO 
THE   PLANE   LINE,    FROM    THE  CONCRETE 
TO  THE  ABSTRACT 

Plane  Geometric  Figures  Roro- 
duced  in  Three  Series  of  Cards. — 
After  the  final  mastery  of  the  geo- 
metric insets,  the  child  is  given  a  series 
of  cards,  representing  the  same  forms 
as  those  of  his  insets.  In  the  first  of 
these  three  series,  the  forms  are  cut 
out  of  solid  blue  paper  and  mounted  on 
white  cards;  in  the  second,  the  forms 
are  .cut  out  of  heavy  line  drawings 
and  mounted  on  the  cards,  and  in  the 
third,  the  outline  or  form  is  represented 
only  by  a  thin  blue  line,  such  as  is 
drawn  by  any  pencil. 

The  child  mixes  up,  say  six  or  eight  of 
these  cards,  and  six  or  eight  correspond- 
ing insets,  and  then  sets  himself  the 
task  of  putting  the  insets  on  the  corre- 
sponding card.  Here  he  has  not  the 
sense  of  touch  to  guide  him,  and  learns 
gradually  the  meaning  of  the  line, 
passing  from  the  solid  blue  form  to 
the  form  merely  drawn  in  outline. 

After  the  child  has  played  with 
these  various  cards  for  some  time  he 
will  have  acquired  a  very  definite  idea 
of  symbolism.  That  is,  it  will  be 
comparatively  easy  for  him  to  under- 
stand how  a  series  of  lines  can  stand  for 
an  object.  Ordinarily,  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult for  the  child  to  see  the  connection 
between  a  photograph  and  an  object, 
but  ^ath  an  abstract  line  it  is  entirely 
different.  What  is  there  in  the  sym- 
bols c-a-t  that  would  connect  them 
with  a  cat.''  Dr.  Montessori  believes 
that  the  child  should  understand 
symbolism  before  the  alphabet  is 
taken  up. 


EXERCISE  FOURTEEN 
Involving  the  first  use  of  the  pencil 

Plane  Geometrical  Insets  Made  in 
Metal. — And  with  this  recognition  of 
the  line,  might  go  very  well  with  the 
average  child  the  beginning  of  the  use 
of  the  pencil.  This  exercise  is  done 
with  the  Plane  Geometric  Insets  made 
of  metal.  Accompanying  the  metal 
insets  in  the  formal  Montessori  ap- 
paratus are  two  wooden  trays  with 
sloping  tops,  large  enough  to  hold 
three  of  the  metal  insets  and  intended 
to  be  placed  by  the  child  on  his  own 
table.  It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary 
to  point  out  that  a  small  table  and 
chair,  just  the  right  size  for  a  child, 
are  essentials  in  Montessori  or  any  other 
right  training  for  childliood. 

The  child  puts  a  piece  of  white 
paper  on  the  wooden  tray  or  on  his 
own  table,  then  places  the  square 
inset  over  the  paper  and  lifts  out  the 
central  piece  by  its  little  knob.  The 
white  paper  shows  through  the  hole  in 
the  shape  of  the  inset.  The  child  is 
given  a  pencil  and  is  shown,  once,  very 
briefly  and  simply,  how  to  hold  it  and 
how  to  trace  around  the  outline  of  the 
inset.  He  is  apt  to  make  bad  work 
of  this  at  first,  as  this  is  the  very  first 
use  of  the  pencil,  but  his  interest 
almost  certainly  carries  him  through 
the  first  difficulties.  To  begin  with 
he  simply  traces  the  outline,  lifts  off 
the  metal  inset  and  admires  the  design 
on  the  paper  beneath.  The  metal 
edge  of  the  inset  is  a  guide  to  his 
staggering  little  pencil  and  before 
long  he  will  be  able  to  make  a  good, 
clear  outline,  joining  the  ends  neatly. 

EXERCISE  FIFTEEN 
The  use  of  colored  crayons 

First  Lesson  in  Drawing. — When 
this  has  been  accomplished  the  child  is 
furnished  with  a  box  of  colored 
crayons,  and  invited  to  fill  in  the 
"picture"  he  has  made  with  strokes 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


of  his  crayon.  The  fact  that  he  is 
working  in  color  stimulates  his  interest 
and  few  children  need  more  spur  to 
advance  than  the  simple  permission 
to  use  the  crayons.  At  first,  and  for 
many  days,  his  efforts  to  fill  in  the 
outlines  will  be  ludicrous  in  their  in- 
accuracy. He  should  not  be  corrected, 
and  should  be  allowed  to  pass  from  one 
form  to  another  as  often  as  he  pleases, 
being  supplied  with  an  unlimited 
amount  of  paper  and  leisure  for  this 
new  undertaking.  Little  by  little, 
as  he  works  at  this  accomplishment, 
along  with  other  Montessori  "games" 
he  begins  to  "get  the  hang  of  it,"  in 
our  vernacular  phrase.  The  lines 
become  more  and  more  parallel,  fewer 
and  fewer  go  wildly  outside  the  line 
enclosing  the  outline,  and  finally  the 
geometric  form  is  shown  in  color  on 
the  white  paper  almost  as  though  it  had 
been  printed.  This  advance  is  not 
rapid,  however,  in  the  case  of  most 
children,  and  nothing  should  be  done 
to  hurry  it.  Occasionally  a  child  gets 
tired  of  the  whole  process  and  will 
play  with  other  things  for  several  days 
without  recurring  to  his  "drawing," 
although  on  the  other  hand,  some 
children  are,  from  the  first  so  fasci- 
nated by  the  problem  that  they  can 
hardly  let  it  alone.  The  child  should 
be  allowed  to  choose  his  own  time  for 
working  at  this  and  to  spend  as  much 
or  as  little  time  over  it  as  he  wishes, 
although  if  there  seems  any  likelihood 
that  he  has  really  forgotten  it,  his 
attention  may  be  called  to  it  again. 

EXERCISE  SIXTEEN 

Training    the    eye;    the    matching 
of  colors 

Color  Boxes  and  Color  "Games." — 
At  about  the  same  stage  of  develop- 
ment that  the  geometric  insets  are 
first  given  to  a  child,  the  color  boxes 
can  be  shown  him  and  the  color 
"games"  begun.     The  color  boxes  are 


sets  of  spools,  wound  with  silk  of 
varying  shades,  eight  of  the  main 
colors,  and  eight  shades  of  each.  At 
first  the  child  is  shown  only  two 
strongly  contrasting  colors,  red  and 
blue,  for  instance.  The  name  is 
pronounced  clearly  and  distinctly, 
holding  up  the  corresponding  color. 
When  the  child  has  grasped  this  the 
colors  are  allowed  to  lie  on  the  table 
and  the  mother  says,  "Give  me  red," 
or  "Give  me  blue." 

When  the  child  has  progressed  this 
far  (this  may  be  the  next  day,  or  even 
two  or  three  days  after  the  first  in- 
troduction) the  teacher  or  mother 
holds  up  a  spool  and  asks,  "What  is 
this?"  When  the  child  can  answer 
correctly,  "blue"  or  "red,"  he  has 
thoroughly  learned  those  two  colors 
and  can  progress  to  another  one. 
When  the  eight  main  colors  have  been 
learned  in  this  way,  the  child  can 
begin  to  match  them.  Four  spools 
are  laid  on  the  table,  two  red  and  two 
blue  (of  course  of  exactly  the  same 
shade).  The  child  picks  out  the  two 
red  ones  and  lays  them  side  by  side, 
and  then  does  the  same  for  the  blue. 
From  this  he  can  go  by  degrees  until 
there  are  sixteen  spools  on  the  table, 
eight  pairs,  which  he  must  put  to- 
gether. 

EXERCISE  SEVENTEEN 

Differentiation  of  colors 

After  the  matching  has  been  master- 
ed, the  next  step  is  to  differentiate 
between  light  and  dark  shades  of  the 
same  color,  dark  red  and  light  pink,  for 
instance,  or  dark  and  light  blue.  This 
goes  in  pairs  at  first  also,  but  little  by 
little,  as  the  child's  accuracy  increases, 
he  may  go  up  to  the  eight  shades  of  the 
different  colors.  Some  Montessori 
children  become  so  proficient  that  they 
can  "carry  a  color  in  the  eye,"  as  it  is 
called.  That  is,  they  can  look  at  a 
spool  of  a  certain  shade  of  purple,  go 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  191 

across  the  room  to  a  pile  of  spools  and  EXERCISE  EIGHTEEN 
pick  out  the  color  matching  it.  Special  physical  and  gymnastic  ex- 
Games  AND   PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  IN  ERCISES  FOR  THE  YOUNG  CHILD 

MATCHING  COLORS  In  Connection  with  all  these  exer- 

With  these  color  spools,  a  variety  of  cises  with  the  Montessori  apparatus 

"games"   can   be  played,   which   any  there  are  a  number  of  other  exercises, 

mother  can  invent,  according  to  the  chiefly    gymnastic,    which    should    be 

number  and  age  of  the  children  wishing  constantly   in   use.     As   soon   as   the 

to  play.     They  are  all  variations  on  child   can   walk   at   all,    every   effort 

the   principle   which    is    used   in    the  should  be  made  to  teach  him  further 

game  of  "authors,"  and  can  be  made  and  more  definitely  the  art  of  equilib- 

simple  or  hard  as  circumstances  direct,  rium  of  his  body.     When  we  walk  we 

Furthermore,  as  in  the  treatment  of  continually  balance  our  weight  so  that 

fabrics,      the     child's      attention     is  we  do  not  fall  down,  and  more  accura- 

awakened  to  the  presence  of  color  in  tely  and  unconsciously  we  do  this,  the 

everything  about  him,  and  his  interest  better  we  walk.     Now,  bodily  poise  is 

aroused  in  the  problem  of  determining  one  of  the  very  important  factors  in 

the    color    of    the    carpets,    curtains,  bodily   grace   and  even  in   strength, 

dresses,    etc.,    which    he    sees    in   his  certainly  in  comfort, 

every-day  life.  The  chalk  line  exercise 

The   reason   for   using   these   little  In  the  Casa  dei  Bambini  the  exercise 

spools  upon  which  the  silk  is  wound  is  used  for  this  need  is   arranged  very 

that  the  child's  attention  is  primarily  simply  by  means  of  a  long  chalk  line 

directed  to  the  color  and  not  to  the  drawn  on  the  floor.     The  children  are 

object.  invited  to  see  how  accurately  they  can 

The  spools  in  themselves  are  very  walk  along  this  line  without  stepping 

unattractive  while   the  richly  colored  off.       At   first   the  little   tots   cannot 

silk  is  just  the  opposite.     Silk  thread  manage  this  at  all.     Later  they  learn 

is   used   because  it   gives    a    deeper,  to  walk  very  slowly  along  the  line, 

richer  color,  at  the  same  time  is  more  and  later,  when  they  are  four  or  five, 

practical     and     makes     possible    the  to  run  as  swiftly  as  deer  along  this 

various    gradations.  line    without  swerving  once  from  it. 

Too    much   importance   cannot   be  Walking  the  two-by-four 

placed  upon  the   developing    of    the  A  modification  of  this  exercise  can 

chromatic   sense    in  early   childhood,  be  arranged  out-of-doors   by  laying  a 

If  the  child  at  an  early  age  acquires  long  piece  of  wood  known  as  a  "two- 

a  deep  interest  in  shades  and  tints  of  by-four"    down    on    the    ground    and 

colorings,   he  will   not   only   be    able  permitting  the  child  to  try  to  walk 

to   appreciate   his  environment  much  along   it   without   falling   off.     He   is 

more,    but    this   knowledge   and    ap-  usually  ready  to  spend  a  long  time  at 

preciation     of     color      will      be      of  this    exercise,    and    to    return    to    it 

inestimable    value    to    him    in  later  repeatedly.     The  benefit  derived  from 

years.  this  is  beyond  calculation. 

The  ethical  element  in   such  train  Rope-balancing  and  walking  back- 

ing    is  also  very   important.      If  the  ward 

child  is  taught   to  see   the   beautiful  If  a  length  of    rope    can   be  hung 

and  to  appreciate  it  even  in  his  early  up    where    the    child    can    reach    the 

years  it  must  have  a  marked  effect  dangling  end  of  it  he  will  devise  for 

upon  his  later  life.  himself  a  variety  of  exercises  in  bal- 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


ancing  which  will  greatly  increase  his 
mastery  of  his  body.  Another  ex- 
ercise of  great  value  for  little  children,  is 
in  walking  backward.  At  first  they  need 
to  be  helped,  for  their  little  brains  are 
so  unused  to  reversing  the  processes 
of  ordinary  walking  that  they  are 
quite  helpless,  but  after  a  compara- 
tively short  time,  they  learn  this  new 
trick  and  practice  it  with  delight. 
If  possible  every  small  child  should 
have  a  little  swing,  just  the  right  height 
for  him,  and  a  tiny  spring-board 
ending  over  a  pile  of  hay  or  anything 
soft,  from  which  he  may  jump  and 
learn  to  balance  his  body  in  the  air. 
The  baby  ball 

Most  children  of  three  are  too 
young  to  have  the  least  capacity 
for  throwing  or  catching  a  ball, 
but  if  a  ball  is  hung  on  a  long 
string  and  tossed  to  them,  the  string 
retards  the  motion  just  enough  to 
make  it  possible  for  their  little  brains 
to  set  their  muscles  in  action,  and  they 
will  play  with  great  joy  and  profit  for 
a  long  time,  at  this  variety  of  "baby- 
ball." 
Encourage  child's  inventiveness 

Of  course  the  greatest  freedom  should 
be  allowed  for  any  exercise  (not  in- 
jurious to  the  child)  which  his  inven- 
tion hits  upon.  The  action  so  common 
among  little  children  of  throwing 
themselves  on  a  chair  or  stool  and 
kicking  their  swinging  feet  in  the  air 
is  an  excellent  exercise  for  the  muscles 
of  the  legs  and  should  never  be  dis- 
couraged. To  climb  up  and  down  a 
short  length  of  ladder,  with  the  rounds 
set  at  a  distance  appropriate  for  short 
legs,  is  also  very  beneficial. 
Should  share  household  work 

A  child  who  is  being  trained  in  the 
Montessori  system  should  also,  as 
soon  as  it  is  at  all  possible,  begin  to 
share  in  the  work  of  the  household. 
If  he  is  provided  with  a  small  broom 
and  dustpan,  there  is  no  reason  why 


he  should  not  keep  his  room  fresh 
and  clean,  and  also  clean  up  any  litter 
of  paper  or  dirt  which  he  makes  in  the 
course  of  the  day.  Setting  the  table 
is  a  singularly  good  exercise  for  a  little 
child  although  of  course  it  is  enough 
to  begin  with,  if  he  does  only  a  small 
part  of  the  whole  operation. 

The  important  element  should  be  that 
what  he  does,  he  does  entirely  himself. 
If  he  is  set  to  put  a  spoon  at  each  place, 
he  should  be  left  (after  due  explanation 
as  brief  as  possible)  to  wrestle  with 
the  problem  and  to  solve  it  with  his 
own  unaided  invention.  Later  he 
can  be  given  all  the  silver  to  put  in 
place,  and  as  he  learns  in  his  Mon- 
tessori exercises,  mastery  over  his 
muscles,  can  be  entrusted  with  china 
and  glass  at  four  and  five  years  of  age, 
which  an  untrained  child  of  ten  or 
eleven  would  be  almost  sure  to  break. 

Summary  of  child's  attainments  in 
the    mastery    of   himself   and  his 

WORLD 

But  to  return  to  those  formal 
and  ingeniously  devised  "play-things" 
which  so  wonderfully  and  insensibly 
lead  the  little  child  to  a  mastery  of  his 
world  and  himself,  let  us  suppose  that 
the  child  for  whom  the  box  of  appara- 
tus came  into  the  home,  has  now  been 
"playing"  with  the  different  pieces  of 
apparatus  described  for  about  three 
or  four  months,  longer  if  he  was  only 
three  when  he  began,  a  shorter  time 
if  he  was  older.  He  has  learned  to 
replace  the  geometric  insets  blind- 
folded by  the  sense  of  touch  only,  to 
distinguish  fabrics  and  materials,  to 
build  the  Tower,  the  Broad  Stair  and 
the  Long  Stair,  to  match  colors,  to 
distinguish  between  noises  of  varying 
intensity,  to  balance  himself  deftly, 
to  manage  a  glass  of  water.  His 
mother  may  very  well  consider  that  it 
is  now  time  to  begin  to  teach  him  the 
beginning  of  reading  and  writing. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


193 


EXERCISE  NINETEEN 

LEARNING    TO    WRITE     AT    THE  AGE    OF 
FOUR 

Sandpaper  Letters. — The  child  is 
told  that  there  is  a  new  game  to  play 
and  the  little  box  containing  the 
famous  sandpaper  letters  brought  out. 
This  alphabet  is  composed  of  letters 
in  plain,  round  script,  cut  out  of  black 
sand,  or  emery,  paper  and  pasted 
upon  smooth  white  cards.  Here  at 
once  the  child's  past  practice  in  learn- 
ing about  objects  through  touching 
them,  as  well  as  looking  at  them, 
comes  into  play.  He  is  shown  a  letter, 
the  mother  pronounces  the  sound  of 
it  clearly,  and  shows  him  how  to  trace 
around  it  wiih  his  finger  in  the  way 
one  would  write  it.  He  should  touch 
it  very  lightly,  as  he  has  been  taught 
to  do  with  all  his  work,  and  should, 
at  first,  only  trace  the  letters  when 
some  one  is  watching  him,  to  make 
sure  he  does  not  do  it  backward,  or 
upsidedown.  Make  sure  that  he 
knows  the  vocal  sound  of  the  letter  or 
figure  he  is  tracing.  Most  children 
of  three-and-a-half  or  four  have  seen 
so  much  of  writing  among  the  adults 
of  their  acquaintance  that  their  curi- 
osity is  deeply  aroused  as  to  the  mys- 
terious process  and  they  are  delighted 
with  the  prospect  of  learning  some- 
thing about  it.  They  need,  as  a  rule, 
no  further  incentive  than  the  state- 
ment that  this  is  the  beginning  of  their 
learning  how  to  write. 
Testing  the  child's  comprehension 

As  soon  as  a  few  letters  are  learned, 
the  teacher,  or  mother,  should  make 
sure  of  the  child's  grasp  of  them  in 
the  same  way  she  tested  his  knowledge 
of  colors.  She  lays  down  four  or  five 
on  the  table  and  asks  for  a  certain  one. 
"Give  me  'a,'  please,"  or  "Give  me 
*b.' "  When  the  child  can  do  this 
quickly  and  surely  she  next  holds  one  up 
and  asks  him  what  it  is.  When  he  can 
identify  those  first  letters  he  can  be 


allowed  to  pass  on  to  others;  it  will 
not  be  long  before  he  has   mastered 
all  the  letters. 
Recognizing  and  spelling  words 

Before  that  time,  however,  if  his 
interest  in  the  process  is  lively,  he 
can  begin  to  recognize  words,  and  to 
compose  them.  If  he  has  learned  "p" 
and  "a"  he  can  compose  the  familiar 
word  "papa,"  and  will,  in  most  cases 
do  this  of  his  own  accord  if  his  atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  pronunciation  of 
the  word.  If  his  mother  says  "How 
would  you  make  this  word?"  and  then 
pronounces  it  very  slowly,  separating 
the  sounds  distinctly,  the  child  will 
analyze  the  word  into  its  component 
parts.  "It  begins  with  'P'"'  she  says, 
giving  the  phonetic  sound  and  not 
the  name  of  the  letter.  Of  course 
the  child  reaches  instinctively  for  the 
"p,"  and  thereafter  recognizes  the 
sound  of  "a,"  puts  the  two  together 
and  looks  on  delighted  at  the  first 
word  of  his  composition. 

EXERCISE  TWENTY 

Learning  TO  read  the  regular  mov- 
able ALPHABET 

At  this  point  the  child  should  be 
presented  with  the  Regular  Movable 
Alphabet  of  cut-out  script  letters  in 
stiff  paper. 

These  come  in  two  large,  flat, 
pasteboard  boxes  with  partitions  di- 
viding the  same  into  separate  com- 
partments for  each  letter.  There 
are  four  or  five  duplicates  of  each 
letter,  making  a  like  number  of  com- 
plete alphabets  and,  of  course,  addi- 
tional letters  can  easily  be  made  at 
home,  if  more  are  needed.  These 
letters  are  not  pasted  on  cards,  like 
the  sandpaper  letters,  and  are  easily 
handled  and  arranged  as  the  child 
wishes,  and  with  these  begin  his  com- 
position and  recognition  of  words. 
He  is  not  troubled,  as  in  the  old 
system,  by  the  difficulty  of  forming 


IH  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

the  letters,  as  all  he  has  had  to  do  is  to  several  times  a  day,   if  his   interest 

take    them    from    the    compartments  allows.     It  is  almost  certain  that  he 

and  make  words  with  them,  long  before  will  ask  to  do  this,  as  touching   the 

his    little   fingers   have   acquired   the  letters  brings  home  their  form  to  his 

ability  to  handle  a  pencil  surely  and  little  brain  much  more  certainly  than 

accurately.  merely  looking  at  them.     Sometimes 

Practice  words  children  fail  to  recognize  a  letter  when 

Of  course  English-speaking  children  they   look  at   it,    although   they   can 

have  a  much  harder  time  to  compose  identify  it  perfectly  after  their  fingers 

words  from  letters  than  Italian  chil-  have  traced  it.     This,  being  one  of  the 

dren,  whose  language  is  phonetically  essential   steps   in  writing,   must  not 

written.    The  English-speaking  moth-  be  neglected. 

er  who  attempts  to  teach  her  At  the  same  time  that  these  exercises 
own  child  how  to  write  and  read,  will  are  being  repeated  as  often  as  the 
infallibly  become  a  convert  to  the  child's  interest  makes  possible,  the 
simplified  spelling  idea,  but,  since  it  exercises  with  "drawing,"  that  is, 
is  out  of  the  question  for  the  present  tracing  the  outline  of  one  of  the  geo- 
to  change  the  wild  insanities  of  metric  insets  on  the  par-er  and  filling 
English  spelling,  we  must  possess  our  it  in  with  colored  chaiK,  should  also 
souls  in  patience  and  exercise  as  much  be  steadily  continued,  for  this  tracing 
ingenuity  as  possible  in  introducing  teaches  the  child  to  use  the  pencil. 
the  little  one  to  the  life-long  burden  of  The  explosion  into  writing 
an  illogically  spelled  language.  It  is  We  quote  from  A  Montessori 
well  for  this  purpose  to  choose  for  Mother  a  paragraph  describing  the 
the  first  words,  the  very  simplest  ones,  final  success  of  these  three  exercises, 
like  "rat,"  "pin,"  "hen,"  "mama,"  "All  these  processes  go  on,  day  after 
"papa,"  "dog,"  etc.,  words  which  are  day,  side  by  side,  all  invisibly  con verg- 
not  only  within  a  child's  natural  ing  towards  one  end.  The  practice 
comprehension  but  which  offer  no  with  the  crayons,  the  recognition  of 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  consistent  the  sandpaper  letters  by  eye  and 
spelling.  When  the  inevitable  diffi-  touch,  the  revelation  as  to  the  forma- 
culties  occur,  the  best  that  can  be  tion  of  words  with  the  movable  alpha- 
done  is  to  rel^''  on  the  naturally  quick  bet,  are  so  many  roads  leading  to 
memory  of  childhood,  and  to  fall  the  painless  acquisition  of  the  art 
back  on  the  helpless  statement  that  of  writing.  They  draw  nearer  and 
"it's  spelled  that  way  because  that  is  nearer  together,  and  then  one  day, 
the  way  it's  spelled."  However,  there  quite  suddenly,  the  famous  'Montes- 
is,  even  in  English,  quite  a  vocabulary  sori  explosion  into  writing'  occurs, 
of  sensibly  spelled  words,  which  the  The  teacher  of  experience  can  tell 
child  can  acquire  as  a  working  be-  when  this  explosion  is  imminent, 
ginning.  First,  the  parallel  lines  which  the  child 
EXERCISE  TWENTY-ONE  makes  to  fill  and  color  the  geo- 
REViEw  exercises  WITH  APPARATUS  mctric  figurcs  become  singularly  even 
ALREADY  MASTERED  and  regular;  second,  acquaintance  with 

Although    he    may    from    now    on,  the  alphabet  becomes  so  thorough  that 

"play"    with   the   movable   alphabet,  he  recognizes  the  letters  by  sense  of 

the    use    of    the    sandpaper    letters  touch  only;  and,  third,  he  increases  in 

should  be  steadily  continued,  causing  facility  for  composing  words  with  the 

him  t'^  trace  them-  as  they  are  written,  movable    alphabet.     The    burst    into 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


195 


spontaneous  writing  usually  only 
comes  after  these  three  conditions  are 
present.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  for  a 
long  time  after  this  explosion  into 
writing,  the  children  continue  inces- 
santly to  go  through  the  three  pre- 
paratory steps,  tracing  with  their 
fingers  the  sandpaper  letters,  filling 
in  the  geometric  forms  and  composing 
with  the  movable  alphabet." 
Cautions  to  be  observed 

There  are  several  cautions  to  be 
expressed  about  this  whole  process 
of  teaching  a  child  to  write  and  read 
by  the  Montessori  method.  The 
most  important  one  is  against  hurry. 
Even  more  consistently  and  steadily 
than  with  the  rest  of  the  apparatus, 
the  child's  natural  gait  ought  not  to  be 
in  the  slightest  degree  hastened  by 
urging  from  outside.  He  will  go,  in 
any  case,  so  very  much  more  rapidly, 
easily  and  surely,  than  children  in 
school,  that  urging  him  is  not  neces- 
sary. The  temptation  with  a  bright 
quickly  adaptable  child  is  to  attempt 
to  "make  a  record."  The  mother 
should  always  act  deliberately,  she 
should  take  the  greatest  pains  to  be 
sure  that  the  child  understands  every 
step  before  he  passes  on  to  the  next 
and  that  he  has  thoroughly  mastered 
one  process  before  he  is  allowed  to 
progress  to  another  more  complicated. 
Above  all,  she  should  refrain  from 
forcing  the  child's  attention  in  the 
slightest  degree. 

EXERCISE  TWENTY-TWO 
Undirected  work;  maintaining  the 

CHILD'S   normal  OR   EVERYDAY   LIFE 

All  the  time  that  this  work  with  the 
drawing  and  filling  in  of  geometric 
forms,  the  tracing  of  the  sandpaper 
letters  and  the  composition  of  words 
with  the  movable  alphabet  is  going  on, 
the  child's  usual  normal  life  should  be 
continued.  There  should  be  plenty 
of  undirected  outdoor  play,  where  the 
child's  natural  inventiveness  has  scope. 


"hide-and-seek"  games,  "tag,"  etc., 
with  plenty  of  fun  in  the  company  of 
other  children  should  be  encouraged. 
There  should  be  much  reading  to  him 
of  well-selected  stories  and  poems 
suited  to  his  age;  with  long  hours  of 
sleep,  and  a  certain  amount  of  helpful 
service  about  the  household  work. 
A  "Montessori  child"  does  not  by  any 
means  signify  a  child  who  devotes 
most  of  his  time  to  exercises  with  the 
formal  apparatus. 
Plant  and  animal  pets 

He  should  have,  if  it  is  possible  to 
arrange  this,  a  plant  or  two  of  his  own 
(even  at  the  age  of  three)  and  a  pet 
of  his  own,  preferably  a  good-natured 
kitten,  for  he  is  rather  young  as  yet 
for  a  puppy.  He  should  assume  the 
real  responsibility  for  these  plant  and 
animal  pets,  caring  for  them  himself. 
Later,  he  should  have  a  little  plot  of 
ground,  and  learn  from  actual  ex- 
perience the  wonder  of  growth  from 
seeds. 

How  the  CHILD  LEARNS  SELF-CARE 

He  should  have  in  his  own  room,  or 
in  a  corner  of  another's  (if  he  has  no 
room  of  his  own)  a  tiny  washstand, 
with  a  little  bowl  and  pitcher,  light 
enough  for  him  to  handle,  and  a 
mirror  hung  low  enough  for  him  to  see 
if  he  has  succeeded  in  getting  his  face 
clean.  He  should  be  allowed  the  time 
necessary  to  wash  his  face  and  hands, 
and  should  be  taught  to  empty  the 
bowl  and  to  keep  his  washstand  neat 
and  clean. 

As  soon  as  possible,  he  should  be 
encouraged  and  allowed  to  dress  him- 
self, his  clothes  being  made  with  this 
in  view,  although  there  must  always 
be  some  buttons  which  three  and 
four-year-old  fingers  cannot  reach, 
and  should  assume  the  responsibility 
of  putting  away  his  cwn  clothes  and 
knowing  where  they  are.  People  who 
have  struggled  with  older  children 
on    these    subjects    will    be   surprised 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


to  note  how  naturally  and  easily  a 
little  child  will  assume  these  helpful 
and  desirable  habits.  The  important 
point  is  to  "catch  him  young,"  before 
he  has  learned  bad  habits  of  irrespon- 
sibility and  sloth.  Of  course,  there 
should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  the  great- 
est amount  of  regularity  and  routine 
in  the  little  life.  He  should  eat  his 
meals  at  regular  hours,  feeding  him- 
self and  sitting  at  a  low  table;  and  he 
should  take  his  naps  regularly. 

And  this  simple,  industrious,  tran- 
quil life,  with  no  excitements  of  joining 
in  adult  "pleasures";  full  of  profitable 
"play"  which  is  educational,  and  per- 
meated with  a  sense  of  responsibility 
on  the  child's  part  for  the  conduct  of 
his  own  life,  is  the  Montessori  life  for  a 
child  between  two  and  seven.  It 
is  not  enough  that  he  construct  the 
Tower,  and  the  Long  Stair,  and  learn 
his  sandpaper  letters  perfectly;  he 
must  learn  to  be  a  self-dependent,  self- 
respecting,  self-trusting  citizen  of  his 
little  world. 

EXERCISE  TWENTY-THREE 

FIRST  STEPS  IN  ARITHMETIC 

Counting  Boxes  and  Sandpaper 
Numbers. — We  have  now  to  consider 
the  question  of  arithmetic  and  the 
Montessori  application  of  the  subject 
to  the  child  of  the  average  American 
home.  There  is  a  prejudice  about 
presenting  mathematics  to  children 
under  six,  no  matter  how  simply  it 
may  be  arranged.  But  experience  in 
the  Casa  dei  Bambini  has  shown  that 
children  over  three  take  a  lively 
interest  in  the  sequence  of  numbers, 
and  in  some  of  the  simpler  processes 
of  arithmetic,  if  those  processes  can.  be 
presented  to  them  in  a  sufficiently 
concrete  form.  The  Montessori  ap- 
paratus for  this  purpose  is  very  simple, 
and  can  be  supplemented  by  several 
other  devices,  easily  obtained  in  any 
home. 


These  counting  boxes  comprise  two 
small  boxes,  with  five  compartments 
or  divisions  in  each.  Accompanying 
the  two  boxes  are  fifty  smooth,  round 
sticks,  exactly  alike,  and  a  set  of 
numbers  from  0  to  9,  cut  out  of  sand- 
paper and  pasted  on  white  cards. 
The  counting  sticks  give  the  child  a 
concrete  basis  for  the  abstract  names 
of  the  numbers,  and  he  learns  to 
associate  the  symbol  with  the  concrete 
object.  At  first  the  child  does  not 
play  with  the  sandpaper  numbers. 
These  are  removed  from  the  boxes  and 
he  but  wrestles  with  the  problem  of 
oral  counting,  using  the  sticks.  One 
good  way  to  begin  is  by  arranging  one 
of  the  boxes  so  there  are  no  sticks  in 
the  first  compartment,  one  in  the  next, 
two  in  the  next,  three  in  the  next,  and 
four  in  the  last.  This  exercise  is,  of 
course,  for  a  very  little  child  who  has 
no  idea  of  the  definite  sequence  of 
numbers,  or  of  how  to  determine  how 
many  objects  he  holds  in  his  hand. 
The  other  box  is  then  emptied  of  all 
its  contents  and  given  the  child,  with 
an  ample  supply  of  the  counting  sticks, 
and  he  is  invited  to  make  his  box 
exactly  like  the  one  his  mother  has 
arranged.  Most  children  can,  even 
at  a  very  early  age,  quickly  put  one 
stick  in  the  second  compartment  and 
two  in  the  next.  Here  frequently, 
at  the  very  beginning,  there  ensues 
some  mental  confusion,  and  much 
eager  gazing  at  the  three  sticks  in  the 
box  arranged  by  the  mother.  Anxious 
attempts  are  made  by  the  child  to  lay 
an  equal  number  in  the  next  compart- 
ment of  his  own  box. 

The  mother  should  not  help  in  this 
process.  It  does  the  child  no  good  if 
she  interferes  and  does  it  herself, 
or  corrects  his  mistake.  If  he  has 
arrived  at  the  age  when  his  brain  can 
master  this  simple  arithmetical  idea, 
he  will  ultimately  solve  the  problem 
and  place  the  proper  number  of  sticks 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  197 

in  each  compartment.  If  he  has  not  please."  When  he  has  mastered  this 
yet  arrived  at  the  right  age  or  state  she  should  then  hold  up  a  card  and  ask 
of  development,  he  will  not  readily  the  child  to  tell  her  what  it  is.  When 
take  in  the  significance  of  anything  his  he  can  do  this  accurately,  he  has  mas- 
mother  may  do,  seeking  to  aid  him.  tered  his  numbers. 
If  he  repeatedly  performs  this  exercise  According  to  his  age  and  capacity, 
incorrectly,  or  shows  signs  of  mental  this  may  take  him  two  days,  or  two 
fatigue,  the  boxes  should  be  re-  weeks.  The  next  thing  to  do  is  to 
moved,  and  the  attempt  postponed  teach  him  to  connect  them  with  the 
until  a  later  day.  right  number  of  objects.     And  here 

The  mental  growth  of  children  at  the  counting  boxes  come  again  into 

this  age  is  so  astonishingly  rapid  that  play.     He  should  arrange  the  series, 

sometimes  a  child  will  be  able  easily  and  place  the  right  number  in  each 

to  solve  a  problem  only  a  week  after  compartment.     The    mother    will    be 

he  has  found  it  perfectly  impenetrable,  surprised    to    see     that    even     after 

It  is  far  better  to  trust  this  principle  mastering  the  names  and  looks  of  the 

of  growth  than  to  attempt  to  urge  the  number  and  the  sequence  in  the  num- 

child  to  put  forth  powers  which  he  ber  boxes,  the  average  child  finds  it 

does  not  as  yet  possess.  quite  an  intellectual  effort  to  put  the 

Beginning  to  count  two  things  together  in  his  mind.     He 

As  soon  as  he  can  complete  the  series  will  need  plenty  of  time  and  quiet  to 

up  to  four,  he  can  go  on,  one  at  a  time,  struggle  with  the  new  problem,  and 

to  complete  the  series  up  to  nine,  as  if  it  is  too  hard  on  the  first  trial,  the 

shown  in  the  illustration;  and  then,  number  boxes  should  be  taken  away 

if  he  is  the  normal  child,  with  a  wide-  without    comment,    and    some    other 

awake,   intelligent,   curious   mind,   he  "game"  suggested, 

will  be  observed  "counting"  everything  EXERCISE  TWENTY-FIVE 

in  sight.     He  is  delighted  with  his  new  an  arithmetical  game  with  the  long 

acquisition,  and  employs  it  on  all  the  stair 

material  at  hand.  Another  arithmetical  game  is  played 

with   the   Long   Stair.     The   stair   is 
arranged  in  sequence  and  a  cardboard 

The  sandpaper  numbers  are  added  number  corresponding  with  the  num- 

Now  is  the  time  to  bring  out  the  ber  of  rods  in  the  section  is  leaned  up 

sandpaper    numbers.     He    is    taught  against  the  section;  "1"  against  the 


EXERCISE  TWENTY-FOUR 


"r:i" 


these  just  as  he  learned  his  letters,  section   with  only  one  rod,   the   "2 

one    at    a    time,    and    following    the  against  the  next  one,  and  so  forth, 

three  regular  steps.     First,  the  mother  A  game  with  money 
guides   the   httle   forefinger   over   the?         About  this  time,  or  perhaps  a  little 

rough  sandpaper  as  the  number  would  earlier,  it  is  well  to  begin  to  teach  a 

be  written,  at  the  same  time  pronounc-  child  the  significance  of  money.     He 

ing  the  name  of  the  number,  slowly  is  always  interested  in  this,  and  will 

and  distinctly,  and  adding  no  explana-*  play  with  it  endlessly,  and  study  the 

tions.     She  should  refrain  from  wordy  possible  combinations  to  be  made  with 

comments    simply    saying,    "8,"    and  it,  if  they  are  suggested  to  his  mind, 

show  the  little  fingers  how  to  trace  the  It  is  better,  if  possible,  to  have  new 

outline.     Then  she  should  lay  several  money.     If  this  cannot  be  managed, 

down  on  the  table,  and  ask  the  child,  the     coins     should      be     thoroughly 

"Give    me    '7,'     or     "Give    me    '2,'  cleansed  before  the  child  plays  with 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


them.  The  mother  should  teach  him 
the  names  of  the  different  coins  with 
the  same  three  steps  used  in  teaching 
him  the  names  of  the  letters  and 
numbers;  that  is,  first  tell  him  the 
names,  slowly,  one  or  two  at  a  time; 
then  ask  him  for  a  given  coin;  then 
point  to  a  given  coin  and  ask  what  it 
is  called.  At  first  the  little  child  likes, 
as  a  rule,  simply  to  sort  out  the  money 
into  the  right  piles,  all  the  pennies 
together,  all  the  nickels,  all  the 
quarters,  etc. 
Arithmetical  game  with  counting 

STICKS 

An  interesting  "game"  which  can 
be  played  with  numbers,  if  there  are 
two  or  more  children  together,  is  the 
following:  A  certain  number  of  the 
counting  sticks,  or  any  other  objects 
such  as  clothespins,  stones,  spoons, 
coins,  etc.,  are  placed  on  the  table. 
The  mother  then  holds  a  bag  contain- 
ing the  numbers  up  to  ten.  Each 
child  draws  a  number  at  random,  and, 
without  showing  it  to  his  companions, 
goes  back  to  his  seat.  When  all  have 
drawn  their  numbers,  each  child  goes 
up  to  the  table  and  selects  from  it  the 
number  of  objects  corresponding  with 
the  number  hidden  in  his  hand.  He 
carries  these  back  to  his  place  and 
arranges  them  in  order,  and  waits  for 
the  mother  or  teacher  to  come  and 
verify  the  correctness  of  his  counting. 
Teaches  self-control 

This  simple  game,  which  would  not 
amuse  older  children  for  a  moment, 
is  of  inexhaustible  interest  for  little 
ones,  and  has  a  various  and  complex 
influence  on  them.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  self-control  in- 
volved in  their  taking  only  the  number 
of  objects  indicated  by  the  number 
they  have  drawn,  since  every  child's 
instinctive  action  is  to  grab  all  he  can 
hold  and  carry  off  his  prize  in  triumph. 
The  mother  should  explain  that  this 
spoils    the    fun   of    the    game,    which 


consists  in  fitting  the  mysterious 
written  sign  to  the  number  of  objects 
chosen.  Another  conception  which 
is  firmly  settled  in  the  child's  mind  by 
this  and  other  similar  "games"  is  the 
abstract  idea  of  "zero,"  since  the  child 
who  draws  zero  selects  no  objects  at 
all. 
Game  with  sandpaper  numbers 

Another  arithmetical  game  which 
can  be  played  with  one  or  many  chil- 
dren is  played  with  the  sandpaper 
numbers,  or  any  large  numbers,  such 
as  could  be  cut  out  of  old  calendars. 
The  mother  or  teacher  holds  up  a 
number  and  says,  "Come  and  give 
me  this  many  kisses,"  or  "Bring  me 
this  number  of  pennies." 
Game  with  movable  alphabet 

A  similar  game  can  be  played  with 
the  movable  alphabet,  with  older 
children,  who  have  learned  the  begin- 
nings of  reading.  The  mother  con- 
structs the  word,  say  for  instance, 
"pin,"  and,  pointing  it  out  to  the 
child,  says,  "Bring  me  this,  please." 
The  child  who  is  first  to  read  the  word 
and  select  the  article,  wins.  When 
several  children  of  the  same  age  and 
acquirements  play  this  together,  the 
fun,  and  intensity  of  interest,  and  con- 
sequent sharpening  of  wits,  form  an 
invaluable  exercise. 
Hide-and-seek  WITH  MOVABLE  alphabet 

A  game  of  hide-and-seek  can  also  be 
played  with  children  who  have  begun 
to  recognize  words  formed  with  the 
movable  alphabet.  The  mother  con- 
structs, in  different  parts  of  the  room, 
different  simple  words  which  the 
child  has  already  seen,  such  as  "pig," 
"hen,"  "dog,"  etc.  The  child  is  out 
of  the  room  while  this  is  being  done, 
and  is  called  back  to  be  told,  "I  hear 
something  grunting."  He  then 
rushes  about,  peering  under  the  chairs 
and  on  the  table  and  window  slils, 
rejecting  all  other  words  he  finds, 
until  he  comes  triumphantly  to  "pig-" 


M 


WHAT     IS     WRONG     IN     THESE     PICTURES? 


In  each  of  tnese  pictures  the  artist  has  purposely  made  some  mistake.    Look  at  the  pictures  carefully,  ana  see  If  vqu 
fan  discover  what  the  errors  In  them  are. 


200  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


DISCIPLINE        AND  OBEDIENCE 

There  is  one  phase  of  the  Montes-  which  his  reason  tells  him  it  is  neces- 

sori   idea  which   needs   more  explicit  sary  to  obey. 

expression  than  it  is  apt  to  get  in  the  basis  of  parents'  authority 

general    descriptions    of    the    system.  Qur    children     should     understand 

That  is  the  question  of  disciphne  and  t^^t  their  duty  is  not  to  obey  our  per- 

obedience.     Those   two   subjects    are  g^nal  wishes,  because  we  happen  to 

so  vital  and  so  tragically  misunder-  ^e  their  parents,  but  to  obey  eternal 

stood  by  most  of  us,  that  it  may  be  j^ws  which  we  represent  and  expound 

well  to  go  a  httle  more  deeply  into  the  ^nd   enforce.     To   take   an   instance, 

discussion  oi  them.  familiar  to  all  of  us,  which  comes  into 

Intelligent  obedience  our    everyday    experience:     Children 

The  first  thing  to  do,  in  the  con-  should  not,  any  more  than  they  can 
sideration  of  the  obedience  of  chil-  help,  be  "messy"  over  their  meals; 
dren,  is  to  differentiate  clearly  in  our  should  not  spill  food  on  the  table- 
minds  between  the  obedience  that  is  cloth,  or  on  their  clothes,  or  be  un- 
desirable for  an  animal,  and  that  which  pleasant  in  their  way  of  eating.  Why 
is  desirable  for  the  young  of  the  human  should  they  not  do  these  things? 
race.  We  are  apt  to  be  confused  Simply  because  their  parents  forbid  it? 
here,  and  to  have  a  misunderstood  Not  at  all.  Because  it  is  their  duty, 
notion  that  children  should  obey,  as  members  of  a  community,  to  make 
unquestioningly,  passively,  with  no  the  common  life  as  agreeable,  as  easy, 
volition  of  their  own,  as  does  a  well-  and  as  economically  conducted  as 
broken  horse.  But  such  unquestion-  possible.  Their  parents'  duty  is  not 
ing  obedience,  as  a  moment's  reflec-  at  all  to  cry,  "You  do  it  because  I 
tion  will  show,  is  a  very  dangerous  men-  say  so!"  but  to  explain  reasonably  the 
tal  habit  for  a  child  to  acquire,  as  well  underlying  grounds  of  conduct,  to  al- 
as a  very  difficult  one  to  force  him  to  low  a  reasonable  time  for  an  under- 
acquire.  The  horse  may  obey  un-  standing  of  the  principle  to  reach  the 
questioningly  some  human  being;  he  child's  brain,  and  then  to  be  un- 
will  always  have  some  human  being  flinching  in  their  police  duty  of  en- 
set  in  authority  over  him.  But  in  a  forcing  obedience — obedience  not  to 
very  few  years,  as  human  life  goes,  themselves,  but  to  a  law,  which  they 
the  child  will  be  grown;  will  no  longer  must  obey  as  well  as  the  children.  If 
be  subject  to  the  authority  of  parents,  there  is  no  such  general  broad  basis 
and  must  in  turn  be  able  to  secure  the  for  a  command  given  to  a  child,  it  is 
obedience  of  others.  It  is  essential,  an  unjust  command,  and  should  not 
therefore,  that  he  shall  begin  to  be  a  be  issued.  No  child  should  be  forced 
human  being — that  is,  to  obey  intelli-  to  obey  a  whim  of  the  parent,  but  only, 
gently — as  soon  as  possible.  What  some  modification  of  one  of  the  gen- 
do  we  mean  by  the  phrase  "obey  in-  eral  laws  which  he  will  need  to  obey 
telligently?"  We  mean  he  must  obey,  when  he  is  grown  up. 
not  because  some  one  has  told  him  to  jnt  management  of  the  very  young 
and  will  punish  him  if  he  does  not,  child  of  unreasoning  age 
for  that  is  the  obedience  exacted  of  Now,  of  course,  it  is  impossible 
the  animal;  but  he  will  obey  because  for  very  little  children  to  make  this 
the  command    is    a  reasonable    one,  distinction.      Babies    under    eighteen 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  201 

months  must  be  forced  to  obey,  if  the  tory  regime  of  reasonableness.  Sup- 
occasion  rises,  as  other  little  unreason-  pose,  for  instance,  that  a  child  is  seen 
able  animals  are  forced,  by  sheer  climbing  upon  a  chair  before  the 
physical  compulsion.  But,  as  this  is  side  board  in  the  dining-room.  His 
a  very  bad  method  of  obtaining  mother  should  not  call  out  to  him 
obedience,  the  occasions  for  requiring  simply,  "Come  away  from  there!" 
obedience  should  be  sedulously  avoid-  but  should  explain  to  him  that  it  is 
ed,  as  much  as  is  reasonably  possible,  dangerous  for  him  to  handle  the  glasses, 
during  this  animal-like  period  of  the  standing  in  rows  on  the  top,  because 
child's  growth.  No  one  thinks  of  re-  he  would  be  apt  to  break  them.  If 
quiring  obedience  of  a  week-old  baby,  the  child  then  asks  to  be  allowed  to 
and  yet  he  is  in  many  respects  just  as  play  with  the  spoons  in  the  drawer, 
capable  of  being  obedient  as  many  a  there  is  no  reasonable  grounds  for 
year-old  child.  refusing  that  request.     He  has  made 

In  general,  w^ith  very  young  children,  a   concession,    and   has   learned   self- 

the  method  of  procedure  should  be  to  control    and   obedience   in   refraining 

so  arrange  their  lives  that  there  shall  from   touching   the   glasses,    and   his 

be  few  needs  to  issue  commands.     A  mother    has,    if    she    is    alert-minded 

child  who  is  kept  quietly  at  home,  enough  to  learn  a  lesson,  taken  note 

playing  with  objects  designed  for  his  that  her  command,  "Come  away  from 

use,  who  is  not  "shown  off"  to  adults,  there!"  was  not  exactly  fitted  to  the 

who  is  not  forced  into  such  cruel  situa-  case.     She  should  have  analyzed  the 

tions    as    enforced    participation     in  situation  more  acutely,  and  see  that 

adult  life,  like  traveling  on  the  cars,  she  need  not  forbid  a  harmless  aniuse- 

going  to  church,  or  to  shops,  or  on  the  ment  to  the  child  because  it  happened 

street  cars,  or  asked  to  entertain   a  to  be  in  proximity  to  a  potentially 

company  of  idle  elders,  will  rarely  be  harmful  one.     Such  frank  explanation 

insubordinate  or  think  of  such  a  thing  and  mutual  concession  are  most  valu- 

as  disobeying  for  the  simple  reason  able  and  vital  elements  in  the  harmoni- 

that  the  things  asked  of  him  are  within  ous  relations  of  parent  and  child,  and 

his    capacity    to    do.     On    the    rare  do  more  than  anything  else  to  prevent 

occasions   w^hen   such  a  crisis   arises,  that  bitter  rebellion  against  authority 

it  is  best  frankly  to  treat  the  little  which  so  often  saddens  the  adolescence 

creature    like    a    speechless    animal,  of  children  with  strong  wills   and  a 

w^hich  he  is,  and  enforce  obedience  to  keen  sense  of  justice, 

something  necessary.  The  mother  should  make  the  most 

As  soon  as  he  begins  to  be  able  to  careful  distinction  between  the  con- 
understand  simple  statements,  the  scions,  willful  action  of  a  child, 
reason  for  various  commands  given  and  the  sort  of  wild  irritability  which 
him  should  be  explained  to  him.  One  results  in  "naughty"  actions,  but 
result  of  this  rule  is  apt  to  be  that  which  is  the  result  itself  of  nervous 
fewer  commands  are  given,  as  they  are  fatigue,  due  to  injudicious  treatment, 
often  seen  to  rest  upon  utterly  un-  In  the  Casa  dei  Bambini,  on  the  very 
reasonable  grounds.  The  child  should  rare  occasions  when  a  child  is 
be  trained,  first,  to  obey  promptly,  "naughty,"  he  is  treated  as  a  "sick" 
and  then  to  expect  an  explanation  of  child;  is  put  off  in  a  quiet  corner  of 
the  action.  In  most  cases  this  careful  the  room,  allowed  all  the  toys  he 
clarifying  in  his  mind  of  the  grounds  wishes  to  play  with,  is  soothed  and 
for  action,  results  in  a  most  satisfac-  petted,  allowed  everything  but  (this 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


is  the  important  point)  to  play  with 
the  other  children.  In  a  short  time 
this  reduces  the  most  iniruly  child  to 
submission.  But  in  an  ordinary 
home,  with  only  two  or  three  children, 
the  "naughty"  child  is  not  privileged, 
like  the  Italian  child  in  the  Mon- 
tessori  school,  to  see  constantly  before 
him  the  precious  example  of  the 
orderly,  peaceable,  industrious  be- 
havior of  thirty  other  children.  The 
principle,  however,  holds.  Nine 
times  out  of  ten,  the  "naughty"  child 
is,  in  all  sober  reality,  a  sick  child, 
or  at  least  a  very  tired  child.  It  is 
hard  for  adults  to  realize  what  a 
nervous  strain  it  is,  for  instance,  for 
a  child  of  three  to  see  strange  faces  for 
a  few  hours. 

Should  not  discipline  or  try  to 
reason  with  a  child  when  nervously 

EXCITED 

The  only  thing  the  mother  can  do 
in  such  a  case  is  to  remember  that  the 
child  is  not  himself  when  nervously 
excited.  There  is  no  use  trying  to 
"reason"  with  him,  or  to  discipline 
him,  or  arouse  his  better  nature.  For 
the  moment  he  has  no  better  nature! 
He  is  nothing  but  jangled  nerves.  A 
tired  or  excited  young  child  should 
never  be  asked  to  exercise  self- 
control;  there  should  be  no  occasion 
for  it.  The  only  thing  to  do  with  him 
is  to  quiet  him  as  soon  as  possible  by 
purely  physical  means.  If  he  is 
hungry,  get  him  something,  very 
easily  digested,  to  eat;  slip  off  his 
clothing,  give  him  a  warm  bath,  if 
possible,  and  lay  him  down  in  a  com- 
fortable bed,  in  a  room  not  too  light, 
with  plenty  of  fresh  air.  When  he  has 
slept  and  rested,  he  will  have  "come 
to  himself,"  and  the  necessity  for 
punishment  will  be  past.  He  will, 
as  he  always  does  when  he  is  in  good 
physical  condition,  desire  to  be  a  good 
child.  There  will  be  something  there 
for  the  mother  to  work  with.     Even  if 


he  has  had  no  special  excitement,  there 
may  be  times,  in  the  life  of  an  especially 
nervous  child,  when  his  vitality  is  at  a 
low  ebb,  and  the  regular  routine  of  life 
is  too  much  for  him.  If  he  shows 
signs  of  nervous  irritability,  snarling 
and  snapping,  or  crying  at  nothing,  he 
should  never  be  reproved.  He  should 
be  put  to  bed,  not  at  all  as  a  punish- 
ment, but  with  the  tenderest  affection 
and  the  most  solemn  pity  for  the  poor 
little  sensitive  creature.  If  there  is  in 
this  prescription  of  rest  for  nervous 
fret,  no  hint  of  punishment  or  shame 
the  child  will  not  resent  it,  but  will 
soon  learn  to  yield  himself  up  to  the 
soothing  influence. 

How  TO  AVOID  A  "BRAIN-STORM" 

If,  when  several  little  children  are 
playing  together,  the  mother  hears  one 
begin  to  speak  in  a  loud,  excited  voice, 
and  to  have  nervous,  disorganized 
motions,  such  as  knocking  the  play- 
things about,  she  should  come  up 
quietly  to  the  group  and  remark  calmly 
that  "Johnny  is  evidently  too  tired  to 
play  any  longer.  He'd  better  go  and 
rest  for  a  time,  until  he  feels  better." 
Then  he  is  led  away,  very  gently. 
There  should  be  the  utmost  care  not  to 
seem  to  use  this  as  a  chastisement. 
His  face  and  hands  should  be  washed 
in  cool  water  (there  is  very  apt  to  be  a 
slight  fever  present  when  nervous 
irritability  sets  in),  his  clothing 
loosened,  and  he  himself  laid  on  a  bed 
in  a  quiet  room.  This  treatment  has, 
in  addition  to  the  invaluable  physical 
effect,  a  very  strong  moral  one.  The 
gentleness,  the  peace  of  the  room,  the 
utter  isolation,  the  inaction — there 
seems  nothing  left  for  the  child  to 
battle  with,  nothing  for  his  "naughti- 
ness" to  feed  upon. 

Children  do  not  enjoy  the  miserable 
unhappy  excitement  of  being  naughty, 
no  matter  what  our  misunderstanaing 
reading  of  them  may  seem  to  indicate. 
And  if  they  have  had  a  fair  experience 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  208 

of   a    sure   escape   form   the    "brain-  unwise  and  harmful  ones.     And  here 

storm"    of   a   fit   of   insubordination,  the    Montessori    apparatus   is    of   in- 

they  are  very  apt  to  resort  to  it  of  calculable  value.     It  caters  with  scien- 

their   own   accord.     If   it   is   evident  tific  ingenuity  to  the  need  for  action 

that  the  child  cannot  be  sleepy,  for  of  the  small  child,  and  relieves  the 

instance,  only  a  short  time  after  a  nap,  mother's  inexperienced  brain  of  a  great 

another  calming  expedient  is  to  take  part  of  the  strain  of  inventing  suitable 

him  gently  away  from  the  others  to  a  exercises    for    children    under    six    or 

quiet  place  outdoors,  where  he  is  left  seven. 

to  play  in  solitary  proximity  to  the  Montessori  apparatus  not  enough 

bosom  of  Mother  Earth.  But  the  Montessori  apparatus,  valu- 

But  of  course  this  remedy  cannot  able  as  it  is,  is  not  enough.     As  has 

be  applied,  if  the  nervous  fit  comes  on  been  said  many  times  in  the  preceding 

while  the  mother  is  pricing  lace  in  a  pages,    the   mother's    mind    must    be 

department  store  and  the  child  hang-  alert  and  ingenious  to  supplement  it 

ing  to  her  skirts,  or  if  they  are  at  an  as    the    child    grows.     For    instance, 

"amusement  park,"  with  bands  bray-  blunt  pointed  scissors  and  plenty  of 

ing    and    tooting    about    them,    and  paper  to  cut  are  as  indispensable  as 

crowds    of    excited    pleasure    seekers  the    geometric    insets.     Constant   ex- 

noisily  going  their  way.  ercises  in  the  occupations  of  every- 

This   is   another   reason   for   never  day  life,  such  as  washing  and  wiping 

taking  children  away  from  the  quiet  toy  dishes  and  setting  a  sma.ll  table, 

home  life,  except  to  some  equally  quiet  sweeping  the  fioor  with  a  small  broom, 

spot  out-of-doors.  learning  to  dust,  etc.,  are  as  necessary 

This  rule  may  be  relaxed,  of  course,  as  the  sandpaper  letters.  If  the 
as  the  children  grow  older,  but  it  children  are  initiated  into  these  ex- 
should  be  relaxed  very  gradually,  with  ercises  young  enough,  before  their 
the  fewest  possible  breaks  in  the  tran-  natural  instinct  for  action  and  for 
quil  and  unchanging  life.  helpful  action  has  been  atrophied  by 
NECESSITY  FOR  CONSTANT  ACTIVITY  IN  the  customary  idling  in  early  child- 
EARLY  CHILDHOOD  hood,  the  mother  will  find  the  utmost 

The  final  lesson  we  American  eagerness  for  such  activities,  and  not 
mothers  have  to  learn  from  Dr.  at  all  the  lazy,  shirking  attitude  to- 
Montessori  and  her  wonderful  success  wards  them  so  frequently  seen  in 
with  the  training  of  little  children,  is  older  children,  who  did  not  have 
the  lesson  of  positiveness,  as  opposed  proper  training  in  their  early  life, 
to  negativeness  in  their  lives.  The  The  other  kind  of  obedience,  the 
craving  for  constant,  unceasing  activity  right  kind,  can  be  attained  only  very 
in  little  children  is  intense.  This  is  a  gradually,  for  it  is  at  least  as  difiicult 
normal  and  blessed  instinct  of  theirs,  an  achievement  as  learning  the  multi- 
which  does  more  than  anything  to  plication  table.  The  child  needs  to 
develop  them.  And  the  mother  begin  with  very  small  beginnings  in 
should  constantly  bear  it  in  mind,  this  as  in  any  other  important  activity 
Her  attitude  towards  her  little  child  of  his  life,  to  be  asked  in  early  child- 
should  be  as  little  negative  as  may  be;  hood  to  obey  as  seldom  as  possible, 
she  should  set  her  grown-up  wits  in-  because  his  life  is  rightly  and  care- 
cessantly  to  work  to  devise  wise,  fully  suited  to  his  needs;  to  have  the 
harmless  and  beneficial  actions  for  reason  for  obedience;  the  real,  under- 
the  child,  not  merely  to  forbid  him  lying  philosophic  reason  explained  to 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


him  as  soon  as  possible  and  as  often 
as  necessary;  never  to  be  asked  or 
expected  to  obey  when  he  is  having 
what  amounts  to  a  fit  of  hysteria; 
and,  finally,  to  have  his  life  so  filled 
with  interesting,  profitable  and  enter- 
taining occupations  that  the  question 
of  obedience  enters  into  it  very  little. 
Through  the  daily  experience  of  living 
a  well-ordered,  industrious,  purposeful 
life,  he  learns,  unconsciously  the  joys 
of  peace  and  tranquility,  and  he  comes 


to  be  as  unwilling  to  wreck  these 
by  insubordination  as  his  mother 
is  unwilling  to  have  him. 

Like  any  other  good  habit,  obe- 
dience cannot  come  from  one  or  two 
violent  efforts.  It  must  come  from  a 
long,  long  continuance  in  the  right 
conditions.  And  to  secure  these 
"right  conditions"  the  Montessori  ap- 
paratus, method  and  philosophy  are 
the  most  potent  means  as  yet  dis- 
covered. 


MEMORY      TESTS     ON     MONTESSORI      SYSTEM 

Should  a  child's  life  have  some  unvaryingly 
regular  events? 

Under  what  conditions  do  little  children  take 
an  interest  in  arithmetic? 

How  should  the  numbers  be  taught? 

How  can  arithmetic  be  taught  by  means  of 
games? 

How  can  the  Montessori  game  of  "Making  the 
Silence"  be  duplicated  in  the  home? 

Why  should  a  child  practice  exercises  in  im- 
mobility? 

Why  should  a  child's  actions  about  the  house 
be  as  free  as  possible? 

How  can  ordinary  incidents  in  home  life  be 
turned  into  Montessori  exercises? 

Should  little  children  be  allowed  to  play  with 
books?  With  delicate  breakable  objects?  Un- 
der what  conditions?     Why? 

Should  a  little  child  use  a  tin,  a  silver  or  a 
china  cup? 


What  facts  a'oout  children  did  Dr.  Montessori 
rediscover? 

What  is  the  most  important  principle  of  her 
Method? 

What  three  principles  may  be  said  to  sum 
up  the  Method? 

On  what  principles  can  children  learn  without 
detailed  instruction? 

Why  should  the  five  senses  be  carefully  and 
directly  trained? 

What  is  a  Casa  dei  Bambini? 

Will  little  children  learn  useful  things  if  not 
forced  to  stop  playing? 

Why  is  spontaneous  attention  better  than 
forced  attention? 

Is  it  well  to  help  the  child  with  his  Montessori 
problems? 

Do  little  children  as  a  rule  learn  best  through 
the  eyes  or  through  the  fingers? 

What  are  some  of  the  essentials  for  teaching 
system  and  order? 

Why  should  a  child  learn  to  dress  and  feed 
himself  as  early  in  life  as  possible? 

Why  should  the  little  child  not  be  hurried? 

Why  is  a  very  large  rag  doll  to  be  especially 
valued  as  a  play-thing? 

Should  little  children  be  allowed  to  handle  or 
play  with  small  objects? 

How  can  children  be  taught  to  "see  with  the 
fingers"? 

What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  learning 
to  do  things  by  touch  rather  than  by  sight? 

Does  Montessori  freedom  for  the  child  mean 
upsetting  all  order  in  the  household  or  school- 
room? 

Why  the  child  needs  training  in  bodily  poise 
and  how  this  can  be  obtained. 

Should  children  be  allowed  to  play  with 
water?     How?     W'hy? 

Should  little  children  do  housework?     How? 

How  should  the  alphabet  be  taught? 

What  are  the  three  signs  by  which  a  Montes- 
sori mother  or  teacher  can  tell  when  the  child 
is  nearly  ready  for  the  explosion  into  writing? 

Should  a  little  child  have  pets  of  his  own? 

What  is  meant  by  a  "Montessori  scheme  of 
existence"  for  little  children? 


About  obedience  and  how  it  is 
obtained 

What  should  a  mother  always  add  to  the 
command  "Don't  do  that"? 

Why  should  the  little  child  be  trusted  as  much 
as  possible? 

Should  a  child  be  taught  to  obey  as  is  an 
animal? 

Should  children  be  forced  to  obey  commands 
based  on  personal  wishes  of  their  parents? 

Why  should  children  always  feel  that  they 
are  obeying  a  law,  not  an  adult's  whim? 

How  can  unreasonable  commands  be  avoided? 

Under  what  general  conditions  of  life  is  the 
question  of  obedience  simplified? 

Why  is  there  need  for  clear  thinking  in  issuing 
commands  for  children? 

Under  what  conditions  are  "naughty"  actions 
not  punishable? 

Why  is  it  important  that  the  child's  natural 
impulse  to  see  and  to  do  things  should  not  be 
suppressed? 

How  does  the  Casa  dei  Bambini  inculcate  ab- 
solutely quiet  life  for  young  children? 

How  treat  a  nervously  exhausted  child  who  is 
acting  as  if  it  were  naughty? 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


205 


THE     SCHOOL      OF      REAL 

WHAT  A  BOY  MUST  DO  TO  SUCCEED 


LIFE 


EVERY  boy  looks  eagerly  for- 
ward to  the  time  when  he  will 
be  a  man  and  will  struggle  for 
the  prizes  that  are  offered  to  men  in 
the  big  world.  Every  man  looks  back 
to  the  time  when  he  was  a  boy  and 
feels  that  if  he  had  a  chance  to  try  it 
over  again,  he  could  avoid  many  mis- 
takes. In  America  every  boy  has 
great  opportunities  for  success.  With 
good  health,  and  energy,  and  honesty, 
any  boy  may  work  his  way  to  a  suc- 
cessful career. 

But  the  mistakes  which  a  large 
number  of  boys  make  when  they  be- 
gin to  work  for  themselves,  the  nu- 
merous blunders  and  failures  among 
men,  prove  beyond  question  that  real 
success  in  life's  work  is  not  easy,  and 
is  not  to  be  had  for  the  asking.  It  is 
not  by  plunging  in  recklessly  and 
carelessly  that  men  succeed,  but  by 
wise  forethought,  by  faithful  atten- 
tion to  business,  by  honesty  and  re- 
liability. 

In  our  time  we  are  talking  much  of 
the  vocational  training  of  boys,  that 
is,  of  a  special  training  for  business  or 
trades  and  professions.  The  common 
school  gives  a  general  education,  but 
does  not  prepare  boys  for  special 
callings.  Before  trying  one's  chances 
of  success  in  the  big  world  it  is  well 
to  take  advice  of  older  people  who  have 
had  experience,  who  have  suffered  the 
hard  bumps  and  discouragements,  and 
can  give  boys  good  pointers  as  to  how 
to    conquer    success. 

That  boy  is  most  likely  to  win  a 
place  for  himself  in  life  who  is  willing 
to  take  advice,  who  will  train  himself 
thoroughly,  who  is  not  in  too  big  a 
hurry  to  start  out  in  the  world,  but 
first  gets  a  good  education,  and  if 
possible  trains  himself  well  for  some 
special  calling. 


The  school  of  real  life 

Life  itself  is  a  great  school,  and  when 
we  get  out  into  the  busy  work  of  the 
world,  we  shall  have  plenty  to  learn. 
New  problems  and  difficulties  are 
coming  up  all  the  time.  From  the 
very  start  we  must  learn  how  to  meet 
and  master  hard  problems,  to  do  dis- 
agreeable things,  to  stick  steadily  to 
what  we  undertake  in  spite  of  difficul- 
ties and  discouragements.  This  big 
school  of  life  is  like  all  other  schools — 
full  of  wise  or  unwise  scholars.  There 
are  some  who  go  through  it  day  by 
day,  week  by  week,  year  by  year,  as 
if  life  did  not  matter,  waiting  always 
for  play-time,  caring  nothing  for  the 
things  for  which  schools  were  made. 

It  is  these  students  who  keep  down 
the  proud  reputation  of  the  school. 
It  is  these,  in  the  big  school  of  the 
world,  who  are  responsible  for  most  of 
the  misery  and  trouble  of  mankind. 

Nothing  can  keep  the  boy  back  who 
means  to  go  forward.  The  roads  that 
lead  to  success  in  life  are  widening 
more  and  more.  One  may  wander  in 
a  hundred  fields  and  pick  his  prize. 
But  no  boy  can  get  any  farther  than 
he  aims.  He  must  make  up  his  mind 
where  he  is  going  and  must  remember 
that  it  is  not  only  the  way  he  goes 
that  matters,  but  how  far  he  goes  that 
way;  whether,  when  he  has  chosen 
the  way,  he  quits  himself  like  a  man. 
He  must  remember  that  all  useful 
work  is  honorable,  and  that  the  only 
dishonor  in  it  is  if  it  is  badly  done. 
And  the  task  that  is  set  before  every 
man  is,  not  to  be  this,  or  that,  or  the 
other — to  mind  a  machine,  to  drive  a 
plow,  to  write  a  book,  to  paint  a 
picture;  the  great  task  set  before  a 
man  is,  so  to  prepare  himself  in  youth 
that  in  carrying  on  his  work  in  the 
world  he  shall  do  all  things  well. 


206  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

The  qualities  that  coin  success  We  must  be  resolute;  we  must  have 
What,  then,  are  the  quaUties  that  determination.  It  is  no  use  having 
we  need  most  on  our  way  through  the  ideas  unless  we  mean  to  carry  them 
world?  There  are  few  things  that  all  out.  One  other  thing  goes  with  de- 
men  agree  about,  but  some  things  termination,  and  that  is  concentration, 
there  are  that  every  man  knows  to  be  One  may  have  great  energy,  and  may 
true.  And  perhaps  the  first  of  these  put  it  all  into  his  work,  but  may  use 
things  is  that  to  do  anything  worth  his  strength  in  such  a  way  that  it 
doing  in  the  world  we  must  have  a  simply  fails.  Everyone  knows  what  a 
definite  purpose.  We  must  have  an  spendthrift  is — the  foolish  man  who 
aim  in  life.  We  must  make  up  our  throws  away  his  money  in  stupid  ways 
mind  what  we  want  to  do,  how  we  which  serve  no  purpose  instead  of 
want  to  do  it;  and  we  must  let  nothing  keeping  it  for  something  that  is  worth 
come  in  our  way.  We  must  think  of  doing.  Stick  to  the  work — that  is 
time  as  what  it  really  is — a  treasure  what  is  meant  by  concentration.  It 
given  to  us  for  our  safe  keeping.  is  wrong  to  try  to  do  so  many  things 
Time,  it  is  said,  is  money.  But  that  none  of  them  can  be  done  well, 
time  is  much  more  than  money,  for  Time  is  wasted  that  is  frittered  away 
.  time  can  do  what  all  the  money  in  the  in  little  things  that  make  no  difference 
world  can  never  do.     Time  can  heal  to  anybody. 

all  sorrows  and  cure  all  ills,  and  time,  The  boy  who  sticks  to  his  work — 

if  it  is  rightly  used,  gives  opportunity  that  is  the  boy  the  world  is  waiting 

too  great  to  be  realized  by  the  young,  for.     That  is  the  boy  who  will  paint 

Time  spent  in  watching  others  play  the  picture  that  everybody  will  go  to 

games,  or  in  idling  on  the  street  is  lost  see.     That   is   the   boy   who   will   be 

time.     We  do  not  want  forever  to  be  manager  of  a  big  business.     That  is 

bent  on  serious  things,  and  there  is  the  boy  that  every  mother  wishes  her 

time  for  all  of  us  to  play;  but  nothing  son  to  be. 

is   so  dangerous  as   amusement,   and  There    are    plenty    of    other    boys; 

we  had  better  never  play  at  all  than  plenty  of  boys  who  will  grow  up  to 

let   play    steal   away   our   lives,    and  sell  matches,  or  newspapers,  and  to  do 

lead  us  to  forget  our  aims.  nothing  particular  for  anybody,   and 

And   a   boy    must   have   ambition,  worse   than   nothing   for   themselves. 

He  should  not  believe  those  who  tell  But  the  boy  the  world  wants  is  the 

him  there  is  anything  wrong  in  the  boy  in  earnest,  the  boy  who  is  ambi- 

desire  to  get  on  well   in  the  world,  tious,  the  boy  who  is  determined,  the 

There    is    a    right    getting-on    and    a  boy  who  will  "stick  to  it." 

wrong  getting-on,  and  when  we  say  The  use  of  difficulties 

that  we  want  to  get  on  I  hope  we  al-  It  is  often  said  in  these  days  that 

ways  mean,  not  merely  that  we  want  life  is  made  too  easy,  and  that,  because 

more  money  in  our  pocket,  but  that  we  have  no  longer  to  fight  for  our 

we  want  to  know  more  as  well  as  to  birthright    as    men    fought    in    other 

have  more;    that  we  want  more  op-  days,  we  are  not  so  strong  and  ready 

portunities    of    well-doing    and    well-  and    daring    as    those    who    lived    in 

being.     There  are  low  ambitions  and  harder  times.     There  is  just  enough 

high  ambitions.     Let  us  see  to  it  that  serious  truth  behind  that  to  make  it 

we  aim  at  a  high  purpose;    that  in  difiicult    to    contradict,    because    life 

Emerson's  splendid  words,   we  hitch  does,    of   course,    become   easier   and 

our  wagon  to  a  star.  happier    as    knowledge   grows.     If    it 


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207 


did  not,  knowledge  would  not  be 
worth  having.  The  things  that  do  not 
help  us  to  live  are  not  worth  learning. 

But  it  is  not  really  true  that  life  is 
becoming  so  easy  that  character  has 
no  chance  to  grow — which  is  what 
people  mean  when  they  look  back  and 
sigh  for  the  good  old  times  to  come 
again.  There  never  was  such  wicked 
nonsense  as  the  talk  about  the  good 
old  times,  and  the  man  who  sighs  for 
them  back  again  does  not  know  what 
he  is  sighing  for.  There  never  were 
such  good  times  as  these  in  which  we 
live.  There  never  were  such  bad  times 
as  those  that  have  gone.  In  the  good 
old  times  little  boys  were  forced  up 
chimneys  and  down  mines,  and  little 
girls  were  whipped  to  work  in  factories. 
That  was  one  way  of  making  them 
strong,  but  the  pity  was  that  most  of 
them  died  without  finding  anything 
worth  being  strong  for.  Nothing  can 
be  more  wicked  than  to  wish  for  the 
dark,  ignorant,  cruel  past  to  come 
back  again. 

Those  who  talk  in  this  way  imagine 
that  character  grows  best  in  hard 
ground,  and  that  therefore  life  must 
be  made  hard  and  cruel,  and  boys 
must  be  buffeted  about,  and  perhaps 
beaten,  or  at  any  rate  in  some  way 
brought  to  feel  the  cuts  and  blows  of 
some  outrageous  fortune.  The  great 
untruth  behind  all  this  is  the  idea  that 
cruelty  is  necessary  to  breed  strength, 
that  hardship  is  necessary  to  develop 
firmness,  that  we  must  make  diffi- 
culties in  order  to  develop  the  power 
of  overcoming  them. 

It  is  true  that  overcoming  diffi- 
culties is  a  fine  way  of  growing  strong, 
but  it  is  true,  also,  that  life  is  always 
difficult  enough  to  develop  the  highest 
strength  of  character.  In  the  great 
training  grounds  of  the  world  the 
noblest  human  qualities  can  always 
grow,  and  life  can  never  be  so  easy 
that  one  need  fear  he  will  lose  his 


character,  if  he  wants  to  keep  it.  The 
difficulties  of  life  do  not  disappear; 
their  nature  changes — that  is  all. 
The  boy  who  is  going  to  make  his 
mark  in  the  world,  how^ever  pleasant 
a  place  the  world  may  be  when  he 
grows  up,  will  find  difficulties  to  over- 
come. 

There  will  always  be  a  world  to 
conquer,  and  nearly  alw^ays  it  lies 
about  one,  perhaps  nearer  than  one's 
own  door.  The  boy  who  gets  over 
difficulties  must  make  up  his  mind,  at 
the  very  beginning  of  anything,  what 
it  is  he  wants  to  do,  and  having  made 
up  his  mind,  he  must  do  it.  He 
should  let  no  difficulties  turn  him  back 
from  the  way  he  should  go.  Only 
cowards  count  the  cost  of  doing  right, 
and  shrink  from  it.  The  thmg  that  is 
easy  is  there  for  anybody  to  do;  it 
is  the  brave  boy  who  will  tread  the 
difficult  way,  who  will  run  a  risk,  and 
do  the  hard  thing.  There  are  people 
in  the  world  who  think  it  right  to  go 
through  life  taking  all  that  life  can 
give  them  and  giving  nothing  in  re- 
turn; but  they  live  their  selfish  lives 
and  pass  away  and  are  forgotten. 
Out  of  their  ranks  no  hero  comes. 

It  is  perfectly  true  that  where  there 
is  a  will  to  do  a  thing  the  way  to  do  it 
can  be  found.  A  story  is  told  of  how 
Alexander  the  Great  arrived  one  day 
at  the  city  of  Gordium,  and  found 
there  a  famous  chariot  fastened  with 
cords  tied  into  knots  that  no  man 
could  undo.  And  Alexander  was  told 
of  the  legend  that  whoever  should 
untie  the  knots  should  rule  the  world. 
It  was  not  like  Alexander  to  waste 
his  time  untying  knots,  but  he  found 
a  better  way.  He  cut  the  knots 
asunder  with  his  sword,  and  ever  since 
the  man  who  chooses  the  bold  way  out 
of  a  difficult  situation  has  been  said 
to  cut  the  Gordian  knot. 

It  is  right  to  be  cautious  but  it  is 
wrong  to  be  cautious  even  to  timidity. 


208 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  world  is  not  in  want  of  men  who 
will  hold  back.  They  are  at  the 
corner  of  every  street;  every  town  is 
full  of  them.  It  is  the  boy  who  will 
go  forward  that  the  world  is  waiting 
for — the  Cohimbiis,  the  Washington, 
the  Livingstone  of  the  future. 
The  glory  of  courage 

What  the  world  needs  is  the  courage 
that  climbs  over  mountains  or  cuts 
them  through,  the  boldness  of  a  man 
who,  knowing  what  is  to  be  done,  sees 
the  difficulties  and  conquers  them. 
We  would  not  be  living  in  a  free  coun- 
try, the  land  we  live  in  would  still  be 
overrun  with  barbarism,  if  men  had 
chosen  the  easy  way.  One  has  only 
to  think  for  a  moment  of  the  things 
which  every  boy  knows  to  see  the 
spirit  that  conquers  the  world.  Such 
a  spirit  was  that  of  Columbus  at  the 
court  of  Spain,  fighting  against  preju- 
dice and  ignorance  and  blindness  until 
his  courage  moved  a  queen  to  pledge 
her  jewels  for  the  expedition  that  was 
to  discover  America.  It  is  the  spirit 
that  General  Grant  displayed  in  his 
military  campaigns,  that  remarkable 
persistence  and  steadiness  of  purpose, 
which  never  faltered,  and  wrought  out 
his  great  victories.  David  Livingstone 
shows  this  spirit,  poring  over  his  books 
till  midnight,  getting  up  at  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  and  working  in  the 
factory  till  eight  at  night,  going  to 
school  from  eight  to  ten,  then  poring 
over  his  Latin  grammar  again  as  long 
as  his  eyes  would  keep  open,  and  then 
sleeping  till  six  o'clock  brought  back 
another  day.  He  worked  half  a  year 
in  the  factory,  and  spent  his  wages  in 
the  next  half  at  the  university.  He 
never  met,  either  then  or  as  a  man, 
any  difficulty  that  he  allowed  to  stand 
in  his  way.  His  stubborn  will  con- 
quered the  hot  fever-laden  climate  of 
Africa. 

At  a  time  when  all  America  was 
talking  of  Mr.  Roosevelt,  an  American 


paper  said  jokingly,  "Just  stop  to 
think  that  Theodore  Roosevelt  is 
only  one  nine-hundred-and-forty-thou- 
sandth  of  one  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  United  States."  But  it 
was  the  genius  of  Mr.  Roosevelt  that 
he  would  not  let  America  think  that. 
The  man  who  means  to  have  his  own 
way  may  count  only  one  in  the  census 
paper,  but  he  may  count  a  million  ones 
in  history. 

All  things  come  to  him  whose  spirit 
will  not  die.  The  men  who  have 
transformed  the  world — what  sort  of 
lives  were  theirs?  They  read  their 
books  by  candle-light  and  lived  in 
garrets,  they  toiled  long  hours  down 
in  mines  and  rarely  saw  the  sun,  they 
prayed  in  vain  for  one  word  of  sym- 
pathy; for  the  bold  man  with  the  new 
idea  had  all  the  world  against  him 
until  these  modern  times. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  the  difficulties 
that  were  put  in  the  way  of  men  who 
looked  into  the  future  years  ago,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  comfortable 
lives  for  those  who  live  now,  and  of 
prosperity  for  nations. 

Robert  Fulton,  the  man  who  made 
steam  navigation  a  success,  was 
scoffed  and  jeered  at  on  every  hand; 
not  one  word  of  encouragement,  not 
one  bright  hope,  not  one  warm  wish 
crossed  his  path,  he  said. 

George  Stephenson  was  denounced 
as  an  impostor  when  he  began 
to  make  his  railways;  and  one  of  the 
saddest  things  in  the  history  of  any 
nation  is  the  story  of  the  bitter 
struggle  to  save  the  little  children  of 
England  from  slavery.  They  were 
whipped  to  work  like  dogs,  until  so 
many  died  that  they  were  buried  in 
secret  to  hide  the  awful  truth. 

Times  have  changed,  but  still  it  is 
true  that  the  path  of  the  good  man 
through  this  world  is  strewn  with 
thorns.  Men  have  so  much  to  do,  and 
so  little  time,  and  so  many  things  to 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


209 


bother  them,  that  it  is  hard  to  interest 
them,  and  harder  still  to  get  their 
help;  and  so  we  are  discouraged  and 
downhearted,  and  noble  causes  lag 
for  want  of  friends. 

It  is  always  so.  But  the  boy  should 
arm  himself  in  the  days  in  which  he  is 
putting  on  his  strength  against  the 
disappointments  that  must  come  into 
his  life.  They  will  come,  whatever 
happens,  and  at  times  it  will  seem  to 
him  as  if  the  sun  had  gone  out,  and  as 
if  nothing  matters  and  nobody  cares. 
But  he  will  remember  that,  however 
dark  the  clouds  are,  the  sun  breaks 
through  again.  He  must  not  let 
despair  seize  hold  of  him  because  the 
task  is  hard  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
way  out.  He  can  sustain  himself  by 
the  proud  thought  that  he  is  in  the 
line  of  heroes.  Behind  him  stand 
Captain  Scott  and  David  Livingstone 
and  George  Washington  and  Abraham 
Lincoln  and  Francis  Drake  and  Joan 
of  Arc,  and  he  will  not  shame  these 
mighty  names  by  turning  back. 

The  thing  that  is  in  the  way  is  the 
great  test,  the  touchstone  of  an  enter- 
prise. Two  boys  meet  a  difficulty,  and 
it  is  like  the  instrument  at  the  mint 
which  touches  every  sovereign,  throw- 
ing out  the  bad  and  keeping  the  good. 
One  boy  turns  back,  but  the  other  is 
true  as  steel.  The  fear  of  danger, 
the  sight  of  a  mountain,  the  touch  of 
risk,  the  wondering  whether  he  will 
really  manage  it,  are  new  life  to  him. 
He  goes  on  with  new  zest  and  resolu- 
tion, and  almost  before  he  sees  the 
difficulty  it  has  gone.  Like  melting 
snow  difficulties  go  when  a  brave 
heart  comes  along. 

Especially  must  he  be  on  his  guard 

against  the    difficulties   that    do   not 

exist. 

Some  of  your  hurts  you  have  cured, 

And  the  sharpest  you  still  have  survived; 


But  what  torments  of  grief  you  endured 
From  evils  which  never  arrived! 

Half  the  people  in  this  world  spend 
half  their  lives  in  wondering  how 
they  will  get  over  a  stile  that  they 
will  never  reach.  One  of  the  wisest 
things  ever  written  in  a  copy  book  is, 
"Do  not  meet  troubles  half  way." 
Time  is  too  precious  to  spend  in  im- 
agining difficulties;  they  will  come 
soon  enough. 

Even  wise  men  are  wrong  some- 
times. Perhaps  you  have  read  how,  in 
the  early  days  of  railways,  men  spent 
their  time  in  trying  to  get  over  the 
difficulty  of  making  a  smooth  wheel 
ride  over  a  smooth  rail.  The  wheels 
would  skid  on  the  smooth  lines,  it 
was  said,  and  for  years  men  saw  no 
way  out.  Then  at  last,  somebody 
tried  a  smooth  wheel  on  a  smooth 
rail,  and  found  that  the  difficulty  did 
not  exist. 

Only  a  great  daring,  an  inflexible 
purpose,  an  unquenchable  spirit  of 
perseverance,  can  rouse  the  world 
from  its  indifference  and  drive  away 
defeat.  In  little  things  and  great, 
in  the  trials  of  our  own  lives  and  in 
the  public  things  we  fight  for,  we  must 
dare  to  do  right,  whatever  the  conse- 
quences may  be. 

He  either  fears  his  fate  too  much, 

Or  his  deserts  are  small, 
Who  dares  not  put  it  to  the  touch. 

To  gain  or  lose  it  all. 

There  are  nobler  things  than  bold- 
ness, there  are  baser  things  than  fear. 
But  there  is  nothing  sadder  than  the 
fear  of  doing  right;  there  is  nothing 
nobler  than  the  fear  of  doing  wrong. 
Let  that  be  the  only  fear.  Let  the 
soul  be  pure,  let  the  heart  be  brave. 
Be  strong  and  of  good  courage.  He 
that  overcometh  shall  inherit  all 
things. 


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WHAT    A    GIRL    MUST    DO    TO    SUCCEED 


YOU  are  sure  to  be  wondering, 
as  you  stand  at  the  gates  of 
Life  and  look  out  upon  the 
world,  what  destiny  the  hidden  years 
can  hold  for  you.  As  surely  as  the 
leaves  fall,  in  obedience  to  the  Hand 
that  guides  the  heavens,  so  surely 
:your  unfolding  life  is  dawning,  and 
will  rise  to  noonday,  and  will  sink 
into  the  gentle  sleep  of  night,  to  the 
bidding  of  the  universal  law  that  none 
can  break. 

But  because  your  life  is  part  of  the 
great  world  you  will  not  believe  that 
therefore  it  is  fixed  for  you,  so  that  you 
have  no  choice.  You  are  free  to  do 
as  you  will.  You  are  free  to  use  your 
life  or  to  waste  it.  In  the  great  scheme 
which  even  now  is  building  up  a  perfect 
world,  your  life  must  have  its  place. 
But  you  are  not  a  spectator  looking  on 
at  the  world.  You  are  an  actor,  taking 
part  in  it,  and  the  great  play  of  Life 
will  fail  so  far  as  you  fail  in  your  part. 

And  you  are  wondering,  no  doubt, 
what  part  you  will  play — whether  you 
will  go  out  into  the  world  to  do  great 
things,  or  whether  you  will  be  content 
to  be  of  the  multitude  which  moves  in 
quiet  paths,  doing  good  without  ceas- 
ing, making  life  a  blessing,  but  winning 
neither  wealth  nor  fame.  And  you 
must  resolve  for  yourself  the  question 
that  every  girl  must  ask  herself — 
whether  you  will  seek  first  the  natural 
place  of  woman  in  the  home,  or 
whether,  in  some  wider  sphere,  you 
will  seek  to  carve  out  an  independent 
place.  It  is  the  most  important  thing 
you  can  decide,  and  nothing  can  be 
more  difficult  than  to  advise  you. 
Use  of  natural  gifts 

But  of  one  thing  it  is  easy  and  right 
to  advise  you.  You  can  do  no  wrong 
in  putting  your  natural  gifts  to  any 
natural  use.  You  can  do  no  wrong  in 
fitting  yourself  for  any  office  you  can 


fill  with  profit  to  yourself  and  useful- 
ness to  others.  You  can  do  no  wrong 
in  choosing  any  path  that  leads  you  to 
your  destiny  with  dignity  and  honor. 
But  you  may  do  yourself  great  wrong, 
and  may  betray  the  cause  that  every 
woman  holds  in  trust,  if  you  cut  your- 
self off,  knowingly  and  purposely, 
from  the  noblest  work  that  daughters 
and  wives  and  mothers  are  called  upon 
to  do. 

You  are  growing  up  in  an  age  when 
too  many  people  are  willing  to  sully 
the  fair  fame  of  a  woman.  Of  all  the 
sad  things  that  happen  in  these  days, 
nothing  is  sadder  than  the  things  that 
make  us  forget  for  a  moment  the 
gentleness  and  graciousness  of  woman- 
hood. It  is  a  beautiful  vision  that 
comes  to  us  as  we  think  of  our  mothers, 
and  of  their  mothers,  and  of  mothers 
all  down  the  ages  of  time;  but  how 
easy  it  is  sometimes  to  forget  the  things 
that  make  the  thought  of  women  so 
comforting  and  uplifting!  You  will 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  vulgar 
manners  you  will  see  about  you,  with 
girls  who  would  be  men,  forgetting 
how  nnich  greater  than  men  they  could 
really  be.  When  you  find  yourself  in 
the  company  of  a  girl  who  smokes,  keep 
your  modesty  and  leave  her;  she 
is  not  going  your  way.  In  such  small 
things  begin  the  end  of  modest  girl- 
hood. The  manners  of  men  are  not 
for  girls  to  put  on  as  they  put  on  hats 
and  gloves. 

The  men  for  whose  esteem  a  girl 
should  crave  have  no  esteem  to  spare 
for  girls  who  ape  their  habits  without 
thinking,  who  break  through  the  fine 
reserve  that  is  a  girl's  best  safeguard, 
who  mix  with  men  and  come  down  to 
meet  them,  when  men  instead  should 
rise  to  their  higher  level.  All  through 
the  world,  and  all  through  life,  the 
something  better  in  a  woman  has  been 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


211 


the  world's  great  blessing,  and 
nothing  that  the  world  can  give  will 
be  worth  having  if  you  lose  this  price- 
less thing. 

Whatever  way  you  choose  through 
life,  you  will  guard  the  noblest  thing 
your  mother  gave  you — the  charm  of 
being  made  in  her  own  image.  You 
will  cherish  the  thought  that  the  love 
for  a  mother  is  the  strongest  influence 
in  the  world,  and  you  will  do  nothing 
to  wreck  the  place  a  mother  holds  in 
the  deathless  affection  of  mankind. 

The  great  power  you  will  have  to 
stir  men  to  glorious  things 

You  will  not  mind  the  scoffing  of 
those  who  are  careless  in  small  things; 
you  will  be  ready  to  give  up  lawful 
pleasures  rather  than  run  the  risk  of 
losing  the  fair  name  which  is  worth 
more  to  you  than  rubies.  The  knight's 
armor,  in  the  days  of  chivalry,  was 
buckled  on  by  his  lady,  and  the 
beautiful  meaning  of  that  should  still 
be  true  in  these  days.  It  was  the 
gracious  way  in  which  a  lady  sent  out 
her  knight  to  fight  with  double  strength. 

This  is  the  great  power  for  woman 
still,  so  long  as  she  keeps  her  hold  upon 
her  knight.  The  things  that  are 
unseen  are  hers,  the  influences  that 
reach  deep  down  in  the  heart  of  life, 
and  never  wholly  fail.  How  often  it 
is  that  the  man  who  seems  so  powerful, 
who  seems  to  do  as  he  likes  and  to 
conquer  wherever  he  goes,  is  really 
swayed  by  a  great  love  behind  him, 
and  nearly  always  the  love  of  a  woman. 

A    BLOW    THAT    YOU    MAY    STRIKE    AT    A 
WRONG  VIEW  OF  LIFE 

You  may  be  rightly  proud  of  the 
gifts  which  enable  you  to  win  your  own 
way  in  the  working  world,  and  there  is 
no  reason  anywhere  why  you  should 
not  place  yourself  by  the  side  of  men 
in  any  sphere  in  which  you  can  hold 
your  own.  So  long  as  your  work  fits 
you,  and  does  not  unfit  you,  for  your 
natural  destiny,  it  can  be  nothing  but 


a  blessing.  It  can  bring  you  nothing 
but  happiness  to  be  conscious  of  a 
power  to  face  the  world  whatever 
happens,  and  in  the  years  when  you 
are  building  up  your  life  you  may 
wisely  seek  the  discipline  and  training 
of  some  useful  service.  The  useless 
have  no  rights,  and  we  must  be  useful. 
Even  though  your  lot  be  cast  in 
pleasant  places,  so  that  you  may  not 
need  to  earn  your  living,  it  will  do  you 
no  harm  to  do  some  useful  work. 
The  real  wages  for  good  work  are  not 
made  at  the  mint. 

The  girl  who  wins  a  place  by  her 
own  efforts  has  strengthened  herself 
in  any  task  she  undertakes.  She  has 
struck  the  hardest  blow  she  can  at  the 
silly  notion  that  woman  must  be  a  sort 
of  on-looker  at  the  world. 

The  great  temptations  that   will 
come  to  you  to  waste  your  days 

Thousands  of  lives  have  been  saved 
from  ruin  by  a  definite  work  in  life; 
thousands  have  been  wrecked  by  the 
want  of  it;  and  nothing  will  more 
likely  prepare  you  for  the  coming 
years  than  a  definite  piece  of  wisely 
chosen  work,  whether  for  wages  or 
for  love  of  doing  it. 

"Our  time,"  said  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
"is  like  our  money.  When  we  change 
a  dollar,  the  dimes  escape  as  things  of 
small  account;  when  we  break  a  day 
by  idleness  in  the  morning,  the  rest  of 
the  hours  lose  their  importance  in 
our  eyes."  Idle  hours  are  temptations, 
but  idle  years  are  worse,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  the  end  of  nothing-in- 
particular-to-do  for  years  should  be  a 
consuming  love  of  pleasure.  And 
then  often  in  its  train  comes  the  sad 
waste  and  vanity  of  it  all — the  love  of 
vain  things. 

The    empty    vanity    that    flaunts 
itself  before  the  world 

We  need  not  object  to  anything 
])eautiful,but  the  vanity  jf  riches  is  not 
the  love  of  beauty;  and  the  things  that 


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are  worn  because  they  are  ticketed  at 
a  high  price  in  a  shop,  and  so  advertise 
the  splendid  incomes  of  those  who  wear 
them,  are  not  things  to  admire.  You 
will  learn  to  love  things  that  are  really 
beautiful,  to  prize  things  that  are 
really  valuable,  and  you  will  scorn  the 
empty  show  which  flaunts  itself  so 
much  before  the  world  and  has  nothing 
lovely  or  noble,  or  really  worthy  behind 
it. 

Life  is  not  simple,  and  it  is  not  easy 
always  to  know  what  to  do;  but  it  will 
help  you,  now  that  you  are  wondering 
which  way  you  will  go,  if  you  make 
up  your  mind  to  go  the  simple  way. 
The  girl  who  loves  her  home 

You  have  learned  that  happy  homes 
are  not  made  with  hands.  The  founda- 
tions may  be  deeply  set,  the  great 
walls  may  rise  high  and  the  windows 
may  look  out  upon  a  noble  scene,  the 
room  may  be  rich  beyond  avarice  and 
beautiful  beyond  compare,  and  there 
may  be  nothing  wanting  to  please  the 
stranger's  eye;  but  the  seat  of  happi- 
ness is  not  in  these  things.  If  one 
invisible  thing  is  absent  no  visible 
splendor  can  atone  for  it;  nothing  that 
we  can  touch  or  taste  or  hear  or  see  can 
help  us  if  this  thing  is  missing.  Every 
day,  for  want  of  it,  homes  are  wrecked 
and  lives  are  broken. 

You  will  guess  that  this  invisible 
foundation  of  a  happy  home  is  the  love 
of  those  who  live  in  it.  Love  and 
happiness  run  together.  There  can  be 
no  transgression  of  that  law.  What- 
ever else  is  false  this  much  is  true,  that 
hearts  divided  against  themselves  can 
never  make  a  home.  And  so  you  will 
resolve  that  your  home  shall  be  built 
upon  this  firm  foundation. 

And  so  you  will  feel  that  your  home 
is  the  shrine  of  sacred  things,  a  field  in 
which  the  seed  you  sow  may  grow  into 
a  precious  harvest. 

You  will  think  of  your  home  as  your 
own  little  corner  of  the  world,  where 


you  are  queen  and  you  will  set  your 
influence  as  on  a  rock.  You  will  love 
your  friends  outside  your  home,  you 
will  cherish  goodwill  to  your  neighbors, 
but  within  the  walls  of  your  own 
kingdom  you  will  give  yourself  un- 
selfishly and  toil  unceasingly  for  those 
who  are  banded  together  as  one,  heart 
of  your  heart,  mind  of  your  mind,  life 
of  your  life,  traveling  beside  you 
through  sunlight  and  shadow,  through 
ill  and  good  report. 

The  little  world  in  which  you  will 
make  your  own  laws  and  keep  them 

We  are  in  the  world  and  of  the  world, 
and  we  must  take  our  place  and  play 
our  part.  If  we  could  rule  the  world 
for  just  one  week,  we  have  thought 
sometimes,  how  happy  a  place  we 
would  make  it!  Well,  our  homes  are 
our  own  worlds,  in  which  we  make  our 
laws  and  administer  them,  in  which  we 
lay  down  our  rules  of  life  and  declare 
our  relation  to  our  neighbors  and 
mankind.  Your  home  will  be  the 
place  where  you  find  rest,  but  your 
rest  will  bring  you  new  strength,  and 
you  will  spend  it  for  the  good  of 
all. 

The  qualities  that  are  called  for 
in  managing  a  home 

Nothing  in  the  world,  perhaps,  is 
more  difiicult  than  the  wise  manage- 
ment of  a  house.  Most  of  us  are  too 
ready  to  forget,  in  enjoying  the  great 
freedom  of  home,  that  a  home  is  like 
a  machine,  and  must  have  method  and 
discipline  if  it  is  to  have  peace.  It  is  a 
wonderful  thing,  considering  the 
millions  of  opposite  interests  in  the 
world,  and  all  the  selfishness  and  in- 
difference, that  the  world  agrees  so 
well;  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the 
management  of  a  home,  with  perhaps 
six  people  of  six  different  types,  with 
tastes  that  can  vary  in  perhaps  a 
hundred  things,  with  conflicting  de- 
sires in  food,  and  pleasure,  and  friend- 
ships, and  with  varying  needs  in  other 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


213 


ways,  should  call  for  the  very  greatest 
care  and  judgment. 

It  is  not  an  easy  task  to  control  the 
home-life  of  a  family,  fitting  all  these 
desires  into  a  general  plan,  giving 
freedom  and  happiness  to  each  and 
contentment  to  all,  and  it  is  harder 
still  if  some  break  the  rules.  You 
will  not  be  ashamed  to  acknowledge 
that  your  place  is  in  the  kitchen  as  well 
as  in  the  drawing-room.  The  proper 
management  of  a  kitchen  is  one  of 
the  greatest  services  a  woman  can 
render  to  the  world. 

If  we  think  of  the  lives  of  the  great 
multitude  of  working  people,  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  bad  food,  bad  cooking,  bad 
housekeeping,  can  spoil  them  utterly, 
and  we  have  yet  to  measure  the  effect 
of  these  things  in  driving  men  out  of 
their  homes  and  into  public-houses. 
If  it  is  true  that  the  public-house,  with 
its  horrible  associations,  all  its  germs 
of  disease,  has  taken  the  place  of 
home  in  the  lives  of  masses  of  men,  who 
shall  say  how  many  of  these  men  turn 
to  such  places  in  search  of  the  comfort 
missing  from  their  homes? 

The    great   number   of   things   we 
can  do  without  in  the  world 

You  will  learn  very  soon,  in  building 
up  your  home,  that  simplicity  of  life 
is  the  golden  key  to  happiness.  It  is 
one  of  the  sad  consequences  of  the 
progress  of  the  world  that  civili- 
zation brings  with  it  a  great  increase 
in  what  we  call  our  needs,  though  they 
are  really  only  our  desires.  Crave  for 
the  things  that  will  make  you  happy, 
but  do  not  create  unnecessary  wants. 
It  is  astonishing  to  think  of  the  number 
of  things  we  gather  into  our  houses 
that  we  do  not  really  need. 

The    enduring    joy    of   home  that 
comes  from  simplicity 

Make  up  your  mind  that  the  simpler 
a  home  is,  the  more  enduring  is  the  joy 
of  it;  the  more  natural  our  environ- 
ment is,  the  more  natural  we  ourselves 


shall  be.  Let  us  set  our  faces,  in  our 
homes  and  out  of  them,  against  what 
is  artificial  and  conventional.  It  is 
art  and  good  sense  to  have  few  things 
in  a  home,  instead  of  many,  and  to 
have  these  of  the  best;  and  it  is  good 
to  have  them  natural,  instead  of  arti- 
ficial, with  some  idea  in  them  that  helps 
us,  or  inspires  us,  or  brings  us  pleasure. 
It  is  good  to  have  real  things  instead  of 
imitations;  it  is  good  to  have  a  few  of 
the  very  best  pictures  rather  than  a 
whole  gallery  of  meaningless  daubs; 
and  it  is  good  to  have  about  us  the 
books  that  we  love.  It  is  good,  in  a 
word,  to  live  in  a  house  that  seems  to  be 
a  part  of  nature  herself,  helping  us  in 
our  natural  life,  and  deepening  within 
us  the  love  of  true  and  noble  and 
beautiful  things. 
The    wise    words    of  solomon    on 

THE  WISE  wife  IN  THE  HOUSE 

You  will  spend  these  early  years, 
while  your  own  home  is  still  afar  off,  in 
fitting  yourself  for  it.  You  will  not  be 
afraid  of  the  great  task  to  which  you 
set  your  hand.  You  will  know  the 
high  mission  that  you  undertake,  you 
will  rejoice  in  the  high  privilege  of 
building  up  a  home,  and  you  will  build 
it  in  the  spirit  of  King  Solomon  when 
he  wrote:  "As  the  sun  when  it  ariseth 
in  the  high  heaven,  so  is  the  beauty  of  a 
good  wife  in  the  ordering  of  her  house." 
The  girl  in  search  of  pleasure 

The  first  duty  of  a  girl,  a  wise  man 
said  once,  is  to  be  happy.  Unless  we 
can  be  happy,  life  is  hardly  worth 
while. 

That  perhaps  may  seem  to  you  a 
strange  thing  because  you  know  of  so 
many  lives  that  are  a  great  blessing  to 
the  world,  though  they  may  seem  to 
you  about  as  sad  as  anything  can  be. 
And  it  is  perfectly  true  that  noble 
lives  may  be  full  of  sacrifice  and  sorrow; 
perhaps  it  is  even  true  that  sacrifice 
and  sorrow  make  thousands  of  lives 
noble  and  useful  which  but  for  these 


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things  might  be  Hved  in  vain.  But  all 
thro VI gh  the  years  that  are  opening 
out  before  you  you  will  find  one  thing 
becoming  clearer  and  clearer  in  your 
mind;  you  will  find  that  the  pleasure- 
seekers  are  not  always  glad,  and  the 
sorrow-bearers  are  not  always  sad. 
You  will  find  that  there  is  a  secret 
of  happiness  which  neither  money,  nor 
social  advantage,  nor  education  can 
buy,  and  which  neither  poverty,  nor 
sickness,  nor  other  ills  of  this  world 
can  utterly  destroy. 

And  so  we  learn  to  understand  that 
there  are  ways  to  happiness  which  per- 
haps we  have  not  guessed.  Happiness 
is  much  more  than  a  mere  passing 
sense  of  pleasure,  and  we  should  seek 
to  build  up  the  happiness  of  our  lives 
on  an  enduring  foundation.  No  mere 
round  of  social  pleasures,  no  mere 
pleasing  things  that  last  for  an  hour 
and  are  gone,  can  give  us  that.  Pas- 
time has  its  proper  place,  and  it  is  true 
that  all  work  and  no  play  makes  Jill 
a  dull  girl,  but  the  ordinary  amuse- 
ments of  life  are  not  the  true  source 
of  happiness. 

One  of  your  temptations  will  be  to 
rely  upon  these  things  when  you  should 
seek  enjoyment  in  other  ways,  and 
there  is  perhaps  no  greater  enemy  of 
girlhood  than  the  ceaseless  round  of 
empty  pleasures  that  assail  the  girl 
who  comes  face  to  face  with  life  on  her 
own  account.  It  is  so  easy  to  do  this 
and  that,  to  go  here  and  there,  that 
you  are  sure  to  be  tempted  to  give  your- 
self too  much  to  the  side  of  life  which 
is  meant  only  as  recreation. 

Doubtless  you  will  discover,  long 
before  you  have  yielded  to  this  tempta- 
tion, that  the  best  way  to  be  happy  is 
to  plan  your  life  so  that  pleasures  come 
into  it  naturally  instead  of  being  out- 
side it,  as  it  were.  Nothing  could  be 
more  unwise  than  the  sort  of  life  some 
people  live,  divided  into  two  compart- 
ments.    One  compartment  is  for  work. 


which  we  should  rather  call  drudgery, 
for  it  brings  them  no  joy  and  is  done 
against  their  will:  the  other  compart- 
ment is  for  pleasure,  which  we  should 
rather  call  pastime,  for  it  is  merely 
relief  from  their  duller  life,  and  is 
simply  a  stupid  way  of  passing  time 
which  their  dull  minds  do  not  know 
how  to  use.  It  is  true  that  some  of  us 
must  do  the  duller  kinds  of  work  if  the 
world  is  to  go  on,  and  no  doubt 
stitching  all  day  long,  or  making  boxes, 
or  adding  up  figures,  or  typing  letters 
are  not  as  interesting  as  painting 
pictures,  or  writing  books,  or  managing 
businesses ;  but  most  of  us  have  no  real 
excuse  for  not  being  interested  in  our 
work,  and  it  is  a  sad  thing  to  turn  it 
into  such  a  drudgery  that  we  must 
seek  relief  from  it  at  any  cost. 

The  duties  and  pleasures  that  will 
fit  in  with  one  another 

You  will  not  fall  between  these  two 
extremes — the  burden  of  work  which 
bores  you  and  the  reaction  of  amuse- 
ment which  gives  you  no  real  compen- 
sation; you  will  make  your  whole  life 
so  interesting  that  you  will  not  need 
to  pay  other  people  to  amuse  you  in 
order  to  escape  from  it.  You  will 
look  a  long  way  ahead  of  you.  You 
will  have  a  definite  purpose  in  your  life, 
and  you  will  see,  as  far  as  you  can,  that 
its  duties  and  pleasures  fit  in  one  with 
the  other,  so  that  they  lead  and  follow 
each  other  naturally  instead  of  being 
like  opposite  things. 

The  company  we  keep  when  we  en- 
joy OUR  PLEASURES 

You  would  not  think  of  taking 
certain  people  home;  you  would  shrink 
from  telling  your  mother  that  you  had 
been  with  them  at  dinner,  or  walking 
with  them  in  the  street,  or  sitting  with 
them  by  the  fire,  or  talking  freely  with 
them.  We  need  not  think  ourselves 
better  than  other  people,  and  it  is  no 
hollow  hypocrisy,  and  no  sort  of 
priggishness,  that  turns  us  from  the 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  215 

company  of  those  whose  way  of  life  or  sorrow  caused  to  others  in  order  that 

is    not   ours.     The    natural    pride    of  you  might  enjoy  a  pleasant  hour,  and 

life,  the  dignity  of  girlhood,  will  cause  you  will  ask  yourself  what  a  mother's 

you  to  shrink  from  evil  things  not  less  anxiety  must  be  while  her  boy,  or  her 

if  they  come  in  the  form  of  men  and  girl,    or    her    breadwinner,    hangs    in 

women  than  if  they  come  as  serpents,  danger  of  death  on  an  iron  bar  high  up 

and  it  will  help  us  if  we  realize  that,  in  the  air;  or  how  little  children  must 

whenever  we  go  to  see  men  and  women  live  in  dread  of  something  happening 

of  bad  character  on  the  stage,  appeal-  to  their  father,  who  stands  in  danger 

ing  to   their   audiences   by   the   very  every   night   that   you   might   watch 

atmosphere    with    which    they    have  and  be  excited  by  his  peril.     You  will 

become  associated,  we  are  in  the  com-  love  life  too  much  to  think  lightly  of 

yany  of  these  people  as  if  we  had  invited  endangering  it  for  others,  and  you  will 

them  to  our  homes.  turn  in  pity,  if  not  in  disgust,  from  so- 

You  will  be  on  the  side  of  pure  pleas-  called  pleasures  which  involve  grave 

ures   always,   but  you   will   hate  the  peril  to  life  and  limb, 

vulgarities  which  pretend  to  be  enter-  the  terrible  price  you  will  never 

tainments,  and  you  will  rather  die  than  pay  for  the  things  you  wear 

countenance  with  your  presence  some  You  will  dress  for  neatness  and  not 

of  the  shameful  scenes  that  take  place  for  show,  and  you  will  not  think  your 

openly  in  theaters  and  music-halls.  hat,  or  your  coat,  so  important  that 

You  WILL  SEE  THAT   YOUR  PLEASURES  for  their  Sake  you  cau  throw  aside  your 

are  worthy  of  your  HEART  AND  MIND  charity   and   gentleness    and   love   of 

When  anything  impure  is  done,  or  justice, 

said,    or    sung   in    your    presence,    in  You  will  not  think  it  worth  while  to 

public  or  in  private,  you  will  be  faced  starve  a  family  of  fellow-creatures  in 

with  a  problem  that  you  must  instantly  order  that  you  may  wear  a  pretty  hat. 

decide :  you  will  have  to  stay  and  lose  You  would  blush  for  shame  if  you  were 

your  dignity,  or  to  go  and  keep  it,  and  asked  to  wear  a  thing  that  had  been 

you  will  go.     It  shall  not  be  said  of  you  stolen ;  how  much  more  then  you  will 

that  you  stained  the  fair  fame  of  the  blush    if    you    should    find    yourself 

people's    pleasures    by    patronizing    a  wearing    one    day    a    beautiful    thing 

hideous   thing.     You   will   be   sure   a  bought   by   torture  and   cruelty   and 

play  is  sweet  before  you  go  to  see  it,  the  wanton  shedding  of  blood!     It  is 

just  as  you  will  be  sure  that  a  man  is  right  that  we  should  remember  the 

honorable  before  you  consent  to  know  terrible  words  uttered  not  long  ago  by 

him.  a  professor  who  had  been  investigating 

And,  especially  you  will  take  care,  in  the  circumstances  under  which  aigrette 

choosing  your  public  pleasures,  that  feathers      are     obtained,     and     who 

they  are  worthy  of  you  in  another  declared  that  every  girl  who  wears  an 

sense;  you  will  refuse  to  enjoy  yourself  aigrette  has  the  murderer's  brand  upon 

at  the  cost  of  another's  pain.     You  her  broiv.     It  is  a  terrible  saying,  but 

will  be  ashamed  to  think  that  another  it  is  true. 

human  being  should  imperil  his  life.  It    is    enough    to    say     here     that 

or  her  life,  to  please  you,  and  you  will  an  aigrette's  feather  can  be  obtained 

refuse  to  be  pleased  by  the  sight  of  only    by    the    most    terrible    acts    of 

other   people   risking   death   to   earn  cruelty  that  men  can  inflict  upon  birds, 

a  living.     You  will  be  shocked  to  think  and  that  every  plume  of  an  aigrette, 

that  there  should  be  any  pain  or  fear  or  a  gull,  or  a  bird  of  paradise,  is 


S16  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

obtained  by  the  murder  of  a  mother  we  will.     For  a  little  while  the  flowers 

bird  at  the  time  when  she  is  bringing  come  up  about  us  and  we  have  almost 

up  her  little  ones,  so  that  she  hovers  nothing  to  do  with  them;  but  soon  the 

round  the  nest  and  is  easily  caught.  seeds  are  offered  us  by  a  thousand 

The  girl  who  thinks  and  feels  hands,   bearing  a  thousand  kinds  of 

You  are  thinking  and  feeling  about  fruit,  and  we  can  take  them  or  reject 

a  thousand  things  in  these  years  in  them  as  we  will.     What  shall  we  take, 

which  you  are  laying  the  foundations  and  what  shall  we  reject? 

of  a  world.     What  a  solemn  thing  that  That  is  what  will  make  our  lives, 

is  to  say,  and  yet  it  is  true  that  every  building  them  up  or  pulling  them  down, 

one  of  us,  in  the  days  of  our  youth,  is  The  things  we  put  into  our  pockets 

building  a  world  as  certainly  as  he  who  may  be  as  nothing,  though  they  be 

builds  up  stone  on  stone  and  crowns  made  of  gold;  but  the  things  we  put 

them   with    towers    and   domes.     We  into  our  minds  are  all  the  world  to  us, 

come  into  a  world  that  is   open  to  though  they  fall  from  the  skies,  or  rise 

receive  us;  for  a  few  short  years  we  from  the  valleys,  or  pour  out  upon  us 

liveinthe  world  as  we  find  it;  but  soon,  from  the  hills,  and  cost  us  nothing, 

perhaps  almost  sooner  than  we  know.  We  are  what  we  think.     We  are  as  old 

we  are  making  our  own  world,  carving  as  we  feel,  as  rich  or  as  poor  as  our 

our     own     way,     shaping     our     own  imagination.     We  are  as  strong  as  our 

thoughts,    controlling    our  own    des-  faith  or  as  weak  as  our  fears.     It  is 

tinies.  these  things  that  make  up  life  for  us: 

We  are  like  travelers  sent  out  on  a  it  is  your  mind  that  makes  your  world, 

journey,  set  in  a  path  well  marked  and  and  your  mind  is  what  you  make  it. 

beaten  down  by  the  feet  of  friends  who  You  have  often  heard  people  say,  no 

have  gone  before  us.     For  a  little  way  doubt,  that  if  they  could  make  their 

the  path   is   clear   and   narrow,   and  own  world  they  would  be  perfectly 

friends  protect  and  guide  us  as  we  go:  happy,  and  perhaps  you  have  thought 

we  follow  where  they  lead.     But  soon  so  too.     Well,  the  boundaries  of  your 

the  way  grows  wide,  and  our  friends  kingdom  are  rising  up  around  you,  and 

are  scattered;  and  the  paths  lead  here  you   are   forming  them.     Even   now, 

and  there,  and  cross  and  cross;  and  the  while  life  is  so  pleasant  and  the  years 

signposts  are  so  confusing,  and  in  such  bring  no  burden  for  you  to  carry,  you 

strange  languages,  that  we  only  half  are  laying  for  yourself  the  foundations 

perceive  their  meaning;  and  we  wander  of  a  world  in  which  you  will  live,  I 

on  and  on,  through  unknown  ways  to  hope,  to  a  serene  old  age.     Upon  the 

unknown    lands.     No    longer    is    the  thoughts  you  admit  into  your  mind 

path  marked  out  for  us;  we  make  it  as  now,  more  than  upon  anything  else, 

we  go,  and  we  go  whither  we  w411.  will  rest  the  fortunes  of  your  future 

Life    is    like    that.     We    reach    it  years,  and  you  can  hand  on  to  your 

through  a  narrow,  guarded  way,  which  future    no     more     precious     inherit- 

leads  into  infinite   space.     We  come  ance   than   a    mind   well    filled,    well 

into  it  with  minds  like  a  garden  not  yet  balanced,  and  well  controlled, 

planted — with  soil  half  prepared,  per-  we  must  be  brave  enough  to  restrain 

haps,  so  that  it  may  have  a  tendency  ouR  feelings 

towards  flowers  instead  of  weeds,  or  It  is  not  easy  to  restrain  the  natural 

towards  weeds  instead  of  flowers;  but  feelings  of  pity  that  come  to  us  when 

with  the  actual  seeds  unsown,  so  that  we  see  or  hear  sad  things,  and  it  will  be 

we  may  make  the  garden  almost  what  a  sad  day  for  the  world  when  sorrow 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


217 


and  pain  cease  to  stir  our  feelings. 
But  it  would  be  worse  for  us  all  if,  in 
our  pity,  we  shut  our  eyes  and  hearts 
and  minds  to  other  feelings.  We 
must  be  strong  enough  to  bear  the 
sight  of  pain  for  healing's  sake,  or 
whore  would  doctors  and  nurses  come 
from?  We  must  be  stern  enough  to 
punish  wrong-doing,  or  what  would 
become  of  peaceful  people?  It  is 
right  that  we  should  regret  the  need 
of  causing  pain,  but  it  is  wrong  that 
we  should  shun  the  painful  duties  that 
we  owe  to  ourselves  and  to  others. 
We  must  learn  to  look  wisely  upon  all 
sides  of  life,  and  not  give  way  to  the 
feelings  that  belong  to  only  one  side 
of  things. 

WHY  WE   MUST  GIVE  OUR   REASON  FULL 
CONTROL  OF  OUR  EMOTIONS 

And  so  we  see  that  we  must  give  our 
reason  full  control  of  our  emotions. 
We  must  think  long,  long  thoughts, 
and  not  only  for  the  moment  and  the 
hour.  We  must  not  let  momentary 
feelings,  so  lightly  roused,  govern  the 
acts  of  our  lives.  We  must  not  let 
one  emotion  seize  hold  of  us,  and 
control  us  and  dominate  our  lives 
until  it  possesses  us  completely.  We 
must  not  let  our  love  of  dogs,  for 
example,  blind  us  to  the  fact  that  some- 
times, at  the  cost  of  a  little  pain  to  one 
of  these  brave  animals,  we  may  save 
the  lives  of  children.  We  must  not 
let  any  emotion  so  utterly  possess  us 
that  we  are  carried  away  by  it. 

Without  this  balance,  this  careful 
adjustment  of  the  scales  of  reason  and 
emotion,  our  lives  must  lose  much  of 
their  happiness  for  ourselves  and  much 
of  their  usefulness  to  others. 


THE    MISTAKE    THAT    WE    MUST    GUARD 
AGAINST  IN  GIVING  OUR  SYMPATHIES 

All  through  our  lives  we  shall  be 
forming  our  opinions,  fixing  our  atti- 
tude to  this  or  that  great  movement, 
resolving  which  side  we  will  take  in  a 
hundred  questions.  From  all  sides 
the  appeal  to  our  sympathy  will  come 
and  in  the  stress  of  life,  in  the  midst  of 
all  its  clashing  interests,  it  will  not  be 
easy  to  decide.  Often  it  will  seem  that 
two  ways  are  right,  when  only  one  can 
be  taken,  and  often  the  way  that  seems 
right  will  mean  pain  to  those  we  love, 
or  suffering  to  ourselves  that  we  could 
avoid  by  pursuing  another  way.  And 
sometimes  it  will  seem  as  if  to  find 
the  truth  is  quite  impossible. 

THE   STILL   SMALL   VOICE   WITHIi^   THAT 
WILL  NEVER  BETRAY  US 

When  these  things  come  we  shall  do 
what  seems  to  us  right;  we  shall  listen 
to  the  still  small  voice  within  us 
which  never  yet  has  led  any  one  of  us 
astray.  We  shall  remember,  not 
merely  the  things  that  crowd  upon  our 
minds  at  the  moment,  but  the  way  in 
which  the  acts  of  our  lives  are  wrought 
into  a  chain  that  never  ends,  but 
links  the  human  race  from  age  to  age. 
In  all  things  we  must  consider  the  far- 
off  end,  the  ultimate  purpose  of  Life. 

You  will  have  your  share  of  the  fears 
and  worries  that  come  to  us  all,  and 
you  will  bear  them  bravely.  But  you 
will  be  wise,  and  you  will  not  suffer 
your  feelings  to  mislead  you.  You 
will  open  your  heart  to  sorrow,  you 
will  open  your  mind  to  knowledge,  and 
you  will  live  in  a  world  of  thought  and 
feeling  which  not  all  the  armies  of  this 
world  could  destroy. 


218 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


PRACTICAL  ARITHMETIC  AND  CALCULATIONS 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  PROCESSES 

Addition 

Addition  is  a  short  way  of  uniting  two  or 
more  numbers  into  one  number. 

The  numbers  to  be  added  are  called  Addends. 

The  result  of  adding  is  called  the  Sum. 

The  sign  of  addition  (+)  is  the  erect  cross, 
which  is  read  "plus"  or  "and." 

The  sign  of  equality  is  = ,  or  two  short  hori- 
zontal lines  placed  one  above  the  other.  It  is 
read  "equals." 

Only  numbers  of  the  same  kind  can  be  added. 
We  can  add  4  cows  and  9  cows;  the  sum  is 
13  cows;  but  we  cannot  add  6  books  and  4 
slates,  as  the  sum  would  be  neither  books  nor 
slates. 

A  number  of  some  particular  kind,  as  5  balls, 
6  horses,  is  called  a  Concrete  Number. 

A  number  used  without  reference  to  any  par- 
ticular thing,  as  8,  is  an  Abstract  Number. 

Any  two  or  more  abstract  numbers  can  be 
united  into  one  sum  because  they  do  not  refer 
to  any  particular  objects. 

ORAL  EXERCISES 

Count  by  2"s  to  100;  by  3's  to  99;  by  4's  to 
100;  by  5's  to  100;  by  6's  to  96;  by  7's  to  98; 
by8'sto96;  by  9's  to  99. 

Beginning  with  1,  count  by  2's  to  99. 

Beginning  with  1,  count  by  3"s  to  100;  be- 
ginning with  1,  count  by  4's  to  97;  beginning 
with  1  count  by  5's,  by  6's,  by  7's,  by  8's  and 
by  9's. 

ADDITION  DRILL 

Note. — This  table  contains  all  of  the  primary 
combinations  in  addition.  It  should  be  learned 
for  speed  and  reviewed  frequently.  Every 
child  should  learn  to  be  speedy  with  this  table. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

1. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 

3 

4 

4 

3 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

1 

2 

4 

5 

2. 

5 

4 

1 

5 

4 

2 

7 

2 

1 

8 

2 

4 

6 

3 

5 

6 

1 

7 

8 

2 

3. 

3 

5 

9 

7 

4 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

6 

5 

1 

3 

0 

9 

8 

7 

5 

4 

4. 

5 

8 

6 

9 

7 

3 

8 

7 

8 

9 

9 

3 

6 

6 

8 

9 

9 

7 

8 

2 

5. 

5 

9 

8 

6 

6 

8 

7 

9 

9 

8 

8 

9 

0 

9 

7 

5 

9 

4 

6 

7 

up  and  down  and  to  the  right  and  to  the  left. 
Use  a  watch  to  encourage  speed. 

Method  or  Rule  for  Addition. — In  order  to  add 
numbers  conveniently,  write  the  numbers  so  that 
units  shall  be  under  units,  tens  under  tens,  hun- 
dreds under  hundreds,  and  so  on.  Add  each 
column  separately,  beginning  at  the  right.  If 
the  sum  of  any  column  is  greater  than  9,  set  down 
only  the  right-hand  figure  of  the  sum  and  add  the 
other  figure  to  the  next  column  to  the  left. 


EXERCISES 

Add- 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7832 

9132 

7911 

4668 

7848 

2314 

7386 

8617 

5687 

4578 

8337 

8430 

7510 

2731 

1234 

7433 

8664 

9999 

1832 

3056 

7638 

6340 

7931 

6327 

1647 

7690 

1967 

3257 

5419 

6327 

9975 

9537 

4350 

1861 

3228 

6730 

Use  this  table  as  a  drill  in  every  possible  way. 


Note. — The  above  problems  should  be  used 
to  attain  speed  and  accuracy.  Make  this  a 
game  in  which  the  pupils  are  contesting  to  win. 
Have  them  start  at  a  given  signal. 

^VRITTEN  PROBLEMS 

1.  A  cottage  was  planned  to  cost  $1000. 
The  foundation  and  brick  work  cost  $428.80, 
lumber  $370.15,  carpentering  $264.87,  painting 
and  plastering  $253.25,  hardware  $38.90,  tin- 
work  $13.78.  What  did  the  house  actually 
cost? 

2.  A  farm  which  cost  $6275  was  equipped 
as  follows:  House  $1588.77,  teams,  $850,  a  driv- 
ing horse  $175,  cattle  $275,  hogs  $127,  imple- 
ments and  tools  $677.  What  is  the  total  value  of 
the  farm  and  its  equipment.^ 

3.  A  family  of  two  persons  spends  for  rent 
$130,  food,  $210,  clothing  $80,  fuel  $30,  light 
$6,  insurance  $24,  replenishing  $10,  carfare  $5, 
literature  $5,  charity  $10,  and  saves  $20.  WTiat 
is  the  income? 

4.  Find  the  cost  of  raising  an  acre  of  corn 
if  the  rent  is  $3.03,  fertilizer  $1.86,  plowing,  etc., 
$1.62,  planting  $1.42,  cultivating  $1.80,  har- 
vesting $3,  and  other  expenses  $1.76. 

Subtraction  is  the  process  of  finding  the  dif- 
ference between  two  numbers.  The  larger  of 
the  two  numbers  is  called  the  Minuend.  The 
number  which  is  subtracted  is  called  the  Sub- 
trahend. 

The  result  of  the  subtraction  is  the  Difference 
or  Remainder. 

SUBTRACTION  DRILL 

Note. — The  teacher  using  a  watch  should 
place  a  limit  of  so  many  seconds,  say  thirty, 
and  see  who  can  go  farthest  with  this  table  in 
this  time.  Use  every  device  you  can  to  en- 
courage this  rapid  work  and  do  it  every  day 
until  the  pupil  is  proficient. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


219 


Subtract — 


8 

6 

7 

8 

7 

5 

6 

7 

9 

8 

5 

2 

3 

6 

2 

2 

4 

4 

7 

3 

6 

7 

8 

9 

6 

9 

8 

9 

9 

9 

3 

5 

4 

2 

2 

4 

2 

3 

5 

6 

10 

11 

10 

12 

11 

10 

12 

10 

11 

12 

7 

3 

8 

5 

4 

6 

6 

5 

7 

9 

13 

11 

13 

12 

13 

14 

11 

12 

11 

12 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

9 

6 

7 

9 

4 

14 

15 

16 

11 

15 

13 

14 

12 

13 

11 

8 

9 

8 

8 

6 

6 

7 

3 

5 

2 

13 

15 

14 

16 

16 

14 

15 

18 

17 

17 

8 

7 

6 

9 

7 

5 

8 

9 

9 

8 

MAKING  CHANGE 

In  making  change  we  add  to  the  amount  of 
the  sale  enough  money  to  equal  the  amount 
given  in  payment. 

Example. — A  customer  buys  goods  amount- 
ing to  $3.45  and  gives  a  five-dollar  bill  in  pay- 
ment.    Count  out  the  change. 

Amount  of  sale:  Change: 

$3.45  $0.05 

.50 
1.00 


.55     Amount  of  change. 


$1.55 


$5.00     Amount  given  in  payment. 

Merchant  says:  "Three-forty-five,  three- 
fifty,  four  dollars,  five  dollars." 

The  merchant  desiring  to  use  the  least  num- 
ber of  pieces  of  money  would  hand  the  customer 
his  package,  a  nickel,  a  halfdollar,  and  a  dollar, 
and  say,  "three-forty-five,  three-fifty,  four,  five 
dollars." 

The  customer  should  always  count  his  change 
as  the  merchant  makes  it. 

ORAL  PROBLEMS  IN  MAKING  CHANGE 


Amount 

Money 

of  Sale 

Payment 

Change 

1. 

S  0.30 

a  half  dollar 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

e. 

.65 

one  dollar 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

3 

1.02 

a  dollar  and  a  quarter  how  much?  what  pieces? 

4. 

1.35 

two  dollars 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

6. 

1.55 

Cve-doliar  bill 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

6. 

2.20 

two  two-dollar  bills 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

7. 

3.65 

a  five-dollar  bill 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

8. 

6.85 

a  ten-dollar  bill 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

9. 

11.66 

a  twenty-dollar  bill 

how  much?  what  pieces? 

WRITTEN  EXERCISES 

1.     From  896,192  subtract  425,327. 
5     11     8     12 


8     9     6 
4     2     5 


1     9     2 
3     2    7 


4     7     0      8    6    5 
You  cannot  take  7  units  from  2  units.     Take 

1  ten  from  9  tens;    this  with  the  2  units  makes 
12  units.     This  leaves  5  units. 

Eight  tens  remain  in  the  Minuend.     Taking 

2  from  8  leaves  6. 

In  a  similar  manner,  taking  3  from  11  leaves 
8.  taking  5  from  5  leaves  0,  taking  2  from  9 
leaves  7  and  taking  4  from  8  leaves  4. 

2.     From  6,000,600  subtract  172,316. 
6     9     9  10     5     9  10 


6     0     0     0     6     0     0 
17     2     3     16 


5     8    2    8    2    8    4 

When  the  Minuend  contains  zeros  think  of 

each  zero  as  9  except  the  right-hand  one  in  each 

group  which  is  thought  of  as  10.     Note  that  1 

of  the  6  hundreds  in  the  Minuend  makes  the 

9  tens  and  the  10  imits.     Also,  1  of  the  5  mil- 
lions makes  the  9  hundreds,  the  9  tens,  and  the 

10  imits  of  the  thousands  8  period. 

CHECKING  SUBTRACTION 

The  accuracy  of  the  work  is  checked  by  add- 
ing the  Difference  to  the  Subtrahend.  The 
sum  of  these  two  numbers  should  be  the  same 
as  the  Minuend. 

Subtract — 
1.        2.         3.  4.  5.  6. 


760  571  4705 
369  296  2482 


21,504 
18,396 


34,576 

22,688 


78,765 
56,899 


WRITTEN  PROBLEMS 

1.  From  London  to  Bombay  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  is  11,220  miles;  by  way  of  the  Suez 
Canal  it  is  6332  miles.  How  many  miles  does 
the  Suez  Canal  save  in  going  by  water  from 
London  to  Bombay.'' 

2.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  San 
Francisco  by  way  of  Cape  Horn  is  13,135  miles; 
by  way  of  Panama  it  is  5262  miles.  Find  the 
distance  saved  by  the  Panama  Canal. 

3.  From  New  York  to  Melbourne  by  way 
of  Cape  Horn  is  12,852  miles;  by  way  of  Panama 
Canal  it  is  10,392  miles.  How  much  does  the 
Panama  Canal  save  between  New  York  and 
Melbourne.'' 

Multiplication 


short  way  of  adding  a 
Thus:    4X3  =  12,  is  the 

3  plus  3  plus  3  plus  3 
equals  12;  and  7X4  =  28,  is  the  short  way  of 
writing  4  plus  4  plus  4  plus  4  plus  4  plus  4  plus  4 
equals  28. 


Multiplication  is  a 
set  of  equal  numbers, 
short  way  of  writing 


220 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  number  to  be  multiplied  is  called  the 
Multiplicand;  the  number  by  which  we  multi- 
ply   is  called  the  Multiplier;    and  the  result  of 


the  process  is  called  the  Product.  The  Multi- 
plier and  Multiplicand  are  also  sometimes  called 
the  Factors  of  the  Product. 


THE  MULTIPLICATION  TABLE 

Note. — It  is  absolutely  necessary  for  every  pupil  to  know  this  table  thoroughly  in  order  to 
make  any  progress  at  all  in  Arithmetic.  Use  the  watch  in  timing  each  pupil.  A  pupil  should 
be  able  to  give  any  one  table  forward  and  backward  in  from  thirty  to  forty  seconds.  No 
child  who  cannot  do  this  should  be  allowed  to  think  that  he  has  mastered  this  table: 

CHART  I 

Have  children  count  by  I's;    2's;   4's  and  3"s. 

Teach  that  multiplication  is  a  short  method  of  adding. 

♦    Signifies  new  numbers  found  in  other  tables  of  Charts  I  and  II. 

+  Signifies  old  numbers  having  been  studied  in  other  tables  of  Charts  I  and  II. 

Let  the  children  discover  in  the  new  table  how  manv  niunbers  they  have  studied  in  other  tables. 


1    X 

1^ 

1 

♦ 

2  X 

1  = 

2 

♦ 

3  X 

1  = 

3 

« 

4  X 

1  = 

4 

♦ 

5  X 

1  = 

5 

6  X 

\  = 

6 

7  X 

1  = 

7 

8x 

\  = 

8 

♦ 

9  X 

\  = 

9 

♦ 

10  X 

1  = 

1 

0 

♦ 

11    X 

\  = 

1 

1 

12  X 

i  = 

1 

2 

♦ 


♦ 
♦ 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

6x2  = 

7 

8 

9x2  = 
10 
11 
12  x 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


X 
X 


X 
X 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 


2 

4 
6 
8 
0 
2 
4 
6 
8 
0 
2 
4 


+ 
+ 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 
7 
8x 
9x 

10  X 

11  X 

12  X 


4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 


1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 


4 
8 
2 
6 
0 
4 
8 
2 
6 
0 
4 
8 


+ 
+ 

+ 

♦ 


♦ 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6  X 

7  X 
8x 
9x 

10  x 

11  X 

12  X 


3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 


1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
3 
3 


3 

6 
9 
2 
5 
8 
1 
4 
7 
0 
3 
6 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


221 


CHART  A 

Drill  the  I's,  2's,  4's,  and  3's  separately  as  a  closing  review  for  each  of  the  tables  studied. 

Develop  the  fact  of  the  reversibility  of  numbers  as  1X2=, 2X1=,  etc.,  except  the  square 
of  numbers  aslXl=>2X2=,  etc.     Develop  or  omit  drills  as  circumstances  require. 

Study  the  5's  and  6"s  with  Chart  II. 

The  numbers  in  black  on  this  chart  and  on  Chart  C  indicate  the  numbers  in  the  6's;  7's,  8's  and 
12's  not  studied  in  the  other  eight  tables. 

These  numbers  are  tabulated  for  study  on  Chart  II.  If  the  numbers  are  properly  reviewed  in 
couplets,  the  children  will  show  an  intelligent  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  they  have  only  ten 
combinations  to  study  in  these  four  tables. 


1   X 

1  = 

2  X 

1  = 

3x1  = 

4x   1  = 

5x   1  = 

1 

6x1  = 

1  X 

2  = 

1   X 

2  = 

1  X   3  = 

1  X   4  = 

1  X   5  = 

1  X   6  = 

2x 

1  = 

2  X 

2  = 

3x2  = 

4x2  = 

5x2  = 

6x2  = 

1   X 

3  = 

2x 

3  = 

2x3  = 

2x4  = 

2x5  = 

2x  6  = 

3x 

1- 

3x 

2  = 

3x  3  = 

4x3  = 

5x3  = 

6x  3  = 

1   X 

4- 

2x 

4  = 

3x4  = 

3  X   4  = 

3x5  = 

3x6  = 

4x 

1  = 

4x 

2  = 

4x3  = 

4x4  = 

5x4  = 

6x4  = 

1   X 

5=^ 

2  X 

5  = 

3x5  = 

4x5  = 

4x5  = 

4x  6  = 

5x 

1  = 

5x 

2  = 

5x3  = 

5x4  = 

5x5  = 

6x5  = 

1   X 

6  = 

2  X 

6  = 

3x6  = 

4x6  = 

5x6  = 

5x6  = 

6x 

1  = 

6x 

2  = 

6x  3  = 

6x4  = 

6x   5  = 

6x   6  = 

1  X 

7  = 

2x 

7  = 

3x  7  = 

4x7  = 

5x   7  = 

6x  7  = 

7x 

1- 

7  X 

2  = 

7x3  = 

7x4  = 

7x5  = 

7x6  = 

1   X 

8  = 

2x 

8  = 

3x8  = 

4x8  = 

5x8  = 

6x  8- 

8x 

1  = 

8x 

2  = 

8x  3  = 

8x  4  = 

8x   5  = 

8x   6  = 

1   X 

9  = 

2  X 

9- 

3x9  = 

4x  9  = 

5x  9  = 

6x9  = 

9x 

1- 

9x 

2  = 

9x3  = 

9x4  = 

9x5  = 

9x6  = 

1   X 

10  = 

2  xiO  = 

3  xlO  = 

4x10  = 

5x10  = 

6x10  = 

10  X 

1  = 

10  X 

2  = 

10  X   3  = 

10  X   4  = 

10  X   5  = 

10  X   6  = 

1   X 

11  = 

2  X 

11  = 

3  xll  = 

4x11  = 

5  xll  = 

6  xll  = 

11   X 

1  = 

11   X 

2  = 

1 1  X   3  = 

11  X  4  = 

11  X  5  = 

11  X   6  = 

1   X 

12  = 

2x 

12  = 

3  xl2  = 

4x12  = 

5x12  = 

6x12  = 

12  X 

1  = 

12  X 

2  = 

12  X  3  = 

12  X   4  = 

12x  5  = 

12  X   6  = 

222 


THE  HUMAN  IXTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHART  B 

DRILLS  FOR  BLACKBOARD  OR  PAPER 

Suggestions  for  blackboard  or  speed  drills  to  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher, 
may  be  developed  throughout  all  the  tables 
pendently  and  instantaneously. 


This 
The  children  should  know  each  combination  inde- 


X  1 

-4-  1 

5 

11 

o 

4 

8 

- 

7 

11 

10 

4 

1 

12 

6 

7 

9 

1 

2 

9 

5 

6 

8 

2 

12 

10 

3 

X  2 

^2 

22 

12 

10 

3 

18 

o 

4 

9 

12 

1 

20 

8 

8 

6 

24 

10 

16 

4 

2 

11 

6 

2 

14 

X  4 

:  4 

12 

40 

9 

8 

1 

12 

6 

32 

10 

20 

7 

4 

3 

44 

11 

36 

8 

28 

2 

16 

5 

24 

4 

1 

48 

X  3 

-i-3 

9 

24 

1 

3 

6 

9 

10 

18 

8 

30 

5 

12 

11 

6 

7 

36 

2 

15 

12 

27 

4 

21 

3 

33 

CHART  II 

Thoroughly  develop  the  idea  of  units,  tens  and  hundreds  columns.  Again  master  each  table 
separately  and  review  as  suggested  by  drill  charts  before  beginning  a  new  table. 

1st.  Suggest  that  the  10  is  made  of  a  cipher  in  its  units  number  and  a  1  in  its  tens  number. 
Also  that  the  units  number  in  the  answer  is  a  cipher;  and  that  the  lO's  or  lO's  and  lOO's  numbers 
are  the  same  as  the  numbers  we  multiply  by  10. 

Teach  that  multiplying  by  10  is  the  same  as  multiplying  by  1  and  adding  an  0  to  the  units 
column. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


223 


This  idea  may  be  developed  into  rapid  drills  of  multiplying  by  lO's;  lOO's;  lOOO's;  etc.,  by 
adding  0"s. 

The  2's,  4's,  and  3's  can  be  reviewed  by  multiplying  by  20,  40,  and  30;  or  by  200,  400,  and  300, 
etc.,  by  adding  O's. 

2nd.  Note  that  the  11  is  composed  of  2  ones;  and  that  in  the  answer,  both  the  units  and  tens 
columns  contain  the  same  numbers,  as  11,  22,  etc.  The  black  line  separates  numbers  not  belonging 
to  the  rule  (10  X  H)  =  (H  X  10); ,  .*.  only  two  combinations  remain  to  be  studied. 


+ 

1  xlO  = 

1 

0 

+ 

2  xlO- 

2 

0 

+ 

3x10  = 

3 

0 

+ 

4  xlO  = 

4 

0 

♦ 

5x10  = 

5 

0 

6  xlO  = 

6 

0 

7x10  = 

7 

0 

8x10  = 

8 

0 

♦ 

9  xlO  = 

9 

0 

10  xlO  = 

1 

0 

0 

♦ 

11  xlO  = 

I 

1 

0 

12  xlO  = 

1 

2 

0 

+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 

♦ 


♦ 
+ 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 


xl 
xl 
xl 
xl 
xl 
6  xl 
7x1 
8x1 
9  xl 


10  xl 

11  xl 

12  xl 


1 
1 
1 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 


1 
2 

3 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 


0 
1 
2 


+ 
+ 


+ 

+ 


♦ 
+ 


2  X 
4  X 
6  X 
8  X 
10  X 
12  X 


1  X 
3  X 
5x 
7x 
9  X 
11  X 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
_6 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
_0 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 


+ 

1x9  = 

9 

+ 

2x9  = 

1 

8 

+ 

3x9  = 

2 

7 

+ 

4x9  = 

3 

6 

+ 

5x9  = 

4 

5 

6x9  = 

5 

4 

7x9  = 

6 

3 

8x9  = 

7 

9 

9x9  = 

8 

1 

+ 
+ 

10  X   9  = 

9 

0 

11  X   9  = 

9 

9 

12  X   9  = 

1 

0 

8 

6  X 

7  X 
8x 

12  X 
7x 


6 
6 
6 
6 

7 


3 
4 
4 

7 
4 


6 
2 
8 
2 
9 


8x7 
12  X   7 

8x8 
12  X  8 
12  xl2 


5 
8 
6 
9 
4 


6 
4 
4 
6 
4 


22k 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Keep  the  facts  observed  in  mind  during  drills. 

3d.     First  multiply  5  by  even  numbers,  then  by  odd  numbers.     Note  that  5  is  one-half  of  10 
and  that  the  answers  are  just  one-half  as  much  as  if  multiplied  by  10. 

Note  that  even  numbers  multiplied  by  5  have  0  in  their  unit  column;  but  (2X5)  =  only  one- 
half  (2  X  10),  etc.  Odd  numbers  multiplied  by  5  have  5  in  their  units  column.  Drill  on  (3X5)  = 
;1  X  10  +  5);    (5  X  5)  =  (2  X  10  +  5);   etc. 

4th.  Let  the  children  suggest  the  simple  points  they  see  in  the  9's.  Have  them  observe  9 
IS  one  less  than  10;  and  their  answer  in  the  lO's  column  is  one  less  than  the  number  they  have 
•multiplied  by  9. 

The  sum  of  the  ten's  and  units  columns  is  9.  The  black  line  denotes  the  exceptions.  (11X9) 
=  (9  X  11);  ."•  there  is  only  one  combination  to  study.     Drill  and  review. 

5th.     For  the  10  numbers  of  the  6's,  7's,  S's  and  12's  tables,  follow  previous  directions. 


1 

7  X 

1  = 

8x1  = 

9x1  = 

10  X    1  = 

11  X    1  = 

12  X    1  = 

1    X 

7  = 

1  X   8  = 

1  X  9  = 

1  xl0  = 

1  xll  = 

1  xl2  = 

7  X 

2  = 

8x2  = 

9x2  = 

10  X   2  = 

11  X   2  = 

12  X   2  = 

2  X 

7  = 

2x8  = 

2x9  = 

2x10  = 

2  xll  = 

2  xl2  = 

7x 

3  = 

8x3  = 

9x3  = 

lOx   3  = 

11  X   3  = 

12  X   3  = 

3  X 

7  = 

3x8  = 

3x9  = 

3x10  = 

3  xll  = 

3  xl2  = 

7  X 

4  = 

8x4  = 

9x   4  = 

10  X   4  = 

11  X   4  = 

12x  4- 

4  X 

7  = 

4x8  = 

4x9  = 

4x10  = 

4  xll  = 

4  xl2  = 

7  X 

5  = 

8x5  = 

9x5  = 

lOx   5  = 

11  X   5  = 

12  X  5  = 

5  X 

7  = 

5x8  = 

5x9  = 

5  xlO  = 

5  xll  = 

5  xl2  = 

7  X 

6  = 

8x6  = 

9x6  = 

10  X   6  = 

11  X   6  = 

12  X  6  = 

6  X 

7  = 

6x8  = 

6x9  = 

6x10  = 

6  xll  = 

6  xl2  = 

7y 

7  = 

8x7  = 

9x7  = 

lOx   7  = 

11  X   7  = 

12  X  7  = 

7x 

8  = 

7x8  = 

7x9  = 

7  xlO  = 

7  xll  = 

7  xl2  = 

8x 

7  = 

8x  8  = 

9x8  = 

10  X   8  = 

11  X   8  = 

12  X  8  = 

7  X 

9  = 

8x9  = 

8x9  = 

8  xlO  = 

8  xll  = 

8  xl2  = 

9  X 

p^ 

i  "= 

9x8  = 

9x9  = 

10  X   9  = 

11  X   9  = 

12  X   9  = 

7  X 

10  = 

8  xlO  = 

9  xlO  = 

9  xlO=' 

9  xll  = 

9  xl2  = 

10  X 

7  = 

10  X   8  = 

10  X   9  = 

10  xlO  = 

11  xlO  = 

12  xlO  = 

7  X 

11  = 

8  xll  = 

9  xll  = 

10  xll  = 

10  xll  = 

10x12  = 

11    X 

7  = 

1 1  x   8  = 

11  X   9  = 

11  xlO  = 

11  xll  = 

12  xll  = 

7x 

12  = 

8x12  = 

9  xl2  = 

10  xl2  = 

11  xl2  = 

11  xl2  = 

12  X 

7  = 

12  X   8  = 

12  X   9  = 

12  xlO  = 

12  xll  = 

12x12  = 

CHART  C 

Follow  previous  directions.     This  chart  may  also  be  combined  with  Chart  A;    and  studied 
across  the  pages  instead  of  down  the  columns. 

Blackboard  drills  as  suggested  by  Chart  B  may  be  continued  effectively. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


225 


CHART  III 

This  review  chart  is  so  arranged,  that  all  the  answers  are  in  order  according  to  size  from  1  to 
14-1.  Also  all  combinations  having  the  same  answers  are  classed  together.  It  is  useful  for  busy 
work,  or  rapid  drills. 


1x1- 

1  xl2   = 

4x6  = 

11  X  4   - 

6  xl2   = 

1x2   = 

12x   1    = 

6x4- 

5x9- 

12  X  6   = 

2x   1    = 

2x6- 

5x5   = 

9x5   = 

7  xll    - 

1x3   = 

6x2- 

3x9- 

4x12   = 

11  X  7   = 

3x   1   = 

3x4- 

9x3- 

12x  4   = 

8x10   = 

1x4   = 

4x3   = 

4x7- 

6x8   = 

10  X  8   = 

4x   1    = 

2x7   = 

7x4- 

8x6   = 

9x9- 

2x2   = 

7x2- 

3x10   = 

7x7   = 

7  xl2   = 

1x5   = 

3x5- 

lOx  3   - 

5x10   = 

12x   7   = 

5x   1    = 

5x3   = 

5x  Q>   = 

10  X  5   = 

8x11    = 

1x6   = 

2x8   = 

6x5   = 

6x9   = 

11x8   = 

6x1   = 

8x2- 

4x8   = 

9x6   = 

9  xlO   - 

2x  3   - 

4x4   = 

8x4   = 

5  xll    - 

lOx  9   - 

3x2   = 

2x9   = 

3  xll    = 

11x5   = 

8x12   = 

1x7- 

9x2   = 

11x3- 

7x8   = 

12  X   8   = 

7x1    = 

3x6   = 

5x7   = 

8x7   = 

9  xll    = 

1x8   = 

6x3   = 

7x5   = 

6x10   = 

11x9   = 

8x1    = 

2  xlO   - 

3  xl2   = 

lOx   6   = 

10  xlO   = 

2x4   = 

lOx   2   = 

i2x  3   - 

5  xl2   = 

9  xl2   = 

4x2   = 

4x5   = 

4x9   = 

12x  5   = 

12x  9   = 

1x9- 

5x4   = 

9x4   = 

7x9   = 

10x11    = 

9x1    = 

3x7   = 

6x6   = 

9x7   = 

11  XlO   = 

3x3   = 

7x3   = 

4x10   = 

8x8   = 

10x12   = 

1  xlO   = 

2x11    = 

10  X  4   = 

6x11    = 

12  xlO   = 

10  x    1    = 

11  X   2   ^ 

5x8- 

11x6   = 

11  xll    = 

2x5   = 

2x12   = 

8x5   = 

7x10   = 

11  xl2   = 

5x2   = 

12  X   2   = 

6x7   = 

lOx  7   = 

12  xll    = 

1  xll    - 

3x8   = 

7x6   = 

8x9   = 

12x12   = 

11  X    1     = 

8x3   = 

4x11   - 

9x8  = 

226 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHART  IV 

The  six  tables  containing  the  most  difficult  numbers  are  arranged  vertically  instead  of  hori- 
zontally, so  that  the  child  may  become  accustomed  to  the  difference  in  the  position  of  numbers. 


i 
i 

3 

1 

3 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

5 

3 

6 

1 

,,   1 

xl 

3 

2 

3 

3 

4 

3 

5 

3 

6 

3 

3 

7 

3 

8 

3 

9 

3 

10 

3 

11 

3 

12 

7 

3 

8 

3 

9 

3 

10 

3 

11 

3 

12 

3 

4 

1 

4 

2 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 

4 

6 

1 

4 

2 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 

4 

6 

4 

4 

7 

4 

8 

4 

9 

4 

10 

4 

11 

4 

12 

7 

4 

8 

4 

9 

4 

10 

4 

11 

4 

12 

4 

6 

1 

6 

2 

6 

3 

6 

4 

6 

5 

6 

1 

6 

2 

6 

3 

6 

4 

6 

5 

6 

6 

6 

7 

6 

8 

6 

9 

6 

10 

6 

11 

6 

12 

7 

6 

8 

6 

9 

6 

10 

6 

11 

6 

12 

6 

7 

1 

7 

2 

7 

3 

7 

4 

7 

5 

7 

1 

7 

2 

7 

3 

7 

4 

7 

5 

7 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

7 

9 

7 

10 

7 

11 

7 

12 

7 

7 

8. 

7 

9 

7 

10 

7 

11 

7 

12 

7 

8 

1 

8 

2 

8 

3 

8 

4 

8 

5 

8 

1 

8 

2 

8 

3 

8 

4 

8 

5 

8 

6 

6 

8 

7 

8 

8 

9 

8 

10 

8 

11 

8 

12 

8 

7 

8 

8 

9 

8 

10 

8 

11 

8 

12 

8 

12 

1 

12 

2 

12 

3 

12 

4 

12 

5 

12 

1 

12 

2 

12 

3 

12 

4 

12 

5 

12 

6 

6 

12 

7 

12 

8 

12 

9 

12 

10 

12 

11 

12 

12 

7 

12 

8 

12 

9 

12 

10 

12 

11 

12 

12 

BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


227 


CHART  D 


It  is  suggested  that  as  the  children  study  the  tables  and  review,  they  should  be  required  to  count 
by  the  number  by  which  they  have  learned  to  multiply,  and  that  in  final  review,  they  should  be 
able  to  write  them  as  suggested  here,  and  cross  out  all  the  numbers  that  occur  more  than  once. 


This  could  be  used  for  busy  work  drills;  or,  the  teacher  could  select  products,  and  require  the 
children  to  give  all  the  combinations  that  make  them.  It  is  also  interesting  to  add  some  number  to 
the  product,  as  37  instead  of  36.     The  children  will  then  give 

4X9)  12  X    3) 

(6X6  +  1);  V   +1;  t   +  1. 

9X4)  3  X  12  ) 

1 


1 

-^ 

-^ 

-4 

-1& 

-6 

-^ 

-8 

-^ 

ie 

H: 

^ 

2 

-Ar 

-% 

-% 

1^ 

^ 

14 

t6 

m 

2e 

2& 

24 

3 

-6- 

-9- 

¥^ 

^ 

^ 

Bi- 

24 

^ 

30 

3^ 

30- 

4 

-8- 

^ 

y^ 

3^ 

34 

as- 

3^ 

36- 

40- 

44 

48- 

5 

le- 

15 

20- 

25 

30- 

3^ 

40- 

45- 

50- 

55- 

60- 

6 

^3- 

1^ 

24 

30- 

36- 

43- 

48- 

54 

60 

66- 

72- 

7 

14 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56- 

63- 

70 

•n 

84 

8 

16 

24 

32 

40- 

48- 

56 

64 

7^ 

80 

88- 

96- 

9 

18 

27 

36- 

45 

54 

63 

7% 

81 

90 

90 

i08- 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60- 

70 

80 

90 

100 

H^ 

120- 

11 

22 

33 

44 

bb 

66 

77 

88 

99 

110 

121 

1^ 

12 

24 

36 

48 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

rs 

lO's 

20's 

30's 

40's 

50's 

608 

70's 

80's 

90's 

lOO's 

1 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

2 

11 

21 

32 

42 

54 

63 

72 

81 

96 

108 

3 

12 

22 

33 

44 

55 

64 

77 

84 

99 

110 

4 

14 

24 

35 

45 

56 

66 

88 

120 

5 

15 

25 

36 

48 

121 

6 

16 

27 

49 

132 

7 

18 

28 

144 

8 

9 

228 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


METHOD  OF  MULTIPLICATION 

1,  Multiply  46  by  10. 

Adding  a  zero  to  the  right  of  46  changes  the 
Q  to  60  and  the  40  to  400;  hence  it  multiplies 
the  number  by  10. 

2.  Multiply  426  by  300. 

Long  Method:  Short  Method: 

426  426 

300  300 


000  127800 

000 
1278 

127800 

S.  How  many  O's  would  you  annex  to  the 
right  of  your  product  if  yoiu"  multiplier  were 
20?     200.>     80?     1000?     4*0,000? 

Tell  the  products  of  the  following  at  sight. 

4.  10X800  9.         20X32 

5.  10X775  10.         70X50 

6.  10X185  11.       100X20 

7.  10X128  12.       400X50 

8.  10X381  13.     lOOOX  7 

14.  Multiply  8207  by  345. 

15.  Multiply  8217  by  305. 

Multiplicand 8207 

Multiplier 345 

First  Partial  Product 41035 

Second  Partial  Product 32828 

Third  Partial  Product 14621 

Entire  Product 2832415 

15.    Multiply  8217  by  305. 

Multiplicand 8217 

Multiplier 305 

First  Partial  Product 41085 

Second  Partial  Product 24651 

Entire  Product 2506185 

PROBLEMS 

1.  A  grocer  has  two  grades  of  butter,  one 
of  which  sells  for  40  cents  a  pound  and  the  other 
for  32  cents  a  pound.  How  much  will  a  family 
save  in  a  year  (52  weeks)  by  using  the  cheaper 
grade  if  they  use  three  pounds  a  week? 

2.  When  round  steak  is  22  cents  a  pound, 
and  sirloin  is  27  cents  a  pound,  how  much  will 
a  family  that  uses  64  pounds  a  month  saye  by 
using  round  steak? 

3.  Suppose  you  could  buy  two  kinds  of 
flour,  one  at  75  cents  a  sack  and  the  other  at 
88  cents  a  sack,  and  you  use  18  sacks  a  j'ear, 
how  much  more  does  the  expensiye  flour  cost 
you  a  year? 

Division 

ORAL  EXERCISES 

1.  Count  by  6's  from  36  to  0.  How  many 
6's  in  36.     Count  by  9's  from  36  to  0. 

From  the  above  you  will  see  that  there  are 
four  9's  in  36,  also  that  there  are  nine  4's  in  36. 


Thus  if  we  take  9  as  a  factor  4  times  we  have 
the  product  36.  In  division  we  have  given  the 
product  and  one  of  the  two  factors  to  find  the 
other  factor. 

Dividing  the  product  by  either  factor  gives 
the  other  factor:    Thus:    36-=-9  =  4;    36-=-4  =  9. 

In  this  case  36  is  called  the  Dividend;  while 
the  factor  used  to  divide  by  we  call  the  Divisor. 
The  result  obtained  by  dividing  which  is  the 
other  factor,  we  call  the  Quotient. 

SHORT  DIVISION 

\Mien  the  divisor  is  not  greater  than  12  a 
process  called  Short  Division  is  usually  used. 
1.     Divide  852  by  3. 
Solution: 

3)852 


254 

Explanation. — 3  is  contained  in  8  (hun- 
dreds) 20  (hundred)  times  with  a  remainder  of  2. 

Write  2  in  the  hundreds  place  of  the  quotient. 
The  remainder,  2  hundreds  plus  5  tens,  equals 
25  tens. 

25  tens  divided  by  3  equals  8  tens,  with  a 
remainder  of  1 . 

Write  8  tens  in  the  quotient  in  tens  place. 
The  1  ten  remainder  plus  2  units  equals  12 
imits. 

12  units  divided  by  3  equals  4  units. 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 


856- 
1624- 
1272- 
1054- 
1728- 


4 
-6 

6 
-9 

-8 


772    -^5 


8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 


1078^7 

792^6 

9136^4 

7468  H- 7 

11,656^-9 

16,860-^6 


WRITTEN  PROBLEMS 
160  Y  58006/6000 


1.     600)96000  2.     6000)348096 

3.  Divide  480  by  10;  by  20;  by  30.4. 

4.  Divide  7200  by  40;  by  400;  by  900. 

5.  Divide  9600  by  60;  by  600;  by  800. 

6.  Divide  112000  by  700;  by  800;  by  7000. 

7.  Divide  108000  by  900;  by  1200;  by  9000. 
Note. — A  problem  in  division  is  checked  or 

proved  by  multiplying  the  divisor  by  the 
quotient  and  adding  the  remainder,  if  there  be 
one,  to  the  product;  the  result  should  be  the 
dividend. 

LONG  DIVISION 

1.     Divide  8745  by  37. 
236i^ 


Divisor: 


37)8745 
74 


Dividend 


134 
111 

235 
222 


13 

Explanation. — 37  is  contained  in  87  (hun- 
dreds) 2  (hundreds)  times  with  13  (hundreds) 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


229 


as  remainder.     The  figure  2  is  set  dowTi  in  the 
hundreds  place  of  the  quotient. 

13  hundreds  pUis  four  tens  equals  134  tens. 
37  is  contained  in  13-t  (tens)  3  (tens)  times, 
with  a  remainder  of  23  tens.  Place  3  in  the 
quotient  in  tens  place.  23  tens  plus  5  units 
equals  235  units.  37  is  contained  in  235  units 
6  times  with  a  remainder  of  13 
units. 

2.  Divide  42832  by  184. 

3.  Divide  48210  by  85. 

4.  Divide  27152  by  67. 

5.  Divide  377289  by  927. 

FRACTIONS 

A  Fraction  is  one  or  more 
of  the  equal  parts  into  which 
a  unit  is  divided:  as  one-third, 
three-fourths. 

A  Fraction  is  expressed  by  one  figure  written 
over  another  figure  with  a  line  between:    |,  |. 

A  Fraction  may  also  be  regarded  as  an  indi- 
cated division;   that  is,  |  is  the  same  as  3^4. 


A  number  composed  of  a  WTiole  Number  and 
a  Fraction  is  called  a  Mixed  Number;  as  4|. 
It  is  read  "four  and  three-fifths." 

REDUCTION  OF  FRACTIONS 

The  process  of  changing  the  form  of  a  Frac- 
tion   without    changing    its    value    is    called 

Reduction :    ^  =  4  =  i^e  • 


H 

K 

M 

'A 

K 

H 

K2 

'X2 

H2 

X2 

'A 

34 

H's 

X2 

X2 

X2 

'X2 

'A 

K 

H 

K 

% 

% 

% 

^ 

% 

V, 

The  Denominator  of  a  Fraction  is  the  number 
below  the  line.  It  shows  into  how  many 
equal  parts  the  given  unit  is  divided.  Thus  in 
I  the  Denominator  is  4. 

The  Numerator  of  a  Fraction  is  the  number 
which  shows  how  many  equal  parts  are  taken. 
It  is  written  above  the  line;  thus  in  |  the 
Numerator  is  3. 

The  Numerator  and  Denominator  of  a  Frac- 
tion are  called  its  terms. 

A  Fraction  whose  Numerator  is  less  than  its 
Denominator  is  called  a  Proper  Fraction;    as 


c»   10 


A  Fraction  whose  Numerator  is  equal  to 
or  greater  than  its  Denominator  is  an  Improper 
Fraction:  as  |;  ^. 


9 
12 


A  Fraction  is  reduced  to  lower  terms  when  its 
terms  are  made  smaller  numbers;    that  is, 
is  reduced  to  f ,  which  are  its  lowest  terms. 

Multiplying  or  dividing  both  terms  of  a 
fraction  by  the  same  number  does  not  change 
its  value. 


3  -^4  ■ 


.    8 
12- 


x%- 


.A=2 
4        3* 


Supply  the  missing  Term: 

'■•      ^  4>       ^  8»         ^       12'       S        6»         3       12 

9       1  =  -•       i  =- 
*•      2  6»        3  1 

o       JL  _.     i  _.       6 

•'•      6   ~15'      6   ~15'       e~l2» 

4     Ji,  —  -•     JL—  _.        4    —  _. 
^'    12~   6'      12~    3>       12~6> 

Solve  without  pencil,  filling  in  blank  numerator: 


z=  _•      2.= . 

3         9»         3        12' 


2 — 

3  ~T8' 


Z—    _• 
6~    3> 

-8,=  - 
12         6- 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


i 
3 

1 

6 

1 
6 

5 
15 


~    6' 
~  18» 

~T50> 


1 
3 

i 

4 

1 
5 

5 
6 


—  12' 
15» 


18' 


24; 


12=8?; 


3 . 

4  ~  1 6  ' 

Z  — . 

5  ~  15' 

5 . 

6  ■"  30' 


2  . 

3  " 

8         24' 

Z—     _- 
5  "~  55» 

7 . 

8~  48' 


•27- 


|  — 5?- 

3  

5— 5S' 

9=T5' 


_5    . 
12 


11  = 
12 


■96'  l2'~120» 

12=  TTT- 

Reduce  to  Lowest  Terms. — A  Fraction  is 
in  its  lowest  terms  when  both  its  terms  contain 
no  common  divisor.  Thus  f  is  in  its  lowest 
terms  since  2  and  3  have  no  common  divisor. 

A  fraction  is  reduced  to  lower  terms  by  divid- 
ing both  of  its  terms  by  the  same  number;  thus 
{%  is  reduced  to  |  by  dividing  both  terms  by  5 . 
104-5  =  2 

15-^5  =  3 
Reduce  to  lowest  terms  without  a  pencil: 


a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

g 

1. 

4 

8 

x% 

1% 

hi 

^8 

hi 

hi 

2. 

ig 

hi 

a 

f§ 

M 

il 

it 

S. 

A 

1% 

hi 

If 

M 

18 

35 

U 

4. 

hi 

X8 

30 

35 

li 

42 

24 
60 

a 

5. 

X5 
40 

n 

25 
80 

40 
90 

35 
90 

T%% 

i%% 

Reduce  to  lowest  terms  with  pencil: 

>■•     320 

Solution.    ilS  =  l§  =  io  =  l    Ans. 


S30 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


_9J)_. 
1055 

A%; 

228. 
250> 

HI; 

hn- 

ill; 

2ie. 

480» 

250. 
750> 

450. 
900» 

1250 
1000 

225. 
300» 

750   . 
1250J 

,7_5_0_ . 

iooos 

250. 
7505 

450 
1000 

2. 
3. 
4. 

Reducing  Whole  or  Mixed  Numbers  to 
Improper  Fractions. — Reduce  2^  to  thirds. 
Solution:  2X|  =  i+i  =  | 

Rule. — Multiply  the  whole  number  by  the 
denominator  and  add  the  numerator  for  a 
numerator.  Under  it  write  the  given  denomi- 
nator. 

Solve  without  pencil: 


^3         3> 


"^3         3> 
•^6         6" 


"3         3- 
^-8         8- 


1        'i3=_. 
1.    <J4  —  4  J 

•        *        4»        *^5        5> 

3.  6  =  5;     6^=3;     61  =  5;    8i  =  3. 
Solve  with  pencil: 

4.  Reduce  33|  to  thirds. 

Solution.     33X3  =  i§J-  Ans. 

5.  62i;     133i;     166|;     137|;     187|. 

6.  270|   feet;     310|;      $73Jo;     IGi^g  years; 
lll^g  acres. 

Reducing  an  Improper  Fraction  to  a  whole 
or  mixed  number;  show  by  making  and  dividing 
circles    that    |  =  2|;    1  =  2^;     f  =  2i. 

Solve  without  pencil,  reducing  to  whole  or 
mixed  numbers: 


1. 


7. 

2' 
15. 
3    > 


7. 
3' 

16- 
4    > 


9. 
3' 

25  ■ 
4    ' 


V; 

15. 
5    » 


1-2  • 

4  ' 

18. 

5  ' 


15_. 

4  > 
2_7. 

5  > 


2JL 

5  • 

zs 

6  • 


Reduce   to   whole   or   mixed   numbers   with 
pencil : 

3.     Reduce  W^  to  a  whole  or  mixed  number: 

Solution.    545    32  jV 


17)545 
51 


35 
34 


4. 

55       254.       501       13  ?        675 

LOO      200 

iOOfi 

12           8              9             11            12 

12         15 

e 

5. 

7|  feet;  %^  mi.;  $\^^; 

-4*  .days; 

ip 

ieh. 

,.    $7^J1.    $Y_,.    $5_0-8, 

Reducing  Fractions  to  the  Least  Common 
Denominator. — Those  Fractions  which  have 
the  same  denominator  are  called  Similar  Frac- 
tions. The  Fractions,  ^,  |  and  |,  are  Similar 
Fractions.  In  order  to  add  or  subtract  Frac- 
tions conveniently,  we  must  reduce  them  to 
similar  fractions. 

1.     Reduce  |,  g,  ^^2  to  similar  fractions. 

Solution: 

3)3,  8,  12        h  =  ^r>^  =  iz- 


4)1    8 


7  _   _.  7  _  21 

8~24'    8~2  4' 


^^  =  ^^-     5    —lO 
12        24'    12         24 


12      1 

3X4X2  =  24,  the  Common  Denominator. 

2.    Reduce  |,  f„  /g  to  Similar  Fractions. 


Solution  : 

5)5,  7,  35 

I-S5;  5-35 

7)1,  7,  7 

5  .5  25 

7-35.    7-35 

5 

7' 

9        J^- 
14'     21- 

1 
2' 

3'      4'    8* 

h 

27'     3*6' 

H- 

17 
18 

2  3       15 
'     24'     32 

8' 

24'     72» 

Th 

4 
9> 

27»     36' 

H- 

1% 

'     2*5'     3*0 

>  /o 

7 
8» 

3-      -5^ 
16»     32' 

/4. 

1,  1'  1 

5X7  =  35,  the  Least  Common  Denominator. 

Reduce  to  Least  Common   Denominator. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10- 

ADDITION  OF  FRACTIONS 

To  add  Fractions,  reduce  them  to  similar  frac- 
tions, that  is,  to  fractions  having  the  same  denomi- 
nator,  then  add  the  numerators  and  place  the  sum 
over  the  common  denominator. 

1       Add  4   5    7 
1.     rvuu  3,  e>  8- 

Solution:     1+1+1  = 

16    I    201    21  —57  =i_9.  =  £ 
24^24r2  4  —  24  8  ' 

Find  the  sum  of: 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

TO  ADD  MIXED  NUMBERS 
First  add  the  Whole  Numbers;    then  add  the 
Fractions;  then  add  the  two  results  obtained. 

Add: 

1.     5i  7i,  and  6|. 

Process; 

(Jl  1_|_1_|_3  = 

"^4  4    I    8    I    4 


Ans. 


1 

4» 

h     1%- 

#2 

19        5_ 
'     24'     48* 

1 
8' 

32'     84- 

A 

17       29 
'     20'     36- 

1' 

5         J.  7 
24'     18- 

1. 

r%    hh    II. 

7 
8' 

-9_      2      5       11 
10'    3'    6'     15 

n 

6| 


24-1 -1-6    19  _  11 

8   I  rT^8   I   8       ^a- 


18 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


19|     Ans. 
2|,  51,  and  9{. 
101,  121,  and  7^%. 
13|,  5i%,  and  21^^. 
24|,  32|,  and2l23j. 

TO  SUBTRACT  FRACTIONS 

Reduce  to  Similar  Fractions  and  subtract  the 
less  numerator  from  the  greater  for  a  new  numera- 
tor to  be  written  over  the  common  denominator. 

1.     Subtract  |  from  l^. 

Process  : 


11- 

12 


■  22. 
24 


.15—7 
2  4  —  24- 


Ans. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


231 


Find  the  value  of: 

2.     §-§ 

7. 

W-il 

3.     /u-S 

8. 

il-2% 

4.     H-U 

9. 

J7 2a 

120        75 

5.     f-^ 

10. 

5    4 

18         81 

6.      13-2^5 

11. 

fil_r,5 

64         72 

12. 

JL9__ 

._t7  _ 

100 

1000 

MULTIPLICATION  OF  FRACTIONS 

To  multiply  a  Fraction  by  a  Whole  Number, 
multiply  the  numerator  of  the  Fraction  by  the 
Whole  Number  and  icrife  result  over  the  given  de- 
nominator, then  simplify.     Use  cancellation. 

1.  Multiply  3^5  by  15. 

Solution:     j%Xl5  =  ^i  =  U  j%  or  U\.   Ans. 
Multiply: 

2.  i^abye.  5.     i%  by  5. 

3.  i|by4.  6.     :Psby8. 

4.  /6by4.  7.     1^2  by  6. 

To  midtiply  a  Fraction  by  a  Fraction  multiply 
the  numerators  together  for  a  neiv  numerator  and 
the  denominators  together  for  a  neio  denominator. 
Use  cancellation  whenever  possible. 

1.     Multiply  f  by  Jg^ 


Solution: 
value  of: 


AXV  =  i  =  l5-     Ans.     Find    the 


2. 
3. 


C^IO 


55  vae 

7/N3o 


4. 

22  «^-        5/^9-^16 

DIVISION  OF  FRACTIONS 


27 
3 


Reduce  Whole  Numbers  to  the  form  of  Fractions, 
by  writing  1  as  their  denominators.  Reduce  Mixed 
Numbers  to  Improper  Fractions;  then  invert  the 
divisor  and  multiply. 

1.     Divide  30  by  f^. 

Solution  :     \'*-  -^  f^  = 

¥XV^  =  72.     Ans. 

Find  the  value  of: 


2. 

I-I 

3. 

16-=-! 

4. 

20-=-! 

5. 

36 -ft 

12^6 
21    •    7 

J    -^28 
12    •    15 

5J  .l_3  8 
5      ■    15 


6. 

7. 
8. 


9.     576^3/ 


DECIMALS 

The  Decimal  Fraction  always  has  a  period 
called  the  Decimal  Point  at  the  left.  The  num- 
ber of  places  in  the  Decimal  is  the  same  as  the 
number  of  zeros  in  the  denominator  of  the  cor- 
responding common  fraction. 

Thus  I'g  equals  .1;  x%  equals  .6;  xoo  equals 
.01;    x^oo    equals    .25;    xg^oo    equals  .001. 

Notice  that  the  number  of  zeros  in  the  de- 
nominators of  the  above  common  fractions  is 
the  same  as  the  number  of  figures  to  the  right 
of  Ihe  Decimal  Point. 

READING  DECIMALS 

The  first  place  to  the  right  of  the  Decimal 
point  is  tenths'  place,  the  second  hundredths' 
place,  the  third  thousandths'  place,  the  fourth 
ten  thousandths'  place,  etc. 

A  Decimal  is  read  just  as  if  it  were  a  whole 
number  and  is  then  given  the  name  of  the  last 
Decimal  place  to  the  right. 


Thus,  .76  is  read  "seventy-six  himdredths;" 
.0106  is  read  "one  hundred  six  ten- thousandths." 
Write  the  following  as  Decimals: 

1    ^_.  _e_.  e  .  _9_.  ^4_7_.  _79_.   _^3__.   ^44_. 
■^*   10>  100>  tO'  10'  T00>  100»   1000'   Xooo> 

J> 

lO'OOO* 

2.  Write  as  common  fractions — nine-tenths; 
seven  hundredths;  eighty-five  hundredths; 
twenty-nine  hundredths;  twenty-nine  thou- 
sandths;   twenty-nine  ten-thousandths. 

Mixed  numbers  are  read  with  the  word  and 
between  the  whole  number  and  the  decimal. 
The  number  975.3014  is  read  "nine  hundred 
seventy-five  and  three  thousand  fourteen  ten- 
thousandths."  .275  is  read  "two  hundred 
seventy-five  thousandths,"  while  200.075  is 
read  "two  hundred  and  seventy-five  thou- 
sandths." 

3.  Read:  .7;  2.4;  90.03;  36.44;  216.5;  15.85. 

4.  Read:  86.09;  8.001;  60.044;  200.065;  .265. 

5.  Read:  246.0012;      912.2006;     2000.0002; 

.2002. 

CHANGING  DECIMALS  TO  COMMON 
FRACTIONS 

Any  decimal  may  be  changed  to  a  common 
fraction. 

Thus  .6  equals  j^g  equals  |. 

.25  equals  ^^^  equals  ^. 
.875  equals  xYcfo  equals  | 
.371      equals      37|  100, 
equals  |. 
Change  to  common  fractions  in  the  simplest 
form: 

1.  .8;  .625;  .375;  .875;  .225. 

2.  37i;  .871;  .12i;  .OOJ;  .62|. 

3.  .83^;  .333J;  .66|. 

Change  the  following  common  fractions  to 
Decimals: 


2quals 


75 

2oa 


1.  I.  a-  i-  5.  7.  1.  3.4. 
2'4'4'8'8'8'5'5'5' 


K         J.    _3   .      1    .     5    .    a.    11.    2 
•^'        10'    10'    20'    12'    6>    12'    3- 

"•        ^8'     •'8'    *^12'    "3>    ■''40- 

ADDITION  AND  SUBTRACTION  OF 
DECIMALS 

Rule. — In  adding  or  subtracting  Decimals  write 
the  numbers  so  that  the  Decimal  Points  are  in  the 
same  column  and  proceed  to  add  or  subtract  as 
with  integers  or  whole  numbers.  Place  the  Deci- 
mal Point  in  the  sum  or  the  difference  under  the 
Decimal  Points  above. 

Add  the  following: 

1.     2.25,  .75,  .1875,  .0356.  2.25 

.75 
.1875 
.0356 


2. 


3.2231 

Add:  .33  J,  35.66  ». 
82|,  1.201  i. 

.3375 
35.662 
82.75 
1.20125 

127.95075 

2S2 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


3.  A  girl  spent  for  shoes  $4.75,  for  ribbon 
$3.25,  for  a  suit  $30.75  and  for  the  hat  $5.50. 
What  was  her  total  bill.^ 

4.  A  man  owned  320  acres  of  land.  He 
bought  30 1  acres  at  one  time  and  12.41  acres 
at  another  time.     How  much  had  he  in  all? 

MULTIPLICATION  OF  DECIMALS 
Rule. — To  multiply  when  there  is  a  Decimal  in 
either  of  both  factors,  multiply  as  ivith  integers 
and  point  off  in  the  product  as  many  Decimal 
places  as  are  found  in  both  Multiplicand  and 
Multiplier. 


Multiply 
24.6  by'lO. 


Multiply 
24.6  by' 100. 


Solution: 


Solution: 


24.6 
10 

246.0 

24.6 
100 
2460.0 


4.     Multiply  225.5  by  5.0005. 
3.     32^  by  1.0303. 

6.  .400  by  4.0635. 

7.  9.3i  by  9.99. 

8.  When  the  average  yield  of  corn  is  23.9 
bu.  per  acre  and  the  price  is  51 1  cents  per 
bu.,  what  is  the  average  value  of  the  corn  crop 
per  acre.'' 

9.  What  will  it  cost  to  furnish  224.4  cu.  yds. 
of  sand  at  $1.25^  per  cu.  yd..'' 

DIVISION  OF  DECIMALS 

Rule. — Provide  as  many  Decimal  places  in  the 
Dividend  as  you  have  in  the  Divisor  by  adding 
zeros  if  necessary.  Divide  as  in  whole  numbers 
and  point  off  as  many  Decimal  places  in  the 
Quotient  as  there  are  Decimal  places  in  the  Divi- 
dend less  the  Decimal  places  in  the  Divisor. 

1.     Divide 

.095  by  .5.  Solution:     .5) .095 


Note. — In  multiplying  a  Decimal  by  10  the 
Decimal  Point  is  moved  one  place  to  the  right; 
multiplying  by  100  moves  the  Decimal  Point 
two  places  to  the  right;  by  1000  three  places,  etc. 

3.     Multiply 

.3  by  6.75.  Solution:  .3 

6.75 


2.     Divide 

110.1  by  .1101. 

Solution: 


.19 


1000 


15 

21 
18 

2.025 


.1101)110.1000 

3.  1000  divided  by  .625. 

4.  1.045  divided  by  .56. 

5.  If  a  telephone  wire  is  worth  $.002  per  ft., 
what  is  the  value  of  a  telephone  wire  extending 
a  distance  of  5.75  miles.' 


UNITED  STATES  MONEY 


Business  applications  of  decimals 

The  solutions  of  many  problems  may  be 
shortened  by  knowing  the  relation  that  the 
price  of  a  unit  bears  to  $1. 

1.  How  much  will  250  bu.  of  potatoes  cost 
at  $.25  per  bu..* 


Decimal  Method. 
.  25     =  price 
250  =  no.  of  bu. 

1250 
50 


Short  Method. 

4)250 


62.50 


62.50 


ExPL.\NATiON. — -At  $1  each  250  bu.  would 
cost  $250.  At  $J  each  they  cost  \  of  $250 
or  $62.50. 

Rule. — Find  the  cost  of  the  quantity  at  $1  per 
unit,  divide  this  by  the  quantity  that  can  be  pur- 
chased for  SI. 

Find  cost  of: 

2.  90  bu.  apples  at  33Jc  per  bu. 

3.  32  lbs.  butter  at  25c  per  lb. 

4.  640  yds.  cloth  at  6^c  per  yd. 

5.  75  lbs.  lard  at  12|c  per  lb. 

6.  72  lbs.  rice  at  12|c  per  lb. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


233 


7.  120  yds.  cloth  at  Sl\c  per  yd. 

8.  500  books  at  40c  each. 

9.  600  doz.  eggs  at  25c  per  doz. 

10.  300  bu.  oats  at  33^c  per  bu. 

11.  800  bu.  coal  at  6^c  per  bu. 

12.  80  qts.  cherries  at  G^c  per  qt. 

13.  500  bu.  corn  at  -lOc  per  bu. 

14.  180  lbs.  beef  at  10c  per  lb. 

Denominate  numbers 

MEASUREMENTS 

Distance,  weight,  time,  liquids,  etc.,  are 
measured  by  certain  standard  units  of  measure 
such  as  feet,  pounds,  hours,  gallons. 

LINEAR  MEASURE 

In  measuring  length  or  distance  the  measures 
are  called  Linear  Measures. 

If  you  do  not  know  the  following  table, 
thoroughly  learn  it.  Use  a  watch  to  see  how 
few  seconds  you  need  for  saying  it. 

TABLE  OF  LINEAR  MEASURE 


12 

inches  (in.)  =  1  foot  (ft.). 

3 

feet  = 

1  yard  (yd.). 

5H 

y£.-ds 

=  1  rod  (rd.). 

320 

rods  = 

=  1  mile  (ml.). 

5280 

feet  = 

1  mile. 

1.  By  measuring  find  the  length  and  the 
width  of  your  school  room  or  your  living  room 
at  home,  in  feet.     In  yards. 

2.  Estimate  the  length  of  a  table.  Then 
measure  it  and  see  how  nearly  right  your  judg- 
ment is. 

3.  Mark  off  what  you  think  would  be  the 
length  of  a  rod  on  the  floor,  and  then  measure 
the  distance  marked. 

Note. — An  expensive  tape  is  not  necessary 
for  measuring  long  distances.  Measure  off  and 
use  a  stout  cord  a  rod  long  or  fifty  feet  long. 
Every  pupil  should  make  many  estimates  of 
short  and  long  distances  followed  by  measure- 
ments of  them  to  develop  accuracy  in  judging 
distances. 

REDUCTION  IN  LINEAR  MEASURE 

Changing  any  number  of  units  of  one  de- 
nomination to  units  of  another  denomination 
is  called  Reduction. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Reduce  10  miles  to  rods. 
Solution.— 10  mi.  X 320  =  3200  rods.     Ans. 

2.  4  rds.  to  feet. 

3.  4  yds.  2  ft.  to  feet. 

4.  2  mi.  248  ft.  to  feet. 

5.  3  mi.  28  rds.  to  rods. 

REDUCTION   TO   HIGHER   DENOMINA- 
TIONS 

1.  Reduce  96  in.  *^o  feet. 
ScLXJTiON. — 96  in.  -e- 12  =  8.     Ans. 

2.  54  ft.  to  yards. 

3.  72  in.  to  jards;  288  in.  to  yards. 

4.  15,840  ft.  to  miles;   1000  rds.  to  miles  and 
rods. 


o.     Find  the  cost  of  digging  a  ditch  J  mile 
long  at  $2.75  a  rod. 

SQUARE  MEASURE 

Using  your  ruler  draw  upon  the  blackboard 
or  a  paper  a  square  foot.    Three  square  feet,  thus : 


Mark  off  all  sides  of  this  square  foot  with 
inch  spaces  and  draw  lines  dividing  the  square 
foot  into  square  inches.  How  many  square 
inches  in  the  square  foot: 

3  feet 


CO 

5' 


:;;:::;;::::  a 

:::::::::::  £J 

12  in. 

Scale  ^^.    One  square  yard 

Learn  thoroughly  the  following  table,  using 
your  watch  to  time  yourself. 

TABLE  OF  SQUARE  MEASURE 


144 

square     inches      (sq.     in.)  = 

1  square  foot  (sq.  ft.). 

9 

square    feet  =  l    square   yard 

(sq.  yd.). 

3014 

square   yards  =  1    square   rod 

(sq.  rd.). 

160 

square  rods  =  l  acre  (A.). 

640 

acres  =  1  square  mile  (sq.  mi.). 

1.  The  perimeter  of  a  figure  is  the  distance 
around  it.  What  is  the  perimeter  of  your 
square  foot? 

2.  Draw  an  oblong  6  inches  long  and  3 
inches  wide.  Show  that  it  contains  18  square 
inches.  '■. 

3.  How  many  square  inches  in  a  rectangle  8   1 
inches  long  and  2  inches  wide? 

4.  How  do  you  find  the  area  of  any  rectangle 
or  square? 

5.  Draw  figures  showing  the  difference  be- 
tween a  6-inch  square  and  6  square  inches. 

6.  Draw  a  square  yard  and  divide  it  into 
square  feet. 

7.  How  many  acres  in  a  field  80  rds.  long 
and  40  rds.  wide? 


234 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


8.  What  part  of  a  square  mile  is  a  field  80 
rds.  by  40  rds.? 

9.  A  township  is  six  miles  long  and  six  miles 
wide.     How  many  acres  does  it  contain? 

PROBLEMS  ON  PAVING 

1.  What  is  the  cost  of  paving  a  walk  6  ft. 
wide  in  front  of  a  50-f t.  residence  lot,  at  1 1  cents 
per  foot? 

2.  What  is  the  cost  of  paving  a  walk  7  ft. 
wide  on  two  sides  of  a  corner  residence  lot  50  ft. 
by  150  ft.  at  91-2  cents  per  square  foot? 

3.  What  is  the  cost  of  paving  one-half  of  a 
50-ft.  street  in  front  of  a  50-ft.  residence  lot  at 
95  cents  per  square  yard? 

CUBIC  MEASURE 

A  cube  has  six  faces  and  each  one  is  a  square. 
If  each  face  is  a  square  inch,  the  cube  is  called 
a  cubic  inch,  or  a  one-inch  cube. 


LIQUID  AND  DRY  MEASURES 

Learn  thoroughly  the  following  tables. 


One  cubic  foot 


Learn  thoroughly  the  following  table: 
TABLE  OF  CUBIC  MEASURE 


1728      cubic   inches    (cu.    in.)  =  l    cubic 
foot  (cu.  ft.). 
27      cubic  feet  =  1  cubic  yard  (cu.  yd.). 
128      cubic  feet  =  1  cord  (for  measuring 
wood). 
243^4  cubic  feet  =  l  perch  (for  measur- 
ing stone). 
1      cubic  yard  =  l  load  (of  earth). 
231       cubic  inches  =  1  gallon  (gal.). 
2150.4    cubic  inches  =  1  bushel  (bu.). 


Rule. — To  find  the  volume  of  a  solid  multiply 
together  the  length,  breadth  and  thickness. 

1.  How  many  cu.  ft.  in  a  pile  of  wood  8  ft. 
long,  4  ft.  wide,  and  4  ft.  high? 

2.  How  many  cords  of  wood  in  a  pile  4  ft. 
wide,  8  ft.  high  and  32  ft.  long? 

3.  How  many  gallons  of  water  will  a  cistern 
hold  which  is  6  ft. X 10  ft. X 10  ft.? 

4.  A  granary  is  24  ft.  long,  8  ft.  wide,  and 
6  ft.  high.  How  many  bushels  of  wheat  will  it 
hold? 


TABLE  OF  LIQUID  MEASURE 

4  gills  (gi.)  =1  pint  (pt.). 

2  pints  =  1  quart  (qt.). 

4  quarts  =  1  gallon  (gal.). 

31 J  gallons  =  1  barrel  (bbl.). 

231  cubic  inches  =  1  gallon. 

TABLE  OF  DRY  MEASURE 

2  pints  (pt.).  =  l  quart  (qt.). 
8  quarts  =  1  peck  (pk.). 
4  pecks  =  1  bushel  (bu.). 


Liquid  measures 

1.  A  grocer  pays  20  cents  a  gallon  for  milk 
and  retails  it  at  8  cents  a  quart.  If  he  handles 
40  gallons  a  day  how  much  is  his  profit? 

2.  A  ship  with  1500  passengers  aboard  carries 
a  supply  of  15,000  gallons  of  fresh  water.  If 
each  passenger  on  the  average  uses  two  quarts 
of  water  a  day  how  long  will  the  supply  last? 

3.  A  cistern  holds  50  barrels  of  water.  How 
many  gallons  is  this? 

4.  How  many  quart  boxes  will  4  bushels, 
3  pecks,  1  quart  fill? 

5.  What  is  the  cost  of  3  pecks,  3  quarts  of 
nuts  at  15  cents  a  quart? 

6.  If  a  half-peck  basket  of  peaches  sells  for 
25  cents  how  much  will  4  bushels  sell  for? 

AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT 

Avoirdupois  weight  is  used  in  weighing  all 
heavy  articles  such  as  farm  products,  groceries, 
coal,  etc. 


16  ounces  (oz.)  =1  pound  (lb.). 
100  pounds  =  1  hundredweight  (cwt.). 
2000  pounds  =  1  ton  (T.). 
196  pounds  =  1  barrel  (of  flour). 
280  pounds  =  1  barrel  (of  salt). 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


235 


Note. — The  long  ion  (2240  pounds)  is  used 
in  the  United  States  Custom  Houses  and  in 
wholesale  dealings  in  coal  and  iron. 

ADDITION  AND  SUBTRACTION  OF  DE- 
NOMINATE NUMBERS 

1.  Add  3  hours,  20  minutes;  5  hours,  10 
minutes,  20  seconds;  and  2  hours,  40  minutes 
and  42  seconds. 

hrs.  min.  sec. 

3  20 

5  10  20 

2  40  42 


11  11  2 

42  sec.  plus  20  sec.  equals  62  sec,  equals  1 
min.  2  sec.  1  min.  plus  40  min.,  plus  10  min., 
plus  20  min.,  equals  71  min.,  equals  1  hr.  11 
min. 

1  hr.  plus  2  hrs.  plus  5  hrs.  plus  3  hrs.  equala 
11  hrs. 

The  answer  is  11  hrs.  11  min.  2  sec. 

2.  Subtract  5  hours,  29  minutes,  25  seconds 
from  7  hours,  17  minutes,  47  seconds. 

hrs.  min.  sec. 

7  17  47 

5  29  25 


48 


22 


25  sec.  from  47  sec.  equals  22  sec.     29  min. 
from  1  hr.  plus  17  min.  or  77  min.  equals  48  min. 
5  hrs.  from  6  hrs.  equals  1  hr. 
Ans. — 1  hr.  48  min.  22  sec. 


bu. 

pk. 

qt. 

4.   gal. 

qt. 

pt. 

4 

2 

5 

37 

2 

1 

17 

3 

3 

27 

2 

1 

10 

2 

6 

17 

3 

26 

3 

5 

28 

2 

2 

5 

1 

3 

27 

0 

1 

5. 

yd. 

8 
4 
12 
9 
6 

ft. 
2 
1 
4 
1 
0 

in. 

11 
8 
5 

1 
8 

6.  From    200    gallons    take    49    gallons,    3 
quarts  and  2  pints. 

7.  From  45  miles  121  rods,  take  25  miles, 
75  rods. 

8.  From  15  yards  2  feet  and  2  inches,  take 
11  yards  1  foot  8  inches. 

MULTIPLICATION  AND  DIVISION 

1.     Multiply  4  bushels  3  pecks  5  quarts  by  4. 
bu.  pk.    qt. 
4       3       5 
X       4 


19       2       4 
4X5  qts.  =  20  qts.  =  2  pks.  4  qts. 
4X3  pks.+2  pks.  =  14  pks.  =  3  bu.  2  pks. 
4X4bu.-|-3bu.  =  19bu. 
Ans. — 19  bu.,  2  pks.,  4  qts. 


Divide  69  feet  4  inches  by  8. 
ft.     in. 
8)69       4 


8       8 


69  ft.  divided  by  8  =  8  with  a  remainder  of  5  ft. 

5  ft.  (60  in.) +4  in.  =  64  in. 
64  in.-H8  =  8  in. 

3.  If  a  horse  eats  two  pecks  of  oats  a  day 
how  long  will  60  bushels  last  him? 

Note. — Reduce  both  terms  to  pecks  and 
divide. 

4.  If  an  acre  will  produce  16  bushels  3  pecks 
of  wheat,  how  many  bushels  will  40  acres  pro- 
duce at  the  same  rate.' 

5.  A  farmer  thrashed  4400  bushels  of  oats, 
how  many  sacks,  each  holding  3  bushels  4  quarts 
will  be  required  to  contain  his  crop.' 

Percentage 


Per  cent  means  per  hundred, 
means  10  in  each  100. 
10%  =  .10  =  JgO_.or 


Thus,    10% 


1. 


2. 


50%  of  anything  is  what  part  of  it? 

50%  =  .50  =  T^<?o  =  i 

25%  of  anvthing  is  what  part  of  it? 

25%  =  .25  =  i2ifo=i. 


3.     123^%  =  |of25%ori. 

It  is  often  convenient  in  solving  problems  in 
percentage  to  change  the  per  cent  to  a  common 
fraction.  Therefore  every  pupil  should  mem- 
orize thoroughly  the  following  table. 


Table  of  Equivalents                              | 

\  =50% 

i  =331% 

i  =25% 

1  =661% 

h  =121% 

i=16|% 

I  =20% 

t  =80% 

f  =40% 

1  =75% 

1  =60% 

1  =371% 

Other  Equivalents 

Less  Important  Are 

1  =831% 

1  =621% 

\  =14^% 

i  =871% 

1^=   81% 

^^=   ^\% 

Find  33  1/3%  of  24. 
Find  66  2/3%  of  24. 


1.     Find  25%  of  16. 
Solution. — 25%  =  \. 

Jfof  16  =  4. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 


Of  24.     Of  48. 


Of  36.     Of  72. 
Of  36.     Of  72. 


Find  20%  of  40. 
Find  40%  of  50. 
Find  50%  of  17. 
Find  75%  of  12. 
Find  80%  of  10. 


Of  60.     Of  80. 

Of  60.     Of  80. 

Of  21.     Of  34. 

Of  16.     Of  36. 

Of  20.     Of  40. 
Find  37  1/2%  of  16.     Of  48.     Of  32. 
Find  30%  of  80.     Of  40.     Of  50. 
18  is  what  %  of  24?     Of  36?     Of  54? 
Solution.— 18-^24  =  11  =  1  =  75%. 

12.  24  is  what  %  of  48?     Of  72?     Of  12? 

13.  12  is  what  %  of  16?     Of  18?     Of  84? 

14.  25  is  what  %  of  50?     Of  75? 

15.  35  is  what  %  of  40?     Of  42?     Of  70? 

16.  Write  as  Decimal  Fractions  the  following: 
5%,  8%,  2%,  12%,  60%. 

Solution. — 5%  =  iSo  =  .05. 


£36 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


17.  80%,  90%,  17%,  15%,  14%. 

18.  12^%,    14|%,    16|%,   i%,  1%. 

19.  Express  as  per  cents,  |,  J,  J,  ^,  J,  f ,  |, 

1     JL 

9>  lo- 
go.    Express  as  per  cents,  -^q,  f ,  |,  |,  |,  §,  |. 

ORAL  PROBLEMS 

1.  A  man  planted  20%  of  his  640-acre  farm 
with  wheat.     How  many  acres  of  wheat  had  he? 

2.  A  man  planted  160  acres  of  corn.  His 
farm  contained  640  acres.  What  per  cent  of 
his  farm  was  planted  to  corn.^ 

3.  A  man  owning  a  half  section  of  land  leaves 
25%  of  it  for  pasture.  How  many  acres  are  in 
pasture.^ 

^VRITTEN  PROBLEMS 

1.  In  a  storm  at  sea  72%  of  the  3000  pas- 
sengers on  board  an  ocean  liner  were  drowned. 
How  many  people  were  lost.^ 

2.  A  dealer  lost  75  bbls.  of  apples  or  15%  of 
all  he  handled.     How  many  bbls.  did  he  handle.' 

3.  A  man  bought  a  lot  for  $3000  and  held  it 
for  2  years,  selling  it  at  a  gain  of  17%.  Find 
the  selling  price. 

4.  A  man  l)ought  a  lot  for  $1600  and  sold  it 
for  $1400.     What  was  his  loss  per  cent? 

Interest 

Money  paid  for  the  use  of  money  is  called 
Interest.  Interest  is  a  certain  per  cent  of  the 
amount  borrowed  which  latter  is  called  the 
Principal.  The  per  cent  charged  for  the  use  of 
the  money  is  called  the  Rate. 

ORAL  DRILL 

1.  At  5%  how  much  is  the  interest  on  $200 
for  1  year?  For  6  months?  For  2  years?  For 
2  years  6  months? 

2.  At  6%  find  the  interest  on  $400  for  1  year. 
For  8  months  or  |  of  a  year?  For  2  years? 
For  2 1  years? 

3.  At  4%  what  is  the  interest  on  $800  for 

1  year?     For  6  months?     For  3  months?     For 
9  months?     For  a  year  and  9  months? 

A^TIITTEN  EXERCISES 

4.  At  5%  what  is  the  interest  on  $640  for 

2  years  5  months? 

29       5 

Solution:    —  X X640  or 

12     100 


29X5X640 


=  $77.33 


12X100 

Explanation. — yBo  of  $640  equals  the 
interest  for  1  year.  Two  years  5  months  equals 
fl  years,  therefore  the  total  interest  equals 
flXi|oX640.  Use  cancellation  whenever  pos- 
sible. 

5.  Find   the   interest  of  $250  at  4%  for 
1  year  4  months. 

6.  Find  the  interest  of  $500  at  5%  for 
1  year  3  months. 


7.  Find  the   interest   of   $750   at   4%   for 
2  years  2  months. 

8.  Find   the  interest  of   $124   at   6%   for 

1  year  9  months. 

9.  Find  the  interest  of  $436   at  5%   for 

2  years  8  months. 

Note. — In  the  above  problems  no  days  are 
given.  But  where  the  time  of  the  problem  has 
days,  reduce  the  time  to  days  as  a  numerator 
over  360  days. 

10.  Find  the  interest  of  $6500  at  6%  for 

3  months  20  days. 

Solution:     3  months  20  days  =  110  days. 
110       6 

X X$6500  =  $119.17. 

360     100 

11.  Find  the  interest  of  $650  at  5%  for  70 
days. 

12.  Find  the  interest  of  $135  at  5%  for 
8  months  20  days. 

13.  Find  the  interest  for  $486  at  4%  for 
90  days. 

THE   BANKERS'   METHOD  OR  THE  60- 
DAY  METHOD  OF  FINDING  INTEREST 

Money  is  often  borrowed  for  short  periods 
especially  at  banks  for  30,  60  or  90  days.  Six 
per  cent  is  a  very  usual  rate  in  such  cases.  The 
method  used  is  as  follows: 

The  interest  of  any  Principal  at  6% : 
For  360  days  =  0.06  of  the  Principal. 
For    60days  =  0.01    of  the  Principal. 
For      6  days  =  0.001  of  the  Principal. 

14.  Find  the  interest  of  $660  at  6%  for 
90  davs. 


Solution: 


Interest  for  60  days  =  $6.60 
For  30  days=   3.30 


Total  interest 


$9.90 


Explanation.— Since  xJg  of  $660  or  $6.60 
is  the  interest  for  60  days  and  30  days  equals 
half  as  much,  or  $3.30,  the  total  interest  must 
be  their  sum. 

Find  the  interest  at  6%  of: 

15.  $1080  for  60  days. 

16.  $720  for  90  days. 

17.  $840  for  30  days. 

18.  $960  for  10  days. 

19.  $480  for  45  days. 

Find  the  interest  at  6%  of: 

20.  $1440  for  87  days. 

Solution:    $14.40  =  interest  for  60  days. 

4.80  =  interest  for  20  days. 

1.20  =  interest  for    5  days. 

.48  =  interest  for    2  davs. 


21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25 


$20.80 
$2400  for  50  days. 
$1500  for  120  days. 
$2750  for  63  days. 
$840  for  84  days. 
$3040  for  108  days. 


87  davs. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


237 


Note  that  the  foregoing  problems  all  bear  6%. 
This  method  may  be  used  with  problems  bearing 
any  per  cent. 

26.     At  5%  6nd  the  interest  of: 
$1680  for  75  days. 

Solution: 

$16.80  =  the  interest  at  6%  for  60  days. 
4.20  =  the  interest  at  6%  for  15  days. 


6)$21.00  =  the  interest  at  6%  for  75  days. 


$  3.50  =  the  interest  at  1%  for  75  days. 
17.50  =  the  interest  at  5%  for  75  days. 

27.  $1640  for  70  days. 

28.  $1900  for  63  days. 

29.  $1750  for  72  days. 

TAXES 

Towns,  cities,  counties  and  states  meet  most 
of  their  expenses  by  levying  taxes  upon  the 
property  within  their  limits. 

For  purposes  of  taxation  property  is  divided 
into  two  classes.  Real  Estate  and  Personal 
Property. 

Real  Estate  is  immovable  property  such  as 
land  including  mines,  quarries,  forests,  rail- 
roads and  buildings. 

Personal  Property  is  movable  property  such  as 
money,  stocks,  bonds,  household  goods,  cattle, 
etc. 

Some  states  also  levy  a  tax  on  all  male  citizens 
over  twenty-one  years  old.  This  is  called  a 
Poll  Tax. 

Name  some  ways  in  which  your  city  or 
county  spends  its  tax  money. 

METHOD  OF  SPREADING  TAXES 

Officers  called  Assessors,  first  inspect  property 
and  place  a  value  upon  it  for  taxation.  Then 
the  city,  township,  school  district  or  county 
determines  the  amount  of  money  needed  to  run 
the  government  for  one  year.  The  total 
amount  of  money  needed  is  divided  by  the  total 
value  of  the  property  as  fixed  by  the  Assessor. 
This  gives  the  amoimt  of  tax  on  one  dollar  or  the 
rate  of  taxation. 

Thus  if  a  school  district  needed  $20,000  to 
run  its  schools  for  1  year  while  the  property  in 
the  district  was  valued  by  the  Assessor  at 
$2,000,000,  the  rate  would  be  $20,000  -^  $2,000,- 
000  =  .01,  which  is  the  rate  of  taxation  for 
school  purposes. 

1.  If  the  Taxes  are  18  mills  on  $1,  what  rate 
per  cent  are  the  Taxes.*  How  much  are  the 
Taxes  on  property  valued  at  $15,000.* 

2.  My  property  is  assessed  at  $5000,  the 
Tax  rate  is  13^%.  What  are  my  annual 
Taxes? 

3.  \Miat  would  be  the  Tax  on  a  farm  assessed 
at  $6000  if  the  rate  is  .007?     If  it  is  .0102? 

4.  Mr.  Jones  owns  a  house  valued  at  $24,000 
which  is  assessed  at  2/3  of  its  value.  The  Tax 
rate  is  .022.     What  will  be  his  total  Tax? 

5.  If  Mr.  Jones  Days  his  Tax  within  thirty 
days  he  receives  a  discount  of  2%.  How  much 
will  he  save  by  paying  his  Taxes  promptly? 


PROPERTY  INSURANCE 

A  man  who  does  not  wish  to  bear  the  total 
loss  of  his  house  in  case  of  fire  pays  an  Insurance 
Company  a  certain  per  cent  for  the  Insurance  of 
his  property.  The  amount  paid  is  called  the 
Premium. 

The  Insurance  Company  agrees  to  make  good 
his  loss  to  the  extent  of  the  sum  named  in  the 
Policy  or  contract  with  him  in  case  his  house 
is  accidentally  burned  during  the  period  covered 
by  the  Policy. 

Insurance  Companies  do  not  usually  insure 
property  for  its  full  value.  Can  you  give  a 
reason  why? 

1.  The  school  house  is  insured  for  $10,000 
for  three  years.  The  Board  of  Education  has  to 
pay  the  Insurance  Company  50%  for  this. 
What  is  the  face  of  the  Policy?  What  per  cent 
of  the  face  of  the  Policy  is  the  Premium?  What 
per  cent  is  this  a  year? 

2.  I  value  my  house  at  $10,000.  The  Com- 
pany insures  it  for  3  years  at  half  its  value  at 
f  %  of  the  face  of  the  Policy.  How  much  will 
the  Premium  cost? 

3.  A  business  block  costing  $40,000  is  in- 
sured for  3  years  for  J  its  value  at  1%  a  year. 
What  is  the  total  Premium? 

4.  A  hotel  is  insured  for  $10,000  in  each  of 
five  different  companies.  The  total  Premium 
is  $1000.     Find  the  rate  of  insurance. 

5.  A  factory  worth  $80,000  is  insured  for  f 
of  its  value  at  1J%.  In  case  of  total  loss  by 
fire  find  the  owner's  loss,  including  Premium 
paid  out. 

COMMISSION 

The  value  of  property. — City  property  varies 
greatly  in  price  depending  upon  the  city  and 
upon  whether  the  property  is  used  for  residence 
for  business  blocks,  or  for  factories.  The  dis- 
tance from  street  cars  or  other  means  of  trans- 
portation affects  the  value  of  property.  City 
lots  are  valued  at  so  much  per  front  foot. 

The  width  of  a  lot  measured  along  the  street 
is  its  Frontage,  while  the  distance  from  the  street 
to  the  rear  of  the  lot  is  called  its  depth.  If  it  is 
worth  $20  per  front  foot  that  means  $20  for  a 
strip  one  foot  wide  at  the  street  and  reaching 
back  to  the  rear  of  the  lot.  The  deeper  the  lot 
the  more  area  it  covers  and  the  more  desirable 
it  is,  other  things  being  equal.  When  one 
speaks  of  a  100-foot  lot,  one  means  a  lot  with 
100  feet  frontage. 

Residence  lots  vary  in  frontage  from  30  feet 
in  poorer  sections  to  150  feet  or  more  in  the 
best  residence  districts.  In  depth  they  may 
be  from  100  feet  to  200  feet  or  more.  The  price 
of  residence  lots  varies  in  different  cities  and  in 
different  districts  of  the  same  city  from  $15  or 
$20  to  $200  or  more  per  front  foot. 

1.  W'hat  are  vacant  lots  near  your  home 
valued  at  per  front  foot?  At  that  rate  what  is 
an  80-foot  lot  worth? 

2.  Who  pays  for  laying  sidewalks  in  front  of 
a  property?  Who  pays  for  paving  the  street 
and  laying  the  sewer?  See  if  you  can  find  out 
how  much  it  costs  per  front  foot  to  do  these 
things  on  your  street. 


S38 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


PRACTICAL    PROBLEMS    AND     CALCULATIONS 


EDUCATION  AND  INDUSTRY 

It  has  been  carefully  estimated  that  a  man 
with  a  common  school  education  is  able  to  pro- 
duce on  the  average  13^  times  as  much  wealth  as 
an  unschooled  man;  the  high  school  man  can 
produce  2  times  as  much,  and  the  college  man 
4  times  as  much  as  the  untrained  mind. 

If  a  laborer  who  can  neither  read  nor  write 
is  able  to  earn  $14  a  month,  how  much  more 
should  he  earn  in  a  period  of  40  years  if  he  had 
started  with  a  common  school  education? 
Ans.— $3360. 

How  much  more  would  he  have  accumulated 
in  the  same  time  if  he  had  obtained  a  high 
school  education?     Ans. — $13,440. 

What  will  be  the  difference  in  the  earnings  of 
two  men  for  a  work  period  of  40  years,  one  with 
a  college  education  who  earns  $1000  a  year  and 
the  other  with  a  common  school  education  who 
earns  $450  a  year?     Ans.— $22,000. 

A  boy  who  knows  how  to  handle  and  care  for 
tools  saves  in  this  way  5  cents  for  every  work 
day  he  lives.  What  is  this  training  worth  to  a 
man  in  the  course  of  40  years  if  there  are  26 
working  days  in  each  month?     Ans. — $624. 

A  boy  who  has  been  trained  in  the  use  of 
tools  saves  $20  a  year  in  the  repairs  and  con- 
venient articles  made  for  the  home.  What 
does  this  amount  to  in    40  years?    Ans. — $800. 

A  self-binder  costing  $125  would  have  lasted 
with  good  care  12  years.  It  was  left  out  in  the 
weather  and  lasted  only  3  years.  What  did 
the  farmer's  carelessness  cost  him?  Ans. — 
$93.75. 

If  a  careless  hired  hand  while  cultivating 
corn  covers  up  20  hills  to  the  acre,  what  is  the 
value  of  the  corn  destroyed  on  a  20-acre  field, 
counting  2  ears  to  a  hill  and  100  ears  to  the 
bushel  when  corn  is  worth  50  cents  a  bu.? 
Ans.— $4. 

FENCING 

Data. — Barbed  wire  is  sold  by  the  roll, 
weighing  about  100  lbs.  and  containing  about 
1200  ft.  of  wire.  In  a  pound  of  staples  there 
are  about  100. 

Note. — Always  draw  the  form  of  the  field 
before  attempting  to  solve  the  problem. 

How  much  wire  fencing  will  it  take  to  fence 
an  acre  lot  in  the  form  of  a  square,  12  rods, 
10  ft.,  9  in.  each  way?     Ans.— 50  rods,  10  ft. 

How  much  fence  will  it  take  to  enclose  an 
acre  lot  which  is  20  rods  long  and  8  rods  wide? 
Ans. — 56  rods. 

A  40-acre  field  is  80  rods  each  way.  Find 
cost  of  posts  and  fencing  with  three  strings  of 
barbed  wire  at  25  cents  a  rod  and  a  12-icot  gate 
worth  $5.     Ans.— $85. 

Another  40-acre  field  is  160  rods  long  and  40 
rods  wide,  how  much  more  will  the  fence  cost 
than  in  the  previous  problem  with  the  posts, 
fence  and  gate  at  the  same  price?     Ans. — $20. 

How  much  more  will  the  fence  posts  cost  for 
the  40-acre  tract  160  rods  by  40  rods  than  for 
the  same  acreage  in  the  form  of  a  square  if  the 


posts  cost  8  cents  each  and  are  placed  1  rod 
apart,  one  extra  being  necessary  for  the  gate? 
Ans.— $6.40. 

How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  80  rods 
wide  and  120  rods  long?  How  many  rods  of 
fencing  are  needed  to  enclose  it?  Ans. — 60 
acres;  400  rods. 

How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  per 
acre  in  the  above  problem?     Ans. — 5  rods. 

How  many  acres  of  land  in  a  field  40  rods 
square?     Ans. — 10  acres. 

How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  needed  to 
enclose  a  field  40  rods  square?     Ans. — 160  rods. 

How  many  rods  of  fencing  are  required  per 
acre  in  a  field  40  rods  square?     Ans. — 16  rods. 

If  the  fencing  costs  30  cents  a  rod  and  lasts 
10  years,  what  is  the  yearly  cost  per  acre? 
Ans. — 30  cents  an  acre  per  year. 

How  much  is  the  annual  cost  per  acre  of  such 
a  fence  if  10|  rods  of  fence  are  required  to  en- 
close an  acre?  (See  above  problem.)  Ans. — 
32  cents  per  acre  per  year. 

What  does  it  cost  for  posts  worth  12  cents 
each  to  build  120  rods  of  fence  if  the  posts  are 
set  1|  rods  apart?     Ans. — $9.60. 

CORN 

How  TO  Test  Seed  Corn. — Make  a  box  36 
in.  by  40  in.  and  3  in.  deep.  Fill  the  box  about 
half  full  of  moist  dirt,  sand  or  sawdust.  Press 
it  down  so  that  it  will  have  a  smooth,  even 
surface. 

Take  a  white  cloth  about  the  size  of  the  box, 
rule  it  oft"  into  squares  3  in.  each  way,  numbering 
them  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  and  place  it  in  the  box 
upon  the  sand.  Take  6  kernels  from  each  ear 
and  place  in  one  square,  giving  the  ear  the  same 
number.  Cover  with  a  moist  pad  stuffed  with 
sawdust  and  keep  moist  and  warm  for  several 
days. 

How  many  days  did  corn  planted  May  10 
have  to  mature  if  frost  occurred  on  the  night 
of  September  10?     Ans. — 123  days. 

W^hen  corn  is  planted  May  15  and  frost  comes 
on  the  night  of  September  1,  how  many  days 
has  the  corn  in  which  to  mature?  Ans. — 108 
days. 

A  bushel  of  seed  corn  will  plant  7  acres. 
W^hen  seed  is  selling  at  $2  a  bu.,  what  is  the  cost 
of  seed  per  acre?     Ans. — 28  4/7  cts. 

If  extra  good  seed  corn  costs  $4.50  a  bu., 
what  will  it  cost  per  acre?     Ans. — 64  2/7  cts. 

If  it  costs  14  cts.  a  bu.  to  grade  seed  corn 
with  a  corn  grader  and  a  bu.  of  corn  will  plant 
7  acres,  what  is  the  cost  per  acre  for  grading 
the  seed?     Ans. — 2  cts. 

If  a  man  spends  4  hours  shelling  off  tip  and 
butt  kernels  and  sorting  irregular  kernels  from 
a  bu.  of  seed  corn,  how  much  will  it  cost  him 
per  acre  if  his  time  is  worth  15  cts.  an  hour? 
Ans.— 8  4/7  cts. 

If  it  requires  18  ears  of  corn  to  plant  1  acre, 
how  many  ears  would  be  needed  to  plant  123^ 
acres?     Ans. — 225  ears. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


239 


Corn  on  the  ear  weighs  70  lbs.  a  bu.  If  the 
ears  average  10  oz.  each,  how  many  ears  in  a 
bu.?     Ans. — 112  ears. 

If  the  ears  average  12  oz.  each,  how  many 
ears  in  a  bu.?     Ans. — 93  plus  ears. 

If  a  man  can  select  1120  ears  of  seed  corn 
averaging  10  oz.  each  in  3  days,  how  much 
will  it  cost  him  a  bu.  if  his  time  is  worth  $2  a 
day?     Ans. — 60  cts. 

\\'hat  are  1120  ears  of  seed  com  worth  at 
$2.50  a  bu.  if  the  ears  average  10  oz.  and  there 
are  70  lbs.  in  a  bu.?     Ans. — $25. 

Corn  is  sometimes  reckoned  on  the  basis  of 
120  ears  to  the  bu.  What  is  the  weight  of  such 
corn  per  ear?     Ans. — 9f  oz. 

If  corn  is  planted  in  check  rows  3  ft.  8  in. 
apart  each  way,  how  many  square  feet  does  each 
hill  of  corn  occupy?  How  many  hills  on  an 
acre?     Ans.— 13|  sq.  ft.;  3240  hills. 

How  many  stalks  are  there  on  an  acre  when 
they  are  planted  3  stalks  in  a  hill  3  ft.  8  in. 
each  way?     Ans. — 9720  stalks. 

If  the  stand  is  perfect  and  each  stalk  produces 
one  ear,  what  is  the  yield  per  acre,  120  ears  to  the 
bu.?     Ans.— 81  bu. 

A  bushel  of  choice  seed  corn  costing  $3.50 
a  bu.  will  plant  7  acres  in  check  rows.  \Miat 
is  the  cost  of  the  seed  for  20  acres?     Ans. — $10. 

A  poorer  quality  of  seed  will  be  priced  at 
$1.50  a  bu.  How  much  less  will  it  cost  for  the 
same  20  acres?     Ans. — $4.29. 

After  shelling  off  the  irregular  kernels  on  the 
butt  and  tip  of  a  certain  ear  of  corn  there  are 
38  kernels  left  in  each  row.  If  there  are  20 
rows  on  the  cob  how  many  hills  will  it  plant, 
placing  3  kernels  in  a  hill?     Ans. — 253  hills. 

DRAINAGE 

All  tile  are  1  foot  long.  The  average  price 
is  about  3  cents  each  for  3-in.  tile,  4  cents  each 
for  4-in.  tile  and  5  cents  each  for  5-in.  tile. 

A  tract  of  wet  land  of  17  acres  was  tile- 
drained  at  a  cost  of  $24  an  acre.  What  was 
the  cost  of  draining  the  field?     Ans. — $408. 

The  farmer  then  sowed  it  to  wheat,  harvest- 
ing 45  bu.  an  acre,  which  sold  for  one  dollar  a 
bushel.  What  was  his  gross  income  from  the 
wheat  crop?     Ans. — $765. 

If  the  farmer  cleared  331  cts.  a  bu.  from  his 
wheat  crop,  of  45  bu.  an  acre  each  year,  what 
would  be  his  net  gain  in  5  years  after  deducting 
the  cost  of  tiling?     Ans.— $867. 

Mr.  Brown  had  a  square  piece  of  low  land 
containing  90  acres.  When  he  prepared  to  tile 
it  he  found  it  was  6  ft.  8  in.  higher  at  one  side 
than  at  the  other.  How  wide  is  the  field?  How 
much  fall  will  this  be  to  the  rod?  Ans. — 120 
rods  wide;  1^  in.  to  the  rod. 

What  did  it  cost  to  lay  6  strings  of  tile  across 


this  90-acrc  tract  if  the  tile  is  $20  a  thousand  and 
each  tile  was  1  ft.  long  and  the  cost  of  laying 
them  was  30  cts.  a  rod?     Ans. — $453.60. 

Find  the  cost  per  acre  for  tiling.     Ans . — $5 .04 . 

If  tiling  Air.  Brown's  field  increased  the  yield 
of  corn  an  average  of  8  bu.  per  acre,  what  will 
the  increase  of  corn  be  worth  on  the  90  acres  at 
40  cts.  a  bu.  in  10  years?     Ans.— $2880. 

What  will  be  the  net  gain  per  acre  over  the 
cost  of  tiling  in  10  years?  The  net  gain  on  the 
90-acre  tract?     Ans.— $26.96  an  acre;  $2426.40. 

Farmer  Jones  had  20  acres  of  orchard  with 
30  trees  on  each  acre.  Each  tree  yielded  on  the 
average  2  bbls.  of  apples  worth  $3  a  bbl.  After 
tile-draining  his  orchard  at  a  cost  of  $30  an 
acre,  his  income  from  the  crop  was  doubled. 
What  fraction  of  the  crop  paid  for  the  tiling? 
Ans.  j^  of  the  crop. 

PLOWING 

There  are  160  sq.  rds.  in  an  acre.  How  many 
acres  in  a  field  80  rods  square?     Ans. — 40  acres. 

How  many  acres  in  a  field  8  rods  wide  and  20 
rods  long?     Ans. — 1  acre. 

A  ten-acre  field  is  40  rods  long.  How  many 
feet  wide  is  it?     Ans. — 660  ft. 

A  five-acre  field  is  16  rods  wide;  how  long  is  it? 
Ans. — 50  rods. 

How  many  times  must  a  farmer  cross  a  field 
40  rods  square  with  a  harrow  12  ft.  wide  to 
harrow  the  field?     Ans. — 55  times. 

How  far  will  the  farmer  travel  in  the  above 
problem?     Ans. — 6g  miles. 

How  many  times  must  Mr.  Brown  cross  a 
field  16  rods  wide  with  a  12-foot  harrow  to 
harrow  the  field?     Ans. — 22  times. 

How  many  rounds  (back  and  forth)  must 
Mr.  Brown  make  to  plow  a  field  8  rods  wide 
if  the  plow  turns  a  furrow  14  in.  wide?  Ans. — 
57  rounds. 

How  far  must  the  plowman,  cutting  a  14-in. 
furrow  travel  to  plow  an  acre  8  rods  wide,  not 
counting  the  turns?     Ans. — 1\  miles. 

How  far  must  one  travel  with  a  12-foot  harrow 
to  harrow  an  acre?     Ans. — 220  rods. 

How  far  must  a  team  travel,  not  counting  the 
turns,  to  plow  one  round  on  a  field  40  rods  long? 
Ans. — I  mi. 

To  plow  a  strip  10  rods  wide,  how  many 
furrows  must  be  plowed  with  a  14-in.  plow? 
Ans. — 142  furrows. 

How  far  must  a  team  travel  to  plow  a  field 
20  rods  square  with  a  14-in.  plow?  Ans. — 
17ii  mi. 

A  man  with  two  horses  and  a  14-in.  plow 
plows  2  acres  in  8  hours.  What  does  it  cost  to 
plow  one  acre  if  the  man's  time  is  worth  16  cts. 
an  hour  and  the  time  of  each  horse  is  worth 
8  cts.  an  hour.^'— Ans.— $1.28. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


SILOS 

The  base  of  a  silo  is  20  ft.  in  diameter.  Find 
its  circumference.     Ans. — 62f  ft. 

Find  the  capacity  in  cu.  ft.  of  a  silo  16  ft. 
in  diameter  and  30  ft.  high.     Ans. — 9428f  cu.  ft. 

If  a  cu.  ft.  of  silage  weighs  30  lbs.,  how  many 
tons  will  this  silo  contain  if  after  it  is  settled  the 
silage  is  4  ft.  from  the  top?     Ans. — 122  .5  T. 

A  silo  is  18  ft.  in  diameter  and  32  ft.  high; 
how  many  tons  of  silage  does  it  hold  if  a  cu.  ft. 
weighs  36  lbs.  and  it  has  settled  4  ft.  from  the 
top?     Ans.— 123.3  T. 

If  45  cows  are  fed  36  lbs.  each  of  silage  a  day, 
how  long  will  the  contents  of  the  above  silo  last 
this  herd?     Ans. — 158  days. 

What  must  be  the  diameter  of  a  silo  36  ft. 
deep  filled  with  silage  to  within  4  ft.  of  the  top 
to  hold  enough  silage  to  feed  24  cows  35  lbs.  a 
day  for  each  cow  for  180  days  if  the  silage  weighs 
36  lbs.  a  cu.  ft.     Ans. — 13  ft,  nearly. 

How  many  acres  of  corn  will  it  take  to  supply 
ensilage  to  a  herd  of  24  cows  for  180  days,  35 
lbs.  each  per  day,  if  1  acre  yields  12  T.  of  silage? 
Ans. — 7  acres,  nearly. 

The  corn  on  a  field  of  24  acres  when  ready  for 
cutting  and  chocking,  or  for  putting  in  the  silo, 
weighs  10  tons  per  acre,  of  which  80%  is  water. 
By  cutting  and  shocking  the  corn  there  is  a  loss 
in  dry  matter  of  30%;  by  putting  it  in  the  silo 
there  is  a  loss  in  dry  matter  of  only  10%;  if 
the  dry  matter  in  silage  is  worth  $.0071  a  lb., 
what  is  the  value  of  the  feed  gained  by  putting 
the  crop  in  the  silo?     Ans. — $136.32. 

A  silo  16  ft.  in  diameter  is  filled  24  ft.  deep 
with  silage.  One  cu.  ft.  weighs  30  lbs.  How 
many  tons  of  silage  are  in  the  silo?  Ans. — 
144.8  T. 

HAY 

One  acre  of  mixed  clover  and  timothy  will 
produce  2h  tons  of  hay.  If  the  labor  to  raise  it 
costs  $3.68  an  acre  and  the  rent  of  the  land  is 
$2.50  an  acre,  what  is  the  total  cost  per  ton? 
Ans.— $2.47. 

If  the  above  crop  yields  but  1§  tons  an  acre 
what  is  the  cost  per  ton  for  producing  it?  Ans. 
—$4.12. 

If  bran  is  worth  2^  times  as  much  as  clover 


hay  per  pound,  how  much  is  bran  worth  when 
clover  is  $8  a  ton?     Ans.— $20. 

If  it  costs  a  farmer  only  $3.34  a  ton  to  raise 
clover  hay,  how  much  can  he  afford  to  pay  for 
bran  which  is  worth  2^  times  as  much  as  clover 
hay?     Ans. — $8.35  a  ton. 

If  a  12-acre  field  of  clover  yields  3500  lbs.  of 
hay  per  acre  at  the  first  crop,  and  a  bushel  of 
seed  per  acre  at  the  second  crop,  what  is  the 
entire  yearly  income  from  the  field  when  hay  is 
$10  a  ton  and  seed  $8  a  bu.?     Ans.— $306. 

At  $8  a  bu.  what  is  the  return  from  5  acres  of 
clover  vielding  160  lbs.  of  seed  an  acre  (60  lbs. 
tothebu.).     Ans.— $106.66|. 

If  an  acre  of  clover  yields  4500  lbs.  of  clover 
hay  the  first  cutting  and  2400  lbs.  the  second 
cutting,  what  is  the  value  of  the  crop  at  $8  a 
ton?     Ans.— $27.60. 

One  pound  of  alfalfa  hay  contains  .11  of  a 
pound  of  digestible  protein,  .4  of  a  pound  of 
carbohydrates,  and  .012  of  a  pound  of  fats. 
Red  clover  hay  contains  .068  lb.  protein,  .36  lb. 
carbohydrates  and  .017  lb.  fats.  What  is  the 
difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  a  ton  of 
alfalfa  and  a  ton  of  red  clover  when  digestible 
protein  is  worth  3  cts.  a  lb.  and  carbohydrates 
1  ct.  a  pound  and  fats  2§  cts.  a  pound?  Ans. — 
Alfalfa  $15.20  per  ton;  red  clover  $12.13. 

One  pound  of  timothy  hay  contains  .028  lb. 
digestible  protein,  .43  lb.  C.  H.,  and  .014  lb.  fat. 
Which  has  the  greater  feeding  value,  timothy  or 
clover  according  to  the  above  problem?  Ans. — 
Clover,  $12.13;   timothy,  $10.98. 

ORCHARDS  AND  SPRAYING 

When  trees  are  set  25  ft.  apart  each  way,  how 
much  space  does  each  tree  occupy  and  how 
many  trees  can  be  set  on  an  acre  10  rods  by  16 
rods?     Ans. — 60  trees. 

(Note. — Find  how  many  trees  in  a  row  and 
the  number  of  rows.) 

If  the  acre  lot  is  square  how  many  trees  may 
be  set  on  it  25  ft.  each  way?     Ans. — 64  trees. 

If  there  are  64  trees  per  acre  and  each  tree 
produces  3  bu.  3  pk.  of  apples,  how  much  are 
the  apples  on  one  acre  of  orchard  worth  at 
75  cts.  a  bu.?     Ans.— $180. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


2n 


The  Kentucky  Experiment  Station  made  a 
spraying  test  on  an  orchard  that  had  never 
before  been  sprayed.  One  sprayed  Maiden 
Bhish  tree  yielded  7  bu.  of  apples,  4j  bu.  of 
which  graded  firsts  and  sold  at  75  cts.  a  bu.,  the 
remainder  graded  seconds  and  sold  at  375  cts. 
One  unsprayed  tree  of  the  same  variety  in  the 
next  row  yielded  4  bu.  of  apples,  \  of  which 
graded  firsts  and  the  rest  seconds.  What  is 
the  difference  in  income  from  the  fruit  on  the 
two  trees.'*     Ans. — $2,625. 

If  an  orchard  contained  200  trees,  what  would 
be  the  difference  in  income  from  a  sprayed  and 
an  unsprayed  crop  according  to  the  data  in  the 
above  problem  if  firsts  sold  at  50  cts.  a  bu.  and 
seconds  at  30  cts..?     Ans.— $340. 

Bordeaux  Mixture  contains  4  lbs.  of  freshly 
slaked  lime  and  4  lbs.  of  copper  sulphate  or 
bluestone  in  50  gals,  of  water;  with  lime  at  Ic. 
a  pound,  and  copper  sulphate  at  10  cts.  a  pound, 
what  would  it  cost  to  spray  200  apple  trees  twice 
if  2  gals,  of  the  mixture  is  sufficient  for  the 
spraying  of  one  tree  once.''     Ans. — $7.04. 

Three  unsprayed  apple  trees  yielded  188 
sound  apples  while  6  similar  trees,  sprayed, 
yielded  8764  sound  apples.  Counting  100 
apples  to  the  bushel,  what  would  be  the  gain 
from  spraying  100  trees  when  apples  are  selling 
at  80  cts.  a  bu..?     Ans.— $1118.40. 

FEEDING 

If  a  calf  weighs  at  birth  b^  lbs.  and  gains  2 
lbs.  a  day,  what  should  it  weigh  under  usual 
conditions  at  the  end  of  90  days.?  Ans. — 
235  lbs. 

When  milk  is  worth  15  cts.  a  gal.,  what  is  the 
cost  of  making  a  calf  that  weighs  60  lbs.  at  birth 
weigh  140  lbs.  when  it  takes  \\  gals,  of  milk  to 
produce  one  pound  of  his  weight.?     Ans. — $15. 

Which  is  the  better  proposition,  to  keep  a 
young  calf  for  90  days,  feeding  it  on  the  average 
2^  gals,  of  milk  a  day  worth  10  cts.  a  gal.,  and 
then  sell  it  for  $15;  or  to  sell  it  at  birth  for  $3 
and  sell  butter-fat  from  the  milk  at  18  cts.  a 
pound  if  the  milk  contains  3.8%  butter-fat  and 
a  gal.  of  milk  weighs  8.6  lbs.?  Ans.— First 
proposition,  loss  $7.50;   second,  gain  $8.88. 

A  calf  at  birth  weighs  68  lbs.  If  at  the  end  of 
60  days  it  weighs  200  lbs.,  what  is  the  cost  of 
its  keep,  not  counting  labor,  if  Ij  gal.  of  milk 
worth  15  cts.  a  gal.  produces  1  lb.  of  weight.? 
Ans.— $24.75. 

At  an  Experiment  Station  a  certain  pig  that 
was  fed  a  total  of  397  lbs.  of  shelled  corn  gained 
79  lbs.  At  this  rate  how  many  pounds  of 
shelled  corn  did  it  take  to  produce  one  pound  of 
flesh.?     Ans. — 5  lbs.  corn. 

When  corn  is  50  cts.  a  bu.,  what  does  it  cost 
to  add  one  pound  of  flesh  to  a  pig  according  to 
the  above  problem  (56  lbs.  to  a  bu.)?  Ans. — 
4£\  cts. 

At  this  rate  how  many  pounds  of  fat  can  be 
put  on  a  hog  with  a  bushel  of  corn  weighing 
56  lbs..?     Ans.— 11  lbs. 

Another  test  showed  that  pigs  fed  for  46 
days  on  a  total  of  334  lbs.  of  middlings  gained 
90  lbs.     At  this  rate  how  many  pounds  of  mid- 


dlings does  it  take  to  put  one  pound  of  flesh 
on  a  hog.?     Ans. — 3.7  lbs. 

Compare  the  cost  of  producing  one  pound  of 
live  weight  on  a  hog  with  corn  at  45  cts.  a  bu. 
with  middlings  at  $1.40  a  cwt.  Ans. — Corn 
4i'j;  cts;  middlings  5 2^  cts. 

ROADS 

Farmers  living  in  regions  where  they  have 
good  roads  are  enabled  to  haul  their  products 
to  market  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Larger 
loads  can  be  drawn  in  less  time.  This  re- 
duces the  cost  of  marketing  crops.  A  good 
road  must  be  hard  and  smooth  with  proper 
slope  for  drainage. 

If  a  road  is  66  ft.  wide,  how  many  sq.  ft.  of 
surface  are  there  in  a  mile  of  road?  Ans. — 
348,480  sq.  ft. 

If  a  road  bed  is  12  ft.  wide,  how  many  square 
feet  of  surface  in  a  mile?     Ans. — 63,360  sq  ft. 

If  there  are  32  in.  of  rainfall  in  a  year,  how 
many  tons  of  water  fall  on  a  mile  of  road  66  ft. 
wide,  in  a  year?     Ans.— 3833.28  T. 

How  many  cu.  yds.  of  gravel  are  required  to 
cover  a  mile  of  road  bed  10  ft.  wide  and  6  in. 
deep?     Ans. — 977|  cu.  yd. 

If  it  costs  50  cts.  a  sq.  rd.  for  grading,  what 
will  it  cost  to  grade  a  mile  of  road-bed  10  ft. 
wide?     Ans.  $96.93. 

If  a  team  can  be  hired  for  $4  a  day  of  10  hrs. 
each  which  can  haul  a  cu.  yd.  of  gravel  an  hour, 
how  long  will  it  take  to  gravel  a  12-foot  road- 
bed a  mile  long  with  gravel  6  in.  deep?  What 
will  it  cost?     Ans.— $469.33. 

An  apple  grower  had  1200  tons  of  apples  to 
deliver  to  the  railroad  6  miles  away.  It  is 
estimated  that  poor  dirt  roads  cost  the  marketer 
17  cts.  a  ton  for  every  mile.  In  this  region  the 
roads  were  well-kept  and  the  cost  was  only 
13  cts.  a  mile.  How  much  does  this  grower 
save  on  his  crop  by  the  good  roads?  Ans. — 
$288. 

According  to  the  above  problem,  what  does  it 
cost  Mr.  Carter  to  market  60  tons  of  produce  at 
a  distance  of  6  mi.  on  poor  dirt  roads?  Ans. — 
$61.20. 

Mr.  Bangs  goes  to  market  twice  a  week. 
The  market  is  10  miles  away.  Over  poor  roads 
a  whole  day  is  consumed.  Over  macadamized 
roads  he  can  make  the  round  trip  in  half  a  day. 
How  much  would  macadamized  roads  save  this 
farmer  in  a  year  if  the  time  of  himself  and  his 
team  is  worth  $2  a  day?     Ans. — $104. 

RENTS 

Property  owners  usually  charge  their  tenants 
10%  of  the  value  of  the  house  and  lot  as  rent. 
Out  of  this  gross  rental  the  owner  pays  the 
taxes,  insurance  and  the  necessary  repairs. 
These  three  items  average  about  J  or  20%  of 
the  gross  rental. 

Real  estate  agents  charge  from  2^%  to  5%  of 
the  gross  rental  as  commission  for  renting  a 
house  for  an  owner.  For  selling  of  property 
agents  charge  from  2i%  to  5%  of  the  selling 
price  of  the  property  for  their  services. 

For  what  would  a  man  owning  a  $10,000 
house  on  an  average  lot  be  likely  to  rent  it? 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


WHEAT 

How  many  bushels  in  13,6!20  lbs.  of  wheat  if 
there  are  60  lbs.  in  a  bushel?     Ans. — 2-27  bu. 

How  many  poimds  are  produced  on  1''2^  acres 
yielding  20  bu.  per  acre?  How  many  bushels? 
Ans.— 15,000  lbs.;   250  bu. 

If  there  are  12  lbs.  of  water  in  100  lbs.  of 
wheat,  how  many  pounds  of  water  in  25  bushels? 
Ans.— 180  lbs. 

If  /g  of  wheat  is  starch,  how  many  lbs.  of 
starch  in  25  bu.?     Ans. — 1350  lbs. 

How  many  tons  of  wheat  are  grown  on  24 
acres  yielding  24  bu.  per  acre?  Ans. — 17.2 
tons. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  crop  in  the  above 
problem  at  85  cents  a  bushel?     Ans.^$489.60. 

It  takes  4.77  bu.  of  wheat  to  make  one  bbl. 
of  flour.  How  many  bbls.  of  flour  can  be  made 
from  a  20-acre  field  of  wheat  averaging  15  bu. 
to  the  acre?     Ans. — 62.9  bbls. 

If  60  acres  are  seeded  to  wheat  and  only  f 
of  the  seed  germinates,  how  many  acres  are 
seeded  to  wheat  that  will  not  grow?  Ans. — 
12  acres. 

At  85  cts.  a  bu.  and  with  a  crop  of  24  bu. 
per  acre,  what  is  the  value  of  the  wheat  grown 
on  a  piece  of  land  containing  280  sq.  rds.? 
Ans.— $35.70. 

If  wheat  for  sowing  contains  ^  weed  seed, 
how  much  land  will  a  farmer  sow  to  weeds  if  he 
plants  a  40-acre  field?     Ans. — 2  acres. 

What  will  be  his  loss  if  by  sowing  clean  seed 
wheat  his  field  would  have  yielded  25  bu.  an 
acre  worth  75  cts.  a  bu.?     Ans. — $37.50. 

If  25  bu.  of  85-cent  wheat  can  be  grown  on 
an  acre,  how  many  pounds  is  that  per  acre  and 
what  is  the  price  per  pound?  Ans. — 1500  lbs.; 
li  cts. 


BIRDS  AND  INSECTS 

If  the  damage  done  by  insects  on  a  farm 
averages  60  cts.  an  acre  for  the  entire  farm, 
what  would  this  amount  to  on  a  240-acre  farm? 
Ans.— $144. 

Winter  birds  live  on  weed  seed.  If  each  bird 
eats  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  weed  seed  in  a 
day  and  there  is  a  bird  to  each  acre,  how  many 
pounds  of  weed  seed  will  the  birds  eat  on  320 
acres  in  3  months?     Ans. — 450  lbs. 

Wild  birds  average  about  400  to  a  quarter 
section  of  160  acres.  How  many  would  this 
be  for  a  township  6  miles  square  (36  sections)  ? 
Ans. — 57,600  birds. 

It  is  estimated  that  500  small  grasshoppers 
will  eat  a  pound  of  a  growing  crop  in  one  day. 
If  a  meadow  lark  eats  250  grasshoppers  in  a 
day,  how  many  larks  can  save  a  ton  of  a 
growing  crop  in  10  days?     Ans. — 40  larks. 

A  stalk  of  plantain  bears  an  ounce  of  seed  or 
about  14,000  seeds.  If  40  seeds  sow  one  square 
yard  of  ground,  what  part  of  an  acre  will  one 
stalk  of  plantain  sow?     Ans. — g^gV  A. 

If  4  lbs.  in  every  bushel  of  a  farmer's  crop  of 
oats  is  weed  seed,  what  per  cent  of  his  crop  of 
2000  bu.  is  weeds?  How  many  pounds  of  oats? 
Ans.— 12V%;  46,000  lbs.  oats. 

If  a  farmer  seeded  20  acres  of  land  with  grass 
seed  containing  10%  weed  seed,  how  much  land 
would  he  sow  to  weeds?     Ans. — 2  acres. 

Twelve  bu.  of  clover  seed  containing  4^  bu- 
of  dead  seed  were  bought  at  $3.75  a  bu.,  what 
was  the  price  paid  for  the  live  seed?     Ans. — $6. 

Twenty  bushels  of  clover  seed  containing  Ij 
bu.  of  dead  seed  were  bought  for  $6  a  bu. 
What  was  the  price  paid  for  the  live  seed? 
Ans.— $6.49. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


2Jt3 


COWS,  MILK  AND  BUTTER 

Four  per  cent  milk  means  that  each  100  lbs. 
of  milk  contains  -1  lbs.  of  butter  fat. 

Process:  100  lbs. X. 04  =4.  lbs. 

How  many  lbs.  of  butter-fat  in  -tOOO  lbs.  of 
milk  that  tests  5%.?     Ans.— 200  lbs. 

How  much  less  is  the  butter-fat  if  the  milk 
tests  3%.='     Ans.— 80  lbs. 

A  cow  gives  on  an  average  18  lbs.  of  4%  milk 
per  day  for  300  days  each  year.  What  is  her 
yearly  butter-fat  production?     Ans. — 216  lbs. 

When  a  cow  yields  20  lbs.  of  milk  daily  which 
tests  3.2%  butter-fat,  what  quantity  of  butter- 
fat  is  produced  in  a  month  of  30  days?  How 
much  is  it  worth  at  28  cents  a  lb.?  Ans.— 19.2 
lbs.;  $5,376. 

A  cow  gives  5400  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year  testing 
3%  fat.  How  much  is  it  worth  at  28  cts.  a  lb.? 
Ans.— $45.36. 

If  a  cow  gives  5400  lbs.  of  milk  in  a  year 
testing  5%  fat,  how  much  is  the  butter-fat 
worth  at  28  cents  a  lb.?     Ans.— $75.60. 

A  dairyman  owns  a  herd  of  12  cows  that 
average  24  lbs.  of  milk  each  day  from  each  cow. 
How  manv  lbs.  of  milk  does  he  get  in  a  month 
of  30  days?     Ans.— 8640  lbs. 

If  this  milk  tests  3.8%  and  butter-fat  is 
worth  28  cts.  a  pound,  what  does  he  receive 
monthly  from  his  herd?  How  much  per  head? 
Ans.— $85.36;  $7.11  per  head. 

The  average  cow  gives  about  4000  lbs.  of  milk 
in  a  year  testing  about  3.8%  fat.  How  many 
lbs.  of  butter-fat  does  she  give?     What  is  it 


worth  at  30  cts.  a  lb.?  Ans.— 152  lbs.;  $45.60 
If  every  farmer  fed  and  cared  for  his  cows  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  the  average  yield  of 
dairy  cows  would  be  increased  about  100  lbs. 
of  butter-fat  for  each  cow  per  year.  If  butter- 
fat  is  worth  30  cts.  a  lb.,  how  much  more  income 
would  a  farmer  receive  from  a  herd  of  10  cows 
with  extra  care?     Ans. — $300. 

From  the  following  record  find  the  monthly 
income  from  each  cow,  with  butter-fat  at  25  cts. 
a  pound.  Which  is  the  best  cow  and  which 
the  poorest? 

Dailv  Yield  of  Milk        Fat  Test 

Brindle '^..32  lbs.  3.5% 

Brownie 16  lbs.  4     % 

Rose 28  lbs.  3.5% 

Cherrv 18  lbs.  3     % 

Red 15  lbs.  3.2% 

Daisy 26  lbs.  5.4% 

Ans.— Daisv,  $10.53;  Brindle,  $8.40;  Rose, 
$7.35;  Brownie,  .$4.80;  Cherry,  $4.05;  Red,  $3.60 . 

At  the  Chicago  Dairy  Show,  November,  1913, 
the  U.  S.  Government  displayed  a  herd  of  cows 
whose  feed  was  carefully  weighed  and  whose 
milk  was  weighed  and  tested.  Below  is  the 
week's  record  tested  for  butter-fat  of  3  of  the 
cows  in  that  herd.  The  cows  were  said  to  have 
freshened  about  the  same  time. 

Lbs.  of  Milk  Av.  %  of      Cost 
in  7  days    butter-fat  of  feed 
Grade,  or  scrub  cow .     49 . 6         4 . 6%         $1 .  44 

Guernsev 235  6.5%  1.78 

Holstein 350  3.8%  1 .94 


su 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Find  the  amount  of  butter-fat  produced  by 
each  cow  during  that  week.  Ans. — Grade,  2.8 
lbs.;   Guernsey,  15.2  lbs.;  Holstein,  13.3  lbs. 

Find  the  week's  income  from  each  cow  with 
butter-fat  at  33  cts.  a  pound.  Ans. — Grade, 
$0.93;    Guernsey,  $5.02;   Holstein,  $4.39. 

Find  the  weekly  profit  or  loss  after  charging 
each  cow  with  her  feed.  Ans. — Grade,  loss 
$0.51;  Guernsey,  profit,  $3.53;  Holstein,  $5.25 
profit. 

A  dairyman  sent  to  market  200  lbs.  of  25% 
cream.  From  what  quantity  of  5%  milk  was 
the  cream  taken.^     Ans. — 1000  lbs. 

His  neighbor  sends  with  him  200  lbs.  of  20% 
cream  which  was  taken  from  1000  lbs.  of  milk. 
What  was  the  per  cent  of  fat  in  this  milk.^ 
Ans. — 4%. 

The  temperature  of  cream  ready  for  churning 
may  vary  from  50  degrees  Fahr.  to  66  degrees. 
As  the  temperature  increases  above  66  degrees 
Fahr.  more  butter-fat  is  left  in  the  milk.  The 
butter  is  also  soft  and  of  an  inferior  quality. 
This  cream  churns  more  slowly  than  thick 
cream.  Churning  should  be  stopped  when  the 
granules  are  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat  of 
large  size. 

Buttermilk  churned  from  cream  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  50  degrees  to  60  degrees  con- 
tains .2%  of  fat,  when  churned  at  a  temperature 
of  from  75  degrees  to  80  degrees  the  buttermilk 
tests  .9%  butter-fat.  What  would  be  saved  by 
churning  at  the  lower  temperature  from  a  herd 
of  cows  from  which  16,400  lbs.  are  annually 
produced.^     Ans. — 114.8  lbs. 

From  the  following  record  find  the  monthly 
income  from  each  cow,  with  butter-fat  at  25 
cts.  a  pound.  Which  is  the  best  cow  and  which 
the  poorest?  Arrange  them  in  the  order  of  the 
money  income  they  produce. 

A  certain  farmer  has  15  good  butter  cows. 
The  average  per  cent  of  butter-fat  for  the  entire 
herd  is  5.5%.  If  they  yield  240  lbs.  of  milk  on 
an  average  daily,  wliat  is  the  average  daily 
production  of  butter-fat  in  pounds.  Ans. — 
13.2  lbs. 

What  is  the  daily  income  from  such  a  herd 
when  butter-fat  sells  for  28  cts.  a  pound.*  Ans. 
—$3.70. 

A  certain  farmer  o^\Tied  a  Holstein  cow  that 
was  very  valuable  but  he  did  not  know  it  be- 
cause he  had  never  tested  her  milk.  He  traded 
her  for  a  scrub  cow  and  $15.  The  Holstein  was 
tested  and  found  to  give  800  lbs.  of  butter-fat 
in  a  year  and  the  scrub,  125  lbs.  What  did  the 
farmer  lose  in  5  years  with  butter-fat  at  25  cts. 
a  pound  if  both  cows  consumed  the  same  amount 
of  feed.'     Ans.— $843.75. 

A  farmer  with  a  herd  of  Jersey  cows  number- 
ing 10  had  the  week's  weight  of  milk  as  follows: 
210  lbs.,  220  lbs.,  212  lbs.,  214  lbs.,  204  lbs., 
216  lbs.,  and  214  lbs.  for  each  day.  It  tested 
6%  butter-fat  which  sold  at  28  cts.  a  pound. 
How  much  did  the  cows  average  per  head  for 
the  week?     Ans.— $2.50. 

A  dairyman  hauls  24,650  lbs.  of  milk  that 
tests  3.8%  to  a  creamery.     The  price  of  butter- 


fat  is  30  cts.  a  pound;  how  much  money  should 
he  receive?     Ans.— $281.01. 

POTATOES 

A  bushel  of  potatoes  weighs  60  lbs. 

If  an  acre  of  potatoes  yields  110  bu.  what  is 
the  value  of  the  crop  at  40  cts.  a  bu.?  Ans. — 
$44. 

How  many  pounds  of  potatoes  are  grown  on 
2|  acres  yielding  150  bu.  per  acre?  Ans. — 
22,500  lbs. 

If  a  potato  farmer  gave  his  crop  careful  at- 
tention it  would  cost  him  $25  an  acre  to  grow 
potatoes.  What  is  the  net  profit  an  acre  if  the 
yield  is  110  bu.  worth  40  cts.  a  bu.?  If  the 
yield  is  250  bu.  worth  40  cts  a  bu. — Ans. 
$19.;  $75. 

How  many  acres  of  potatoes  producing  90 
bu.  an  acre  must  he  grow  to  return  as  much  net 
profit  as  10  acres  yielding  180  bu.  an  acre  if  the 
cost  and  price  are  the  same  as  in  the  above 
problem?     Ans. — 42.7  A. 

Five  farmers  sell  a  carload  of  650  bu.  of  mixed 
potatoes  at  42  cts.  a  bu.  They  divide  equally. 
How  much  does  each  receive?     Ans. — $54.40. 

Five  other  farmers  sell  a  carload  of  650  bu. 
of  uniform  potatoes  at  52  cts.  a  bu.  Divide 
the  returns  among  them  equally.     Ans. — $67.60. 

Jack  Smith  and  his  brother  Jim  belong  to  a 
potato  club.  Jack  spends  an  extra  day  select- 
ing his  seed  from  the  field  as  they  are  dug  for 
his  acre  of  potatoes.  Jim  takes  his  seed  at 
random  and  his  crop  yielded  98  bu.  an  acre  while 
Jack's  yielded  140  bu.  an  acre.  How  much  did 
Jack  make  the  day  he  selected  his  seed  potatoes 
if  potatoes  are  worth  50  cts.  a  bu.?     Ans.  $21. 

The  next  season  Jack  not  only  chose  his 
seed  from  the  field  as  the  potatoes  were  dug 
but  noticing  some  scabby  potatoes  he  bought 
a  pint  of  formalin  for  50  cts.  which  he  mixed 
with  35  gak.  of  water.  Just  before  cutting 
the  potatoes  for  planting  he  soaked  them  in 
this  solution  for  2  hours  and  killed  the  scab. 
Jack  raised  200  bu.  an  acre  which  he  sold  for 
55  cents  a  bu.  Jim  raised  110  bu.  which  on 
account  of  scab  sold  for  40  cts.  a  bu.  Find 
Jack's  profits  over  Jim's.     Ans. — $66. 

F.  E.  Bugbee  of  Hastings,  Fla.,  reports  as 
follows  on  untiled  land:  Cost  of  raising  crop 
$88.50  an  acre,  gross  income  $130  an  acre. 
Find  the  net  income  on  12§  acres.  Ans. — 
$518.75. 

Mr.  Bugbee  tile-drained  a  part  of  his  land  at  a 
cost  of  $30  an  acre.  On  this  land  the  cost  of 
raising  a  crop  was  $147.50  an  acre  and  the  gross 
income  was  $390  an  acre.  How  many  times 
did  his  clear  profit  on  one  acre  pay  for  the 
tiling?     Ans. — 8  times. 

In  the  Twin  Falls  country  of  Idaho  the  yield 
of  potatoes  is  from  100  to  700  bu.  per  acre. 
The  cost  of  producing  a  150-bu.  crop  there  is 
estimated  at  $44  an  acre.  At  that  rate  what  is 
the  profit  on  10  acres  when  potatoes  sell  at  50 
cts.  a  bu.?     Ans.— $310. 

If  by  increasing  the  expense  of  the  crop  to 
$95  an  acre  a  600-bu.  crop  may  be  raised,  what 
would  be  the  net  profit  on  10  acres  at  50  cents 
a  bu.?     Ans.— $2050. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


245 


POULTRY 

If  a  flock  of  80  hens  average  90  eggs  a  year, 
what  is  the  income  from  the  flock  with  eggs  at 
20  cts.  a  dozen?     Ans. — $120. 

How  many  bushels  of  corn  will  it  buy  at  45 
cts.  a  bu..''  Of  wheat  at  70  cts..''  Ans. — Corn, 
266|  bu.;  wheat,  171  f-  bu. 

A  flock  of  200  hens  average  90  eggs  a  year 
apiece.  If  the  average  price  of  eggs  for  the 
year  is  20  cts.  a  dozen,  what  is  the  value  of  the 
flock's  output.?'     Ans.— $300. 

If  it  takes  24  bu.  of  corn  at  50  cts.  a  bu.,  10 
bu.  of  oats  at  30  cts.,  and  $15  worth  of  other 
feed  to  keep  this  flock  for  one  year,  what  is 
the  profit  over  the  cost  of  the  feed?  Ans. — • 
$270. 

At  18  cts.  a  pound,  what  would  be  received 
from  60  hens  weighing  7.5  lbs.  each?  Ans. — 
$81. 

The  market  price  of  hens  was  18  cts.  a  pound. 
What  would  be  received  from  60  hens  each 
weighing  4.5  lbs.  if  the  dealer  docked  them 
one  cent  a  pound  from  the  regular  price  because 
they  were  small  and  thin?     Ans. — $45.90. 

A  farming  community  markets  all  their  eggs 
together.  If  each  farm  produces  30  eggs  a  day 
how  many  farms  will  be  needed  to  fill  7  cases 
each  holding  30  dozen  once  a  week?  Ans. — - 
12  farms. 

What  would  be  the  gain  per  day  on  each  farm 
if  5  cts.  extra  a  doz.  were  secured  by  keeping 
the  eggs  clean  and  packing  them  neatly  if  it 
took  a  boy  one  hour  each  day  whose  services 
were  worth  10  cts.  an  hour?     Ans. — $1.40. 

If  a  farmer's  wife  keeps  80  hens  and  each  hen 
lays  125  eggs  in  a  year,  how  much  will  her 
annual  income  be  with  eggs  at  21  cts.  a  doz.? 
Ans.— $175. 

If  12,000  lbs.  of  grain  costing  1  cent  a  pound 
is  required  to  feed  the  above  flock  a  year  and 
raise  300  young  chickens,  what  will  be  her 
gain  if  the  chicks  are  worth  35  cts.  each  and  the 
eggs  21  cts.  a  dozen?     Ans. — $160. 

PROBLEMS  WITH  THE  LEVER 

The  teeter-board  is  a  kind  of  lever.  The 
point  of  support  is  called  the  fulcrum.  The 
teeter-board  will  balance  when  the  weight  on 
one  end  multiplied  by  its  distance  from  the 
fulcrum  equals  the  product  of  the  weight  on 
the  other  by  its  distance  from  the  fulcrum. 


John,  who  weighs  75  lbs.,  sits  on  one  end  of 
the  teeter  6  ft.  from  the  fulcrum,  where  must  his 
brother  Oscar  sit  if  he  weighs  60  lbs.,  to  make 
the  teeter-board  balance? 
Process:     75X6  =  450 

450^60  =  7^.— 0--'^./     sits     7|    ft. 
from  fulcrum. 

Cyrus,  who  weighs  120  lbs.,  sits  on  one  end  of 
a  teeter  6  ft.  from  the  fulcrum,  how  far  from 
the  fulcrum  on  the  other  end  must  his  sister 
sit  who  weighs  90  lbs.?     Ans. — 8  ft. 

John  weighs  90  lbs.,  and  his  sister  Jane  45 
lbs.  Both  sit  on  one  end  of  a  teeter  8  ft.  from 
the  fulcrum.  Victoi'  weighs  120  lbs.  How  far 
from  the  fulcrum  on  the  other  end  must  he  sit 
to  balance  John  and  Jane?     Ans. — 9  ft. 

A  man  with  a  crowbar  6  ft.  long  places  one 
end  of  it  under  a  stone.  He  places  the  fulcrum, 
or  rest,  1  ft.  from  the  stone.  If  the  man  weighs 
160  lbs.,  how  heavy  a  stone  can  he  raise  with  the 
crowbar?  Ans. — 800  lbs. 

A  man  weighing  150  lbs.  has  a  piece  of  timber 
20  ft.  long  with  which  he  wishes  to  raise  the 
corner  of  a  building.  He  places  a  fulcrum  6  in. 
from  the  building,  how  many  pounds  can  he 
raise?     Ans. — ^5850  lbs. 

A  doubletree  is  made  for  2  horses  of  different 
weight.  One  end  is  18  in.  long  and  the  horse 
pulls  upon  it  with  a  force  of  150  lbs.  The  other 
end  of  the  doubletree  is  20  in.  long,  how  many 
pounds  must  that  horse  pull  to  keep  even  with 
the  first?     Ans.— 135  lbs. 

A  doubletree  is  4  ft.  long.  At  what  point 
must  it  be  attached  to  a  plow  so  that  one  horse 
will  pull  twice  as  much  as  the  other?  Ans. — 
16  in.;   32  in. 

(Note. — What  fraction  of  the  load  will  each 
horse  pull?) 

At  what  point  must  the  same  doubletree  be 
attached  so  that  one  horse  will  pull  Ij  times  as 
much  as  the  other?     Ans. — 2I5  in.;    26|  in. 

(Note. — What  fraction  of  the  entire  load  does 
each  horse  pull?) 

Two  horses  weigh  1600  lbs.  and  1200  lbs. 
respectively.  If  each  pulls  ^  of  his  own 
weight,  how  should  a  4-ft.  doubletree  be  at- 
tached so  they  will  pull  evenly?  Ans. — 27f  in. 
for  the  light  horse;   20f  in.  for  the  heavy  horse. 

(Note. — Find  what  fraction  of  the  load  each 
horse  pulls.) 


2I^6 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


ANIMAL  POWER 

The  word  "work"  is  used  with  different 
meanings.  Men  of  science  use  it  to  mean 
motion  against  resistance.  In  this  sense 
work  is  measured  in  foot-pounds.  A  boy 
pulling  with  a  force  of  2  pounds  moves  his 
little  wagon  10  feet.  The  work  done  is 
20  foot-pounds. 

Process:     2  X 10  =  20  foot-pounds. 
A  man  pushes  a  wheelbarrow  with  a  force 
of  20  pounds  long  enough  to  move  it  30  feet. 
The  work  done  is  600  foot-pounds. 
Process:     20X30  =600  foot-pounds. 
A  horse  pulling  with  a  force  of  150  pounds 
draws  a   load   10   rods.     The  work  done   is 
24,750  foot-pounds. 

Process:     10  rods  =  165  feet. 

150X165  =  24,750  foot-pounds. 
Rule. — Multiply   the  force   in   pounds   by   the 
distance  infect.     The  result  is  foot-pounds. 

How  much  work  is  done  when  a  100-lb.  boy 
climbs  to  the  top  of  a  40-ft.  windmill.'  Ans. — 
4000  foot-pounds. 

How  much  work  is  done  when  a  60-lb.  boy 
climbs  a  9-ft.  stairway.''     Ans. — 540  foot-pounds. 
How  much  work  does  a  1200-lb.  horse  do  in 
walking  up  a  150-ft.  hill?     Ans.— 18,000  foot- 
pounds. 

(Note. — The  force  necessary  to  pull  an  ob- 
ject or  tool  is  called  the  draft.) 

The  draft  of  a  certain  hand  cart  is  18  lbs. 
How  much  work  does  a  man  do  in  pushing  it  a 
mile.'  (5280  ft.  in  a  mile.)  Ans.— 95,040 
ft.-lbs. 

How  much  work  is  done  by  a  team  in  plowing 
a  furrow  40  rods  long  when  the  draft  of  the  plow 
is  450  lbs.?     Ans.— 297,000  ft.-lbs. 

A  horse  does  290,400  ft.-lbs.  of  work  in  draw- 
ing a  certain  wagon  one-half  mile.  What  is  the 
draft?     Ans.— 110  lbs. 

What  power  is  necessary  to  raise  grain  in  an 
elevator  to  a  height  of  50  ft.  at  the  rate  of  990 
bu.  an  hour?     Ans. — 49,500  ft.-lbs. 

(Note. — There  is  always  some  power  lost  by 
contact  of  surfaces  or  friction. 

In  the  foregoing  problem  what  power  will  be 
required  if  50%  of  it  is  lost  in  friction.  Ans. — 
99,000  ft.-lbs. 

If  there  could  be  such  a  thing  as  an  absolutely 
smooth  or  frictionless  horizontal  surface  a  load 
moving  along  it  would  never  stop,  or  in  other 
words  it  would  require  no  force  to  keep  it  going. 
But  as  there  is  always  friction  in  some  degree 
enough  force  must  be  used  to  overcome  it  if  the 
load  is  to  be  kept  in  motion.  By  the  use  of 
wheels,  lubricating  oils,  and  hard  road-beds, 
friction  may  be  greatly  reduced.  The  total 
force  necessary  to  keep  a  ton  moving  on  the 
best  level  macadam  road  may  be  as  low  as  30 
to  50  lbs.  On  a  hard,  level  earth  road  with  an 
ordinary  wagon  the  draft  or  traction  is  about 
150  lbs.  to  the  ton.  A  large  draft  horse  may 
easily  exert  a  force  of  150  lbs.  and  keep  this  up 
working  10  hours  a  day  walking  at  the  rate  of 
2.5  miles  per  hour.  This  amount  of  work, 
33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute,  is  called  a  horse- 
power. 


If  a  horse  is  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour  and 
pulling  150  lbs.  on  his  traces,  how  much  power 
is  he  developing?     Ans. — 1  horsepower. 
150X5280X2.5 

Process:  =  33,000  ft.-lbs.  a 

60  min.  or  1  horse- 

power. 

A  horse  is  walking  2.5  miles  per  hour  and 
pulling  100  lbs.  on  his  traces.     How  much  power 
is  he  developing?     Ans. — |  horsepower. 
100X5280X2.5 

Process:     =  §  horsepower. 

33000X60 

(Note. — Use  cancellation.) 

How  many  horsepower  is  a  horse  developing 
when  walking  5  miles  an  hour  and  pulling  60 
lbs.  on  his  traces?     Ans. — |  horsepower. 

How  many  horsepower  is  a  team  developing 
when  walking  4  miles  an  hour  and  steadily  pull- 
ing 165  lbs.?     Ans. — 1.7  horsepower. 

If  it  requires  a  1500-lb.  draft  horse  walking 
at  the  rate  of  2.5  mi.  an  hour  to  develop  1 
horsepower,  how  much  power  may  be  exerted 
by  a  1000-lb.  horse  walking  at  the  same  rate? 
Ans. — I  horsepower. 

Careful  tests  have  been  made  showing  that 
a  horse  may  be  expected  to  pull  about  j^q 
of  its  own  weight  and  keep  it  up  10  hours  a 
day  walking  2.5  miles  an  hour.  This  pulhng 
power  is  called  traction. 

If  a  horse  can  pull  steadily  with  a  force  equal 
to  jJjj  of  its  own  weight,  what  draft  will  a  1200-lb. 
horse  exert?     Ans.— 120  lbs. 

How  much  power  will  he  develop  walking  2.5 
mi.  an  hour?     Ans. — jg  horsepower. 

How  much  power  may  be  expected  from  a 
1500-lb.  horse  walking  at  the  same  rate?  Ans. 
— 1  horsepower. 

At  the  same  rate  how  much  power  may  be 
expected  from  an  1800-lb.  horse?  Ans. — 1| 
horsepower. 

What  should  be  the  pulling  power  of  a  two- 
horse  team,  one  weighing  1600  lbs.  and  the 
other  1200  lbs.  walking  at  the  rate  of  2.5  mi. 
per  hour  for  10  hours  a  day?     Ans. — 280  lbs. 

How  much  horsepower  is  this  team  develop- 
ing?    Ans. — 1.8  (plus)  horsepower. 

What  should  be  the  pulling  power  of  a  two- 
horse  team,  one  weighing  1500  lbs.  and  the  other 
1400  lbs.,  walking  at  the  rate  of  2.5  mi.  an  hour 
for  10  hours?     Ans. — 1{^  horsepower. 

If  a  horse  pulls  ^  of  its  own  weight  steadily 
for  10  hours  a  day  walking  2.5  mi.  an  hour,  how 
does  a  team  of  draft  horses  weighing  3200  lbs. 
compare  with  a  light  team,  weighing  1800  lbs.; 
in  horsepower?     Ans. — 2j^5  h.  p. 

COUNTING 


n  h.  p. 


12  things  are  one  dozen  (doz.). 

12  dozen  are  1  gross  (gro.). 

12  gross  are  1  great  gross  (G.  gro.). 

20  things  are  1  score. 

24  sheets  of  paper  are  1  quire. 

20  quires  or  480  sheets  are  1  ream. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


m 


TIME  MEASURE 

60  seconds  (sec.)  are  1  minute  (min.)- 
60  minutes  are  1  hour  (hr.). 
24  hours  are  1  day  (da.)- 
7  days  are  1  week  (wk.). 

2  weeks  are  1  fortnight. 

30  das.  (31,  28,  29  das.)  are  1  month  (mo.). 

3  months  or  13  weeks  are  1  quarter. 

12  months  or  365  days  are  1  common  year  (yr.) 
366  days  are  1  leap  year. 

10  years  are  1  decade. 
100  years  are  one  century  (C). 

WEIGHTS  OF  PRODUCE  IN  A  BUSHEL 

Wheat 60  lbs. 

Corn  in  the  ear 70  lbs.,  except  in  Miss., 

72  lbs.  in  Ohio,  68  lbs. 
in  Ind.  after  Dec.  1, 
and  in  Ky.  after  May  1 
following  the  time  of 
husking,  it  is  68  lbs. 

Com  shelled 56  lbs.,   except  in   Cal., 

54  lbs. 

Rye 56  lbs.,  except  in  Cal.,  54 

lbs.;  in  La.  32  lbs. 

Buckwheat 48  lbs.,  except  in  Cal..  40 

lbs;  Ky.,  56  lbs.;  Ida., 
N.D.,Okl.,Ore.,S.D., 
Tex.,  Wash.,  42  lbs.; 
Kan.,  Minn.,  N.  C, 
N.  J.,  Ohio.,  Tenn.,  50 
lbs. 

Barley .48  lbs.,  except  in  Ore., 

46  lbs.;  Ala.,  Ga.,  Ky., 
Pa.,  47  lbs.;  Cal.,  50 
lbs;  La.,  32  lbs. 

Oats ........32   lbs.,    except   in    Ida. 

and  Ore.,  36  lbs.;  in 
Md.,  26  lbs.;  in  N.  J. 
and  Va.,  30  lbs. 

Peas 60  lbs. 

White  beans 60  lbs. 

White  potatoes 60  lbs.,    except   in   Md., 

Pa.,  Va.,  56  lbs. 

Sweet  potatoes 55  lbs. 

Onions 57  lbs. 

Turnips 55  lbs. 

Dried  peaches 33  lbs. 

Dried  apples 26  lbs. 

Clover  seed 60  lbs.,  except  in  N.  J.,  64 

lbs. 

Flax  seed 56  lbs. 

Millet  seed 50  lbs. 

Hungarian  grass  seed   50  lbs. 

Timothy  seed 45  lbs.,  except  in  Ark.,  60 

lbs.;  N.  D.,  42  lbs. 

Blue  grass  seed 44  lbs. 

Hemp  seed 44  lbs. 

Corn  meal .50  lbs.,   except    in    Ala., 

Ark.,  Ga.,  111.,  Miss., 
N.  C,  Tenn.,  48  lbs. 

Bran 20  lbs. 


HANDY  VALUES 

1  bu.  =  2150.4  cu.  in. 

1  bu.  =  1J4  cu.  ft.  (approximately),  used  for 
wheat,  shelled  corn  and  all  small  grains. 

1  bu.  corn  on  cob  =  2}^^  cu.  ft. 

1  bu.  corn  in  husk  =  3)^4  cu.  ft. 

1  heaped  bu.  =  2747.7  cu.  in.  (used  for  apples, 
potatoes,  turnips). 

1  heaped  bu.  =  1  5/9  cu.  ft. 

1  gal.  =  231  cu.  in. 

1  gal.  water  =  834  lbs. 

1  gal.  average  milk  =  83^  lbs. 

Milk  averages  3.8%  butter-fat. 

1  lb.  butter-fat  =  1  1/6  lbs.  butter. 

1  bbl.  =  4  cu.  ft.  (approximately). 

lbbl.  =  31>igals. 

1  bbl.  cement  =  4  cu.  ft. 

1  bag  or  sack  cement  =  34  bbl. 

1  ton  of  well-packed  timothy  =  512  cu.  ft.   . 

1  ton  of  well-packed  clover  =  450  cu.  ft. 

1  cu.  ft.  water  =  623^^  lbs. 

1  cu.  ft.  of  ensilage  =  30  lbs.  (in  small  silo). 

1  cu.  ft.  of  ensilage  =  usual  daily  ration  for  a 
cow. 

1  cu.  ft.  =73^  gals,  (approximately). 

1  cord  =  128  cu.  ft. 

1  ear  of  seed  corn  has  about  800  kernels. 

Corn  shrinks  10%  or  more  the  first  6  months 
after  husking. 

1  roll  of  barbed  wire  weighs  100  lbs.  approxi- 
mately. 

1  roll  of  barbed  wire  =  1200  ft.  approximately. 

1  mile  =  5280  ft. 


Grains  and 
Vegetables 


Average 

Quantity  of 

Seed  per  Acre 

for  Planting 


Alfalfa 

Barley 

Blue  grass 

Buckwheat 

Clover 

Corn  (in  the  husk) . 
Corn,  shelled,check 


row 

Corn,  on  cob. .  . 
Corn,  ensilage  . 
Cotton,  upland 

Cowpea 

Oats 

Potato 

Rye 

Timothy 

Wheat 

Sweet  potatoes 

Beans 

Peas 

Corn  meal 

Bran 


30  lbs. 

8  pks. 
20  lbs. 

4  pks. 
12  lbs. 


7  qts. 

10  qts. 

6  pks. 

6  pks. 

23^  bu. 
10  bu. 

6  pks. 
15  lbs. 

8  pks. 


Legal  Weight 
per  Bushel 


60  lbs. 

48  lbs. 

14  lbs. 

48  lbs. 

60  lbs. 

72  lbs. 

56  lbs. 
70  lbs. 

32  lbs. 
60  lbs. 
32  lbs. 
60  lbs. 
56  lbs. 
45  lbs. 
60  lbs. 
55  lbs. 
60  lbs. 
60  lbs. 
48  lbs. 
20  lbs. 


(Legal  weights  vary  in  different  states.  See  above. 
Extra  fine  wheat  may  weigh  as  much  as  65  lbs.  per  bu 
Oats  sometimes  weigh  40  lbs  per  bushel.) 


2J^8 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


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FARM      SCIENCE      AND      PRACTICE 

There  is  widespread  and  growing  demand  for  practical  knowledge  concerning 
scientific  agriculture  and  country  life.  No  subject  now  taught  in  the  schools  can 
be  eliminated  without  serious  objection,  nor  does  there  seem  to  be  room  for  others 
to  be  crowded  in.  New  subjects  of  agriculture  and  country  life,  therefore,  must 
be  acquired  largely  through  the  old  subjects,  re-cast  and  re-directed  along  agri- 
cultural lines  so  that  the  child  in  the  country  or  in  suburban  districts  may  be  taught 
in  terms  of  his  own  environment.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  rural  science  and 
other  practical  subjects,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  in  daily  demand. 

No  subject  is  so  well  adapted  to  make  clear  the  results  of  the  best  agricultural 
practices  as  arithmetic.  It  may  be  used  to  drive  home  the  correct  principles  of 
farming  and  to  nail  them  fast  with  figures.  Moreover,  no  subject  is  more  popular 
with  boys  and  girls  than  arithmetic.  It  is,  therefore,  the  best  of  all  mediums  through 
which  to  introduce  scientific  agriculture. 

CHOOSING  A  FARM 

WHAT  are  the  two  points  to  con-  How  far   may    milk    and   grain    be 

sider  in  buying  a  farm?  hauled  to  market  ivith  'profit? 

The  economic,  or  money-  Three  miles  is  as  far  as  a  farmer  can 

making  vahie,  and  the  home  vakie.  profitably  haul  his   own   milk,   while 

What  is  the  home  value?  five  miles  is  a  long  haul  for  grains. 

A  healthful  location,  near  to  schools,  Ten  miles  is  not  too  far  to  market 

churches  and  desirable  neighbors.  stock. 

Which  should  be  considered  first,  the  What  relation  do  icagon  roads  bear 

home  or  economic  value?  to  farming? 

It  depends  whether  one  is  to  live  on  A  farmer  may  travel  two  miles  over 

the  farm  or  not.  a  hard  road  with  easy  grades  more 

Should  a  farmer  invest  all  his  capital  easily  and  quickly  than  over  one  mile 

in  land?  of  hilly  or  muddy  roads. 

It  may  be  safe  in  a  pioneer  country  What  other  things  should  be  con- 
where  values  are  bound  to  rise  but  in  sidered  in  locating? 
older  communities  the  higher  the  Electric  lines  add  greatly  to  the 
price  of  land  the  lesser  part  of  one's  value  of  a  farm,  also  telephone  lines, 
capital  should  be  invested  in  the  bare  The  occupation  of  the  other  farmers 
land.  may  help  to  advertise  a  section  for 

When  should  a  farmer  locate  near  a  fruit    or   fine    stock    and    thus    bring 

market?  buyers  that  way. 

If    he    intends    producing    cream.  For  an  investment  which  is  better — 

milk,  fruit  or  even  grain.  a  farm  ivith  no  improvements  or  one 

When  can  he  afford  to  locate  farther  with  extensive  improvements? 

from  a  market  or  shipping  point?  Better  than  either  is  a  farm  with 

If  he  is  a  stock  raiser,  because  they  moderate  improvements  just  sufficient 

can  be  driven  some  distance.  for  the  conduct  of  the  farm. 

Is  it  worth  while  to  pay  more  for  a  What  practice  of  farmers  has  con- 
farm  near  a  transco7itinental  railroad?  tributed  most  toward  exhausting  the  soil? 

Yes.     It  costs  more  to  ship  when  Raising  the  same  crop  on  a  given 

two  roads  must  be  used  to  reach  a  field  for  forty  or  fifty  years  without 

large  city  market.  fertilizing  or  manuring  or  rotating. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS 

Why   should   not   the   same   crop   be     foods  needed  by  the  crop  because  some 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  soil?  crops   make   a   special   drain   on   one 

It  will  tend  to  exhaust  certain  plant      element  of  food. 

249 


250 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


How  do  flants  differ  in  their  manner 
of  root  growth? 

Some  plants,  like  wheat,  are  shal- 
low-rooted and  are  surface  feeders, 
while  others  extend  their  roots  deeper. 

Why  is  it  wise  to  rotate  deep  and 
shallow  rooted  crops? 

Because  they  feed  at  different  depths 
and  this  plan  will  not  exhaust  the  soil 
so  quickly. 

What  other  reason  for  this  method? 

The  deep-rooted  crops  probably 
leave  near  the  surface  some  food  pro- 
cured deeper  in  the  soil. 

What  is  the  effect  of  shallow-rooted 
crops  following  deep-rooted  crops? 

They  always  prosper. 

How  does  rotation  affect  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil? 

Different  crops  receive  different 
cultivation  and  the  shortcomings  of 
one  crop  treatment  is  corrected  by 
the  preparation  for  the  next  crop  and 
thus  the  soil  is  kept  in  better  condition. 

Does  the  different  manner  of  rooting 
affect  the  soil? 

It  is  well  to  have  the  roots  of 
stubble,  clover  and  grasses  periodically 
left  in  the  soil  to  decay  to  improve  the 
texture  of  the  soil. 

What  effect  has  rotation  on  the 
farmer  s  labor? 

Rotation  distributes  the  care  of 
crops  throughout  the  season  and  thus 
economizes  labor,  and  enables  the 
farmer  to  keep  regular  help  which  is 
better  than  transient  help. 

Does  rotation  affect  plant  diseases? 

Most  plant  diseases  are  fungi  or 
bacteria  that  live  in  only  one  kind  of 


plant.  Therefore  rotation  starves 
them  out. 

What  effect  has  rotation  on  insects? 

Most  insects  have  their  favorite 
crops  and  as  many  of  them  live  only 
a  few  years  they,  too,  are  starved  out 
by  rotation. 

How  does  rotation  affect  weeds? 

Crops  are  cultivated  differently  and 
harvested  in  different  manners  and  at 
different  times  and  this  tends  to  drive 
out  weeds  by  striking  them  at  their 
weak  points. 

If  land  is  badly  infested  with  a  cer- 
tain weed  how  can  it  be  freed  from  it? 

By  leaving  out  of  the  rotation  the 
particular  crop  whose  cultivation  of- 
fers aid  to  the  weed. 

What  effect  has  rotation  on  the  size  of 
the  crop? 

Experiments  show  much  better  crop 
yields  where  rotation  is  practiced. 

Can  any  general  rules  he  given  for 
rotation? 

Every  rotation  should  include  at 
least  one  hoed  or  cultivated  crop  such 
as  corn  and  potatoes  and  one  legume 
such  as  clover. 

Why  is  the  hoed  crop  desirable? 

It  destroys  weeds  and  improves  tilth. 

Why  the  leguminous  crop? 

Because  legumes  are  deep-rooted 
and  get  food  from  the  subsoil;  they 
increase  the  nitrogen  supply  in  the 
soil  and  leave  it  porous. 

Give  a  general  rule  for  rotation. 

The  crops  should  vary  as  much  as 
possible  in  food  requirements,  manner 
of  growth,  root  system,  and  in  the 
season  during  which  they  occupy  the 
ground. 


PRESERVING  FOODS 


What  causes  canned  goods  to  spoil? 

The  presence  of  any  one  of  three 
living  organisms  will  cause  decay  of 
vegetable  or  animal  matter — they  are 
yeast,  molds,  and  bacteria. 


What  conditions   aid  the  groivth  of 
yeast  plants? 

They  need  warmth,  moisture,  sugar. 

How  does  the  yeast  plant  groic? 

By    budding,    that    is,    the    parent 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


261 


plant  divides  into  two  plants  and  these 
grow  and  divide,  and  the  process  con- 
tinues as  long  as  conditions  are  favor- 
able. 

Where  will  yeast  grow  most  easily? 

In  fruit  juice  and  slightly  sweetened 
fruit,  but  not  in  thick  sirups  or  pre- 
serves. It  is  easily  killed  by  a  high  or 
low  temperature. 

Hoiv  does  mold  get  a  start? 

The  spores  or  seeds  of  mold  are  very 
light  and  may  be  floating  in  the  air. 
When  they  lodge  on  a  warm,  moist 
surface  such  as  food  often  presents, 
they  germinate  and  cover  the  surface. 

Hoiv  may  violds  be  destroyed? 

By  exposure  to  a  high  temperature 
for  about  twenty  minutes. 

Where  do  bacteria  groio? 

Bacteria  multiply  rapidly  in  meat, 
milk,  and  legumes,  but  will  not  grow 
in  thick  sirups  or  acids. 

What  makes  fruit  juices  form  jelly? 

A  carbohydrate  resembling  starch 
called  pectin  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  juice  of  ripe  or  nearly  ripe  fruit. 
When  equal  amounts  of  sugar  and 
fruit  juice  are  mixed  and  heated  this 
pectin  causes  the  mixture  to  gelatinize 
or  form  jelly. 

What  are  the  essentials  in  canning  and 
preserving? 

Cleanliness  and  sterilization. 

How  shall  we  sterilize? 

By  scalding  or  boiling  all  kettles, 
jars,  strainers,  rubbers  and  other 
utensils  used  in  canning. 

Give  general  rules  for  canning  foods. 

Kill  all  germs  in  the  food  and  in- 
side the  cans  and  seal  while  hot  so 
as  to  prevent  other  germs  from  the 
air  to  enter. 

How  does  the  drying  of  fruits  and 
meats  preserve  them? 

Germs  or  bacteria  cannot  grow 
without  the  presence  of  water. 

Why  does  salting  meat  preserve  it? 

Because  bacteria  cannot  live  in  a 
strong  solution  of  common  salt. 


Does  putting  fruit  and  meat  in  cold 
storage  kill  the  bacteria? 

A  low  temperature  simply  keeps 
them  from  growing  and  multiplying. 
They  begin  to  act  as  soon  as  the  tem- 
perature rises. 

How  does  smoking  meat  preserve  it? 

Smoking  coats  the  outside  of  the 
meat  with  a  thin  layer  of  creosote 
which  not  only  kills  all  germs  present 
but  gives  the  meat  a  different  flavor. 

What  effect  has  sugar  on  keeping 
qualities? 

Sugar  is  a  preservative  against  the 
action  of  germs.  It  is  used  in  curing 
meats  and  extensively  in  preserving 
fruit. 

Why  does  preserving  keep  fruit? 

"Boiling  down"  for  a  long  time  kills 
the  germs  and  drives  off  the  water, 
making  conditions  unfavorable  to 
growth. 

What  makes  milk  sour? 

Germs  or  bacteria. 

Where  do  they  come  from? 

The  air  is  full  of  germs,  the  dust 
from  the  barn  is  laden  with  them  and 
they  are  on  the  milk  pail  and  the 
hands  of  the  milker. 

How  should  we  care  for  milk  cans  and 
pails? 

They  should  all  be  thoroughly 
washed  and  scalded  and  placed  in  the 
sunlight  which  is  an  enemy  to  germs. 

What  causes  butter  to  become  rancid 
and  how  prevented? 

Bacteria.  It  is  best  overcome  by 
working  out  all  the  water  which  bac- 
teria need  and  mixing  in  salt. 

What  makes  cider  turn  to  vinegar? 

The  solid  slimy  mass  known  as 
mother  of  vinegar  is  a  vast  colony  of 
bacteria.  It  is  the  action  of  these 
that  causes  the  change. 

Where  do  the  vinegar-making  bac- 
teria come  from? 

From  the  air  and  from  the  barrel. 
The  process  may  be  hastened  by  in- 
troducing "mother  of  vinegar." 


£52 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


PLANT  LIFE  IN  THE  GARDEN,  ORCHARD,  VINEYARD  AND 

GREENHOUSE 


What  are  the  parts  of  a  plant? 

There  are  five:  root,  stem,  leaf, 
flower  and  seed. 

What  are  the  uses  of  the  root? 

The  roots  hold  the  plant  in  place 
and  prevent  its  blowing  away,  they 
take  nourishment  and  moisture  from 
the  soil;  and  serve  as  storage  places 
for  plant  food. 

What  is  a  root  cap? 

The  tip  of  the  tender  root  has  a 
little  cap  on  the  end  to  enable  it  to 
force  its  way  among  the  soil  particles 
without  injury. 

What  are  root  hairs? 

They  are  a  hair-like,  velvety  growth 
covering  the  real  roots. 

What  is  the  use  of  root  hairs? 

The  root  hairs  present  a  much 
greater  surface  through  which  the 
plant  may  absorb  food  and  moisture. 

Do  the  real  or  fibrous  roots  absorb 
food  and  moisture? 

No,  this  is  the  work  of  the  root 
hairs,  which  cover  the  fibrous  roots. 

Hoiv  do  the  root  hairs  take  their  food? 

Their  walls  are  very  thin  and  the 
plant  food  in  order  to  enter  must  be 
in  a  soluble  or  watery  form  which  will 
pass  through  these  thin  walls. 

What  is  this  passing  of  liquids 
through  the  thin  partitions  of  the  mem- 
branes called? 

It  is  called  osmosis.  It  is  the  same 
process  as  that  by  which  the  food 
passes  from  the  alimentary  canal  of 
animals  into  the  blood. 

What  are  the  uses  of  plant  stems? 

They  support  the  leaves  and  hold 
them  up  in  the  air  and  sunlight. 
They  serve  as  storehouses  for  starch 
and  sugar  and  other  forms  of  plant 
food  for  the  future  use  of  plants. 
The  stems  are  also  channels  for  the 
passage  of  sap  through  the  plant. 


What  is  the  use  of  the  sap? 

It  carries  raw  plant  food  from  roots 
to  leaves  and  then  carries  the  manu- 
factured food  like  starch  and  sugar  to 
the  place  where  it  is  needed  to  build 
up  the  plant  or  to  the  place  of  storage. 

What  uses  have  leaves? 

The  leaves  give  off  water  to  the  air, 
take  carbon  from  the  air,  and  change 
raw  plant  food  to  starch  and  sugar. 
They  are  the  food  factory  of  the  plant. 

In  ivhat  form  does  carbon  exist  in  the 
air? 

The  air  contains  carbonic  acid  gas 
which  is  composed  of  oxygen  and  car- 
bon. It  is  sometimes  called  carbon 
dioxide^ 

From  what  does  the  air  obtain  car- 
bonic acid  gas? 

It  is  exhaled  or  breathed  off  by  all 
animal  life.  It  is  also  given  off  by 
decaying  plant  life. 

How  does  the  leaf  get  hold  of  carbonic- 
acid  gas? 

The  air  may  enter  the  leaf  through 
openings  on  the  under  side  called 
stomata  which  means  "mouths." 

Hoiv  does  the  leaf  separate  the  car- 
bonic-acid gas  into  oxygen  and  carbon? 

The  heat  furnished  by  sunlight  and 
the  green  coloring  matter  of  leaves 
called  chlorophyll  act  together  and 
separate  the  oxygen  from  the  carbon. 

What  becomes  of  the  oxygen?  and 
carbon? 

The  oxygen  is  given  off  to  the  air 
and  the  carbon  is  combined  with  other 
food  elements  to  make  such  compounds 
as  starch  and  sugar  which  are  then 
ready  to  build  up  the  plant. 

What  is  the  use  of  chlorophyll? 

Only  the  plants  that  have  the  green 
chlorophyll  are  able  to  use  carbon 
dioxide  from  the  air  to  manufacture 
starch  and  sugar. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


253 


What  about  the  'plants  that  grotv  in 
the  dark? 

Mushrooms  grow  in  dark  places 
and  can  get  no  food  from  the  air 
because  they  have  no  green  chloro- 
phyll. Their  food  comes  from  partly 
decomposed  matter  in  the  soil. 

Whatismeanthythe  balance  in  nature? 

Animals  need  large  quantities  of 
oxygen  which  plants  give  off  while 
plants  need  large  amounts  of  carbon 
dioxide  which  animals  give  off.  What 
is  poison  or  waste  of  animals  is  food 
for  plants,  and  the  reverse  is  also  true. 

What  things  besides  plant  food  are 
needed  for  plants? 

Plants  need  light,  heat,  moisture, 
and  air. 

What  is  the  main  aim  of  life  for  all 
plants? 

To  produce  seed. 

What  part  of  the  plant  bears  the  seed? 

The  flower. 

What  parts  has  a  perfect  flower? 

Pistils  and  stamens. 

What  is  the  office  of  the  stamens? 

Stamens  are  the  male  part  of  the 
flower.  They  bear  the  yellow  dust 
or  pollen  which  is  needed  to  fertilize 
the  pistil  or  female  part  to  enable  it 
to  produce  seed. 

What  are  imperfect  flowers? 

When  the  flowers  of  a  plant  do  not 
contain  both  male  and  female  parts 
they  are  known  as  imperfect  flowers. 

How  do  imperfect  flowers  bear  seed? 

The  pollen  must  be  carried  to  the 
flowers  having  the  pistils  by  some 
means. 

How  is  it  carried? 

The  pollen  of  corn,  which  is  light, 
is  carried  by  the  wind.  In  some  cases 
it  is  carried  by  insects,  such  as  bees. 

What  is  cross-pollination? 

Plants  are  cross-pollinated  when 
the  pollen  is  taken  from  one  to  an- 
other by  some  means.  Some  varieties 
of  apples,  pears,  peaches  and  plums 
will  not  bear  fruit  if  grown  by  them- 


selves, but  will  bear  abundantly  if 
pollinated  by  other  varieties  that 
blossom  at  the  same  time. 

Describe  a  seed. 

A  seed  bears  within  its  coat  a  minute 
plant  called  a  germ. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  this  germ  or 
tiny  plant? 

To  develop  into  a  new  plant  like 
the  parent  when  proper  conditions 
are  offered. 

How  can  the  seeds  begin  to  grotv  ivith 
no  leaves  in  the  air  and  no  roots  in  the 
ground? 

Some  nourishment  prepared  by  the 
parent  plant  is  stored  up  in  the  seed 
to  feed  it  until  it  can  put  forth  leaves 
and  roots  of  its  own. 

Where  is  this  store  of  nourishment? 

In  the  bean  it  is  in  the  two  seed 
leaves.  In  the  corn  kernel  a  store 
of  starch  is  found  about  the  germ. 

What  part  of  the  stem  carries  the 
water  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves? 

In  plants  with  netted  veins  in  the 
leaves  the  water  passes  up  mainly 
through  the  ducts  or  channels  in  the 
outer  wood. 

How  are  plants  classified? 

They  may  be  classified  in  different 
ways.  According  to  length  of  life  as 
annuals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 

What  are  annuals? 

Annuals  are  plants  that  live  only 
one  year  from  the  planting  of  the  seed 
to  the  production  of  the  new  seed, 
such  as  oats,  peas,  beans  and  to- 
matoes. 

What  are  biennials? 

Biennials  live  two  years  from  seed 
to  seed,  such  as  cabbages,  parsnips 
and  common  mullein. 

What  are  perennials? 

Perennials  live  more  than  two  years, 
such  as  asparagus,  alfalfa,  straw- 
berries and  trees. 

How  do  we  know  that  different  plants 
take  different  amounts  of  plant  foods 
from  the  soil? 


25If 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Chemists  have  analyzed  various 
plants  and  thus  ascertained  what 
elements  they  contain  and  in  what 
proportion. 

How  many  elements  in  the  soil? 

Between  seventy  and  eighty  are 
known. 

Why  are  they  called  elements? 

Because  scientists  have  not  been 
able  to  separate  them  into  similar 
substances. 

Are  most  materials  that  ive  know 
simple  elements? 

Most  materials  are  compounds,  that 
is,  they  are  combinations  of  two  or 
more  elements  combined  in  different 
proportions. 

What  are  some  compounds  that  make 
diferent  articles  because  the  proportion 
of  their  elements  differ? 

Alcohol,  sugar,  starch,  and  fats  all 
contain  the  same  elements,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  but  in  different 
proportions. 

Are  there  many  compounds  in  a  single 
plant? 

Yes,  but  they  may  be  separated  and 
known. 

What  proportion  of  corn  plant  is 
water? 

One  thousand  pounds  of  mature 
corn  contains  nearly  800  pounds 
water,  12.7  pounds  hydrogen,  and 
88.9  pounds  oxygen,  and  since  both 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  come  from 
water  nearly  900  pounds  of  the  1000, 
or  nine-tenths  of  the  corn  plant,  is  water. 

Is  this  nine-tenths  of  the  plant's 
weight  all  the  water  it  needs  to  grow? 

It  is  only  a  small  part,  for  the  leaves 
are  constantly  giving  off  moisture  to 
the  air,  and  it  is  from  this  moisture 
that  the  plant  obtains  mineral  foods. 

Hoiv  many  pounds  of  water  does  the 
plant  use  for  every  pound  of  dry  matter? 

About  300  pounds  of  water  passes 
through  the  plant  for  each  pound  of 
dry  matter  produced. 

About  how  much  water  is  needed  by 


an  acre  of  good  corn  during  the  growing 
period? 

About  900  tons,  an  amount  if  spread 
over  the  acre  would  be  nearly  8  inches 
deep. 

Does  this  include  the  water  lost  from 
the  land  by  drainage? 

No,  about  as  much  water  runs 
away  and  passes  down  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  roots  of  the  corn  as  is 
used  by  the  crop,  so  that  about  1800 
tons  of  water  should  fall  upon  an 
acre  of  growing  corn. 

How  does  the  plant  obtain  moisture? 

It  all  comes  from  the  ground 
through  the  roots. 

In  what  other  way  is  water  useful  to 
plant  life? 

Besides  furnishing  about  nine-tenths 
of  the  plant's  weight,  it  dissolves 
other  plant  foods  in  the  soil  and  puts 
them  in  shape  to  be  taken  up  in  a 
liquid  form  by  the  roots. 

What  makes  a  plant  wilt  on  a  very 
hot  day? 

Because  the  leaves  are  giving  off 
moisture  to  the  air  faster  than  the 
roots  can  supply  it  to  the  plant. 

Is  there  any  other  factor  so  important 
to  plant  life  as  proper  moisture? 

No.  More  soils  fail  to  produce 
good  crops  for  lack  of  proper  moisture 
than  for  any  other  cause. 

Do  plants  get  any  food  from  the  air? 

Nearly  half  of  the  dry  matter  in  the 
plant  consists  of  carbon,  all  of  which 
comes  from  the  air  in  the  form  of 
carbonic-acid  gas. 

Is  carbonic-acid  gas  pure  carbo7i? 

It  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and 
oxygen,  but  the  plants  separate  these 
elements,  retain  the  carbon  and  set  the 
oxygen  free. 

Hoiv  is  this  done? 

The  green  coloring  matter  of  the 
leaves  or  the  chlorophyll  with  the  help 
of  the  heat  energy  furnished  by  the 
sunlight  breaks  apart  the  carbon  and 
oxygen. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  255 

Is  sunlight  necessary  to  this  process?  Where  do  plants  get  their  supply  of 

Plants  grow  more  vigorously  in  full  nitrogen. 

sunlight  than  in  shade,  and  at  night  From  the  soil  only, 

this  growing  process  ceases.  Where  does  the  soil  get  nitrogen  for 

Will   not   plants   germinate    in    the  the  growing  crops? 

J    ug  A  small  part  comes  directly  irom 

,  the    atmosphere,     brought    by     rain 

They  grow  until  they  use  up  the  ^^^^^      -3^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  nitrogen  is 

food  stored  m  the  seed  but  they  have  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^j^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  j^  ^^^ 

no  power  to  use  the  food  in  the  air  ^^jj   ^^   bacteria   that   live   in    small 

and  soil  without  chlorophyll  and  sun-  ^^.^^y^^^^  ^^  nodules  on  the  roots  of 

light.     Analysis  shows  that  the  plant  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^jj^^  legumes,  such  as 

grown  in  the  dark  contains    ess  dry  ^j^^^^^^  ^j^^j^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  cow^es.,  and 

matter  whan  was  present  in  the  seed.  ^^^  j-j.^ 

How  does  the  plant  use  carbon?  jJq^^  can  the  farmer  help  these  bac- 

It   causes   the   carbon    to   combine  teria? 

with  water  and  mineral  matter  which  By  stirring  the  soil  so  the  air  can 

are  taken  through  the  roots,  and  these  enter  it,  for  bacteria  cannot  live  with- 

elements  form  carbohydrates  of  which  out  oxygen  from  the  air. 

the  plant  is  composed.  What  part  of  the  green  plant  comes 

Is  it  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  buy  from  the  air? 

carbon  to  fertilize  his  soil?  Including   w^ater,    ninety-eight   and 

The   atmosphere   furnishes   free   an  one-half  per  cent  comes  from  the  air 

inexhaustible  supply  of  carbon  for  all  ff  ^  of  cost  and  the  supply  of  these 

.    .  •  elements  01  lood  in  the  air  is  beyond 

4-1 

What  is  the  most  costly  plant  food?  """"y^^  ^j^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^   -^ 

Nitrogen.  ^^^  qi]^^^.  ^^g  ^^^^  one-half  per  cent  of 

Do  plants  contain  a  high  percentage  green  plants? 

of  nitrogen?  There  are  about  a  dozen,  but  the 

Nitrogen  forms  only  from  one  to  three  demanding  the  farmer's  atten- 
three  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter  or  tion  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and 
about  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  potash.  The  other  elements  are  gen- 
green  plant.  But  a  crop  must  have  erally  found  in  the  soil  in  abundance 
this  proportion  in  order  to  thrive.  except  occasionally  lime  is  missing. 


S56 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


0i 


•t-y 


^       .^.  ,-.,  :•':  V^sJ-"- .   ■■ 


\ ,  '^i .  .^^ 


STOCK  FEEDING 


Foods  may  be  said  to  serve  two 
purposes.  They  either  build  up  the 
body  or  furnish  heat  and  energy. 
They  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fat. 

Protein  is  a  name  given  to  a  group 
of  feeds  or  compounds  from  which 
animals  make  muscle  or  lean  flesh, 
bone,  hair  or  wool,  tendons,  nerve, 
casein,  and  albumen  in  milk,  etc. 
Since  no  other  compound  can  take 
the  place  of  protein  it  is  important 
that  enough  of  this  be  fed  or  the  ani- 
mal cannot  keep  up  in  flesh  and  pro- 
duction or  work.  If  too  much  pro- 
tein is  fed  it  will  replace  the  other 
food  elements,  but  as  feeds  containing 
a  high  percentage  of  protein  are  usu- 
ally expensive  it  is  unwise  to  feed 
more  of  it  than  is  needed.  Feeds 
containing  a  large  proportion  of  pro- 
tein, such  as  clover,  bran,  and  oil 
meal,  are  called  nitrogenous  foods. 

Carbohydrates  (C.  H.)  are  those 
compounds  in  feed  that  are  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but 


have  no  nitrogen.  Sugar,  starch,  fi- 
ber and  others  are  carbohydrates. 
They  are  used  in  the  body  to  produce 
fat  or  are  burned  to  produce  heat  or 
energy.  They  cannot  take  the  place 
of  protein. 

Fat.  The  oils,  wax  and  fats  con- 
tained in  feed  are  called  fats.  In 
the  animal  body  they  are  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  are  carbohydrates. 
One  pound  of  fat  is  equal  to  23^  pounds 
of  carbohydrates. 

The  work  horse  and  cow  of  average 
size  require  daily  about  two  pounds  of 
protein  and  twelve  pounds  of  carbo- 
hydrates. 

If  a  farmer  intends  to  feed  his  ani- 
mals without  waste  he  must  give 
them  protein  and  heat  and  fat  pro- 
ducing elements  (which  latter  includes 
C.  H.  and  fats)  in  certain  proportions. 
It  may  be  1  :  6  or  1  :  11  or  some  other 
proportion.  This  correct  proportion 
is  called  a  balanced  ration  which  is 
indicated  by  figures  called  a  nutritive 
ratio. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


257 


The  following  table  gives  the  di-     contained  in  certain  feeds.     The  fats 
gestible    protein    and    carbohydrates      are  included  with  the  carbohydrates. 


Corn  fodder .... 
Timothy  hay ... 

Clover  hay 

Cowpea  hay .... 

Alfalfa  hay 

Oat  straw 

Wheat  straw .  .  .  . 

Wheat  bran 

Corn 

Oats 

Cotton  seed  meal 

Corn  stover 

Corn  silage 

Skim  milk 


Estimated  Price 


$3perT 

$12  per  T 

$12  per  T 

$12  per  T 

$12  per  T 

$18  per  T..  .  . 
49  cts.  per  bu . 
37  cts.  per  bu . 

$30  per  T 

$5perT 

$3perT 

20  cts.  per  cwt 


IN  100  LBS.  OF  FEED 


Protein 


lbs. 


2.5 
2.8 
6.8 

10.5 

11. 
1.2 
.4 

12.2 
7.9 
9.2 

37.2 
1.7 
.9 
2.9 


Protein 


per  cent 


2.5% 
2.8% 
6.8% 

10.5% 

11% 

1.2% 

.4% 

12.2% 

7.9% 

9.2% 
37.2% 

1.7% 


70 
2.9% 


Carbohydrates 
(Including  Fats) 


lbs. 


37.3 
46.6 
39.6 
40. 
42.4 
40.4 
37.2 
45.3 
76.4 
56.8 
44.4 
34. 
12.9 
5.9 


per  cent 


37.3% 
46.6% 
39.6% 
40% 
42.4% 
40.4% 
37.2% 
45.3% 
76.4% 
56.8% 
44.4% 
34% 
12.9% 
5.9% 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  100  POUNDS  OF  VARIOUS  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Alfalfa  hay 

Apples 

Barley,  grain 

Beet,  mangel 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Clover,  red  (green) .  . 
Clover,  red  (hay) .  .  .  . 
Corn  fodder,  dry .... 

Corn,  grain 

Corn  silage 

Corn  stover 

Cottonseed  meal .... 

Cowpea  hay 

Linseed  meal 

Meat  scrap 

Milk,  cows' 

Skim  milk  (separator) 

Buttermilk 

Hay  (mi.^ced  grasses) . 

Oat  straw 

Oats,  grain 

Potatoes 

Pumpkin,  field 

Rye,  grain 

Rye  bran 

Rye  straw 

Soy-bean 

Timothy  hay 

Turnip,  flat 

Wheat,  grain 

Wheat  bran . 

Wheat  middlings .... 
Wheat  straw 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 


lbs.  or  % 


91.6 
19.0 
89.1 

9.1 
15.3 
11.4 
29.2 
84.7 
57.8 
89.1 
20.9 
59.5 
91.8 
89.3 
89. 
89.3 
12.8 

9.4 

9.9 
87.1 
90.8 
89. 
21.1 
19.1 
88.4 
88.4 
92.9 
89.2 
86.8 

9.5 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
90.4 


POUNDS   AND   PER   CENTS   OF 
DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS 


Protein 


lbs. 


11. 

8 
1 
1 


2. 

6. 

2.5 

7.9 

.9 

1.7 

37.2 

10.8 

28.2 

66.2 

3.6 

2.9 

3.9 

5.9 

1.2 

9.2 

.9 

1.4 

9.9 

11.5 

.6 

29.6 

2.8 

1.0 

10.2 

12.2 

12.8 

.4 


% 


11. 

.7 

8.7 

1.1 

1.8 

.8 

2.9 

6.8 

2.5 

7.9 

.9 

1.7 

37.2 

10.8 

28.2 

66.2 

3.6 

2.9 

3.9 

5.9 

1.2 

9.2 

.9 

1.4 

9.9 

11.5 

.6 

29.6 

2.8 

1.0 

10.2 

12.2 

12.8 

.4 


C.  H.  and  Fat  X2.25 


lbs. 


42.3 

18.8 

69.1 

5.6 

9.1 

8.3 

16.4 

39.6 

37.3 

76.4 

12.9 

34.0 

44.4 

40. 

47. 

31.1 

13.2 

5.9 

6. 

43. 

40. 


.5 
.6 
.4 


56.8 


.5 
.5 
.1 


16. 

6. 
70. 
54.8 
41.5 
54.7 
46.6 

7.7 
73. 
45.3 
60.7 
37.2 


% 


42.3 
18.8 
69.1 

5.6 

9.1 

8.3 
16.4 
39.6 
37.3 
76.4 
12.9 
34. 
44.4 
40. 
47. 
31. 
13. 

5. 

6. 
43. 
40.4 
56.8 
16. 

6. 
70. 
54.8 
41.5 
64.7 
46.6 

7.7 
73. 
45.3 
60.7 
37.2 


.1 

.2 
.9 
.5 
.6 


.5 

.5 

1 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


3.8 

26.8 
7.9 
5.1 
5.1 

10.4 
5.7 
5.8 

14.9 
9.7 

14.3 

20 
1.2 
3.9 

0.5 

3.7 

2. 

1.7 

7.4 

33.7 
6.2 

18.3 
4.6 
7.1 
4.8 

69.2 
1  8 

16  6 
7.7 
7.2 
3.7 
4.7 

93. 


258 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Some  animals  require  one  ratio  and 
other  animals  a  different  ratio  depend- 
ing upon  whether  the  animal  is  young 
and  growing  or  mature,  whether  it  is 
at  work  or  at  rest.  Ratios  are  said  to 
be  wide  or  medium  or  narrow.  Timo- 
thy hay  (1  :  16.6)  is  wide;  alfalfa 
(1  :  S.8)  is  a  narrow  ratio. 
Finding  the  ratio 

The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by 
dividing  the  pounds  of  protein  in  a 
feed  or  ration,  into  the  pounds  of 
C.  H.  (including  the  fats).  This  may 
be  more  easily  understood  by  putting 
these  amounts  in  the  form  of  a  frac- 
tion, in  which  the  protein  is  the  nu- 
merator and  the  C.  H.  including  fats 
is  the  denominator.  Thus  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  of 

Alfalfa  =  7j^  (See  table  Page  257) 


Divide  both  terms  of  the  fraction 

by  the  numerator 

11         11       1 
42.3    ■    11  ~  3.8 

1 


3.8 


is  the  same  as  1 :3.8 


Feeding  standards 

Different  animals  require  different 
quantities  of  feed  and  different  nu- 
tritive ratios.  A  dairy  cow  producing 
milk  must  have  a  feed  rich  in  protein, 
a  dry  cow  does  not  require  so  much 
protein.  A  horse  at  heavy  work  re- 
quires a  different  feed  from  that  of 
one  at  rest;  a  growing  pig  from  a 
mature  hog  that  is  being  fattened  for 
market. 

The  following  table  shows  the 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  per 
day  in  feeding  standards  upon  the 
basis  of  1000  pounds  of  live  weight. 


FEEDING  RATIONS  PER  DAY  FOR  1000  LBS.  OF  LIVE  WEIGHT 


Oxen  at  rest  in  stall 

Growing  pigs 

Fattei  ing  swine 

Growing  -alves 

Fattening  cattle 

Horse  (light  work) 

Horse  (heavy  work) 

Dairy  cow  (giving  1 1  lbs.  milk  daily) .  .  . 
Dairy  cow  (giving  16.5  lbs.  milk  daily)  . 
Dairy  cow  (giving  22  lbs.  of  milk  daily) . 

Dairy  cow  (27 . 5  lbs.) 

Wool  sheep  (coarse  breed) 

Wool  sheep  (fine  breeds) 


Dry 

Matter 


18  lbs. 

36  lbs. 

32  lbs. 

30  lbs. 

30  lbs. 

20  lbs. 

26  lbs. 
25  lbs. 

27  lbs. 
29  lbs. 
32  lbs. 
20  lbs. 
23  lbs. 


DIGESTIBLE 


Protein 


0.7  lbs. 

4.5  lbs. 

4  lbs. 

2.5  lbs. 


lbs. 
lbs. 
lbs. 
lbs. 
lbs. 


2  5  lbs. 
3.3  lbs. 
1 . 2  lbs. 
15  lbs. 


C.  H. 

including 

Fats(X2M) 


8.2  lbs. 

26.6  lbs. 
25.1  lbs. 
16.1  lbs. 
16.1  lbs. 

10  4  lbs. 
15.1  lbs. 

10.7  lbs. 

11  9  lbs. 
14  1  lbs. 

14.8  lbs. 
11  lbs. 
12.7  lbs. 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


1:11.8 


Bran  alone  does  not  make  a  bal- 
anced ration  for  a  cow  because  if  a 
sufficient  amount  of  bran  is  fed  to 
furnish  two  pounds  of  protein  the 
cow  does  not  get  enough  C.  H.  If 
enough  is  fed  to  furnish  the  correct 
amount  of  C.  H.,  then  she  is  given 
more  protein  than  she  can  use,  and  it 
is  wasted.  Bran  is  not  only  too  ex- 
pensive but  too  concentrated  and 
should  be  fed  sparingly.     Hay,  fodder. 


silage  and  the  like  will  give  the  proper 
bulk  for  a  ration  and  furnish  cheaper 
food. 

Since  protein  is  the  element  of  food 
most  commonly  lacking  in  feed  rations 
on  the  farm,  every  feeder  should  make 
sure  that  he  is  providing  enough  pro- 
tein. The  cheapest  way  to  provide 
protein  is  to  raise  a  legume  such  as 
clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  whicl? 
is  very  rich  in  protein. 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER  259 

If  a  farmer  must  buy  protein  it  is  ter  may  vary  two  or  three  pounds  from 

best  to  estimate  its  cost  according  to  the  exact  amounts  called  for  on  page 

the  percentage  as  given  on  page  258  258  without  much  consequence, 

and  the  market  price.     In  the  fore-  Mixing  a  Ration 

going  problems   it  is   figured  on   an  It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  a  ration 

average    market    price.     It    must    be  ^^ch   day.     Mix  the  grain  ration  in 

remembered  that  it  does  not  cost  a  proper  proportions  and  use  a  measure 

farmer    $12    a    ton    to    raise    clover,  ^^at  contains   the  right    amount  for 

cowpea,    or    alfalfa    hay,    but    more  ^^ch  animal.     Weigh  the  hay  once  or 

nearly  $4  a  ton.  twice  and  thereafter  it  can  be  estimated 

Heat  value  of  fats  with  sufficient  accuracy. 

By  careful  test  it  has  been  shown  Each  pupil  should  try  to  make  a 

that  one  pound  of  fat  will  produce  ration  for  a   1000-pound  cow  giving 

234  times  as  much  heat  or  energy  as  163^2  pounds   milk,   using  such  feeds 

one  pound  of  carbohydrates.*     In  the  as  are  commonly  used  on  your  farm, 

table  on  page  258  the  fats  are  included  You  will  have  to  make  several  trials 

in  the  C.  H.     Many  tables  give  them  perhaps    before    you    get    the    right 

separately   and   the   farmer   or   pupil  amounts.     Remember    that    if    your 

should  know  how  to  deal  with  such  ratio  is  too  wide  it  needs  more  protein 

tables.  and  therefore  use  more  clover,  alfalfa 

Dry  matter  or  cowpea  hay  or  if  your  feed  is  al- 

The  mature  student  will  take  note  ready  too  bulky,  that  is,  if  it  already 

that  the  bulk  of  the  ration — that  is,  has  too  much  dry  matter,  then  use 

the   pounds   of   dry   matter   in   each  bran   or   linseed   meal   or  cottonseed 

ration — has  been  omitted  for  the  sake  meal,   or  some  concentrated  food  to 

of  making  the  problems  simple.     In  reduce  the  ratio  to  suit  your  animal, 

compounding  the  ration  the  dry  mat-  The  dry  matter  should  be  within  a  few 

ter  is  important.     The  dry  matter  in  pounds    of    the    amount    required    in 

each  ration  may  easily  be  computed  table,  page  258.     The  amount  of  dry 

from  the  percentage  given  in  column  matter   is   found   by    using   the   per- 

1,  page  258.     The  amount  of  dry  mat-  centages  given  in  column  1,  page  258. 


FERTILIZERS 

James  J.  Hill  tested  151  farms  in  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen,  and  potash, 

the  northwest  for  wheat,  barley  and  Since  a  crop  of  clover  or  other  legumes 

oats.     By    applying    8.9    pounds    of  may  furnish  all  the  needed  nitrogen 

nitrogen,  47  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  it  is  often  unnecessary  and  expensive 

and  130  pounds  of  potash  an  acre  the  to  buy  a  complete  fertilizer.     In  such 

wheat    on    51    farms    increased    11.4  a  case  all  that  is  needed  is  the  phos- 

bushels  an  acre.  phoric  acid  and  the  potash. 

The  composition  of  fertilizers  varies  It  is  usually  cheaper  and  more  satis- 
to  some  extent,  but  the  following  is  a  factory  for  the  farmer  to  buy  the  in- 
fair  average.  gredients  and  mix  them  on  the  farm. 

A   complete   fertilizer   is    one   that  The     following     table     shows     the 

contains  all  three  of  the  ingredients —  amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 

*To  reduce  fats  to  C.  H.    Rule:   Multiply  ^^d  potash  removed  from  the  soil  by 

the  fats  by  i\i  and  add  the  product  to  the  C.  H.  variOUS  crops. 


S60 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Corn,  grain 

Corn  stover 

Oats,  grain 

Oat  straw 

Wheat,  grain 

Wheat  straw 

Timothy  hay 

Clover  seed 

Clover  hay 

Cowpea  hay ....... 

Alfalfa  hay 

Apples 

Apple  leaves 

Apple  wood  growth 

Potatoes 

Sugar  beets 

Fat  cattle 

Fat  hogs 

Milk 

Butter 

Cotton  lint 


Amount 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

lbs. 

lbs. 

ibs. 

100  bu. 

100 

17 

19 

3T. 

48 

6 

52 

100  bu. 

66 

11 

16 

2MT. 

31 

5 

52 

50  bu. 

71 

12 

13 

23^  T. 

25 

4 

35 

3T. 

72 

9 

71 

4bu. 

7 

2 

3 

4T. 

160 

20 

120 

3  T. 

130 

14 

98 

8  T. 

400 

36 

192 

600  bu. 

47 

5 

57 

4T. 

59 

7 

47 

1/50  tree 

6 

2 

5 

300  bu. 

63 

13 

90 

20  T. 

100 

18 

157 

1000  lbs. 

25 

7 

1 

1000  lbs. 

18 

3 

1 

10,000  lbs. 

57 

7 

12 

500  lbs. 

1 

0.2 

0.1 

500  lbs. 

1.7 

.5 

2  3 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  bought 
and  used  for  the  phosphoric  acid 
(P.  A.),  nitrogen  (N.)  and  potash  (P.) 
they  contain.  These  elements  are 
obtained  from  different  substances. 
Some  substances  contain  one,  some 
two,  and  some  all  of  these  plant  foods. 
Fertilizers  are  labeled  according  to  the 
per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen 
and  potash  they  contain.  An  8-2-4 
fertilizer   contains    8   per   cent   phos- 


phoric acid,  2  per  cent  nitrogen,  and 
4  per  cent  potash.  (In  some  states 
the  order  is  reversed — nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  and  the  above 
formula  would  be  2-8-4.) 

The  prices  of  fertilizing  materials 
are  subject  to  market  changes,  but 
are  usually  about  as  follows: 

Nitrate  of  soda  3  cts.  per  lb.  in  200  lb.  bags 
Muriate  of  potash  3  cts.  per  lb.  in  200  lb.  bags 
Acid  phosphate  1  ct.  per  lb.  in  125  lb.  bags 


FERTILIZING  SUBSTANCES  AND  THE  ELEMENTS  THEY  CONTAIN 


Acid  phosphate 

Ground  phosphate  rock 

Tobacco  stems 

Sulphate  of  potash  (high  grade) 

Muriate  of  potash 

Nitrate  of  potash 

Kainit 

Wood  ashes  (unleached) 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed 

Tankage  (concentrated) 

Dried  blood  (high  grade) 

Fish  scrap 

Nitrate  of  soda 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 

Ammonia 


Phosphoric  Acid 


14% 

32% 

2% 


1.5% 
2.8% 
1.3% 
1.5% 


7% 


Nitrogen 


1.5% 


13% 


6.2% 

3% 
12% 
14% 

9% 
15.8% 
20.5%, 
82.4% 


Potash 


5% 
50% 
50% 
45% 
12.5% 

6% 

1.8% 

1.2% 


BOOK  FOR  PARENT  AND  TEACHER 


261 


PROBLEMS  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  FERTILIZERS 


If  nitrogen  is  worth  18  cents  a  pound, 
phosphoric  acid  6  cents,  and  potash  5  cents, 
find  the  value  of  these  fertilizers  in  each  of 
the  following  problems: 

In  100  bu.  of  corn  and  3  tons  of  corn  stover. 
Ans.— $31.57. 

In  100  bu.  of  oats  and  2|  tons  of  oat  straw. 
Ans.— $21.82. 

In  50  bu.  of  wheat  and  2|  tons  of  wheat  straw. 
Ans.— $20.64. 

In  3  tons  of  timothy  hay.     Ans. — $17.05. 

In  4  bu.  of  clover  seed  and  4  tons  of  clover 
hay.     Ans.— $37.53. 

Compare  3  tons  of  CO wpea  hay  withS  tons  of  al- 
falfahay.  Ans.— Cowpea,  $29.14;  alfalfa,  $83.76. 

Compare  the  ravages  from  the  soil  of  a  crop  of 
300  bu.  of  potatoes  with  a  crop  of  20  tons  of 
sugar  beets.  Ans. — Potatoes,  $16.62;  beets, 
$26.93. 

Compare  the  cost  of  fertilizer  elements  used 
in  producing  1000  lbs.  of  fat  cattle  with  that  of 
1000  lbs.  of  fat  hogs.  Ans.— Cattle,  $5.27; 
hogs,  $3.47. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  fertilizers  used  from 


the  soil  in  producing  10,000  lbs.  of  milk  and  500 
lbs.  of  butter.!*     Ans.— $11.44. 

A  corn  crop  of  80  bu.  to  the  acre  takes  146 
lbs.  of  nitrogen,  57  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
82  lbs.  of  potash  from  each  acre  of  land.  With 
nitrogen  worth  20  cts.  a  lb.,  phosphoric  acid,  5 
cts.  a  lb.  and  potash  5  cts.  a  lb.,  what  is  the  value 
of  the  plant  food  removed  by  the  corn  crop? 
Ans.— $36.15. 

A  farm  raises  and  ships  away  400  bu.  of 
wheat.  With  fertilizer  at  the  same  price  as  in 
the  above  problem,  what  is  the  value  of  the  plant 
food  removed.^     Ans.— $123.60. 

Compare  the  value  of  plant  food  (nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash)  removed  by  500 
bu.  of  wheat  and  500  bu.  of  potatoes.  Ans. — 
Wheat,  $154.50;   potatoes,  $29.60. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  plant  food  remcved 
from  a  20-acre  field  of  oats  yielding  50  bu.  to 
the  acre.'     Ans.— $145.50. 

The  barley  increased  16.4  bu.  per  acre.  At 
this  rate  find  the  increased  profit  on  40  acres 
with  barley  at  60  cents  a  bu.  and  fertilizer  $2 
an  acre.     Ans.— $313.60. 


CONCRETE  CONSTRUCTION 


Concrete  is  a  mixture  of  gravel  or 
crushed  stone,  sand,  and  Portland 
cement.  Concrete  is  used  for  the 
building  of  foundations,  steps,  side- 
walks, cellars,  and  farm  building 
floors,  cisterns,  watering  and  feeding 
troughs,  fence  and  hitching  posts, 
culverts,   building   blocks,   etc. 

The  crushed  stone  and  sand  should 
be  reasonably  free  from  clay  or  loam 
and  the  sand  should  not  be  too  fine. 
Walks  and  floors  should  be  under- 
drained  and  should  have  a  slope  of 
1  inch  in  4  feet  for  surface  drainage. 


Where  freezing  occurs  walks  may  be 
underlaid  with  from  4  inches  to  12 
inches  of  cinders,  gravel,  or  broken 
stone  well  wetted  and  very  well 
stamped  into  place.  Foundations  and 
piers  should  extend  below  the  frost 
line. 
Concrete  Formula 

A  formula  is  used  to  show  the  pro- 
portional amounts  by  volume  of  each 
of  the  three  ingredients  of  concrete. 
A  1-2-4  concrete  is  composed  of  1 
part  cement,  2  parts  sand  and  4  parts 
gravel  or  crushed  stone. 


DIFFERENT    FORMULA8 

AMOUNTS    NEEDED    FOR    1    CU.    YD.    CONCRETE 

Cement 

Sand 

Stone  or  Gravel 

Cement,  bbls. 

Sand, 

Cu.  Yd. 

Stone,  Cu.  Yd. 

1 

4.8 

1.5 

3.87 

^   , 

2 

3.21 

2.5 

2.74 

1.5 

2 

2.30 

1.5 

2.5 

2.09 

^   , 

15 

3 

1.91 

2 

3 

1.74 

2 

4 

1.51 

2.5 

5 

1.24 

3 

5 

1.16 

3 

6 

1.06 

S6S 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


This  formula  is  richer  in  cement 
than  is  ordinarily  required.  For  walks, 
cellar  floors,  building  walls,  etc.,  a 
1-23/^-5  mixture  is  sufficient.  For 
heavier  work  the  proportion  may  be 
1-3-6. 
Mixing  directions 

Spread  out  the  measured  quantity 
of  dry  sand  on  a  level,  v/ater-tight 
platform.  On  top  of  this  spread  the 
cement  and  turn  dry  with  shovel  until 
thoroughly  mixed  —  at  least  three 
times.  Then  add  the  gravel  or 
crushed  stone.  Wet  thoroughly  and 
turn  again — at  least  three  times,  add- 
ing the  water  slowly  from  a  sprinkler 
so  as  to  make  a  thick  mush. 

For  the  upper  course  on  sidewalks 
and  floors  only  cement  and  sand  are 
used.  Since  there  is  a  space  between 
the  pieces  of  crushed  stone  or  gravel 


it  can  easily  be  seen  that  a  consider- 
able volume  of  cement  or  gravel  may 
be  added  to  a  given  quantity  of 
crushed  stone  without  increasing  the 
volume. 

It  is  usually  estimated  that  the 
given  volume  to  be  filled  with  the 
mixture  must  be  increased  45  per  cent 
in  calculating  the  amount  of  materials 
needed.  This  is  called  45-per-cent 
voids,  or  openings  in  the  stone.  If 
one  had  a  space  of  100  cubic  feet  to 
be  filled  with  concrete,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  order  145  cubic  feet  of 
the  three  ingredients. 

Sand  and  stone  are  bought  by  the 
cubic  yard  and  cement  by  the  sack  or 
barrel.  A  sack  of  cement  is  one- 
fourth  of  a  barrel  and  weighs  about 
100  pounds.  A  barrel  is  estimated  to 
contain  4  cubic  feet. 


PRACTICAL  PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  CEMENT 


How  many  cu.  yds.  of  concrete  are  required 
in  the  construction  of  a  cellar  floor  14  ft.  by  24 
ft.  and  4  in.  thick?     Ans. — io^f  cu.  yds. 

How  many  cu.  yds.  would  be  recjuired  for 
two  3-in.  floors,  one  10  ft.  by  12  ft.,  and  the 
other  16  ft.  by  30  ft.?     Ans.— 5|  cu.  yds. 

Find  the  number  of  cu.  yds.  of  cinders  re- 
quired to  make  a  12-in.  foundation  for  a  walk 
to  the  barn  162  ft.  long,  2^  ft.  wide  and  4  in. 
thick.     Ans. — 5  cu.  yds. 

Estimate  the  amount  of  concrete  needed  to 
build  a  feeding  trough  with  walls  4  in.  thick  and 
inside  measurements  10  ft.  long  by  18  in.  wide 
and  10  in.  deep.     Ans. — 14  (plus)  cu.  ft. 

How  much  concrete  is  needed  to  build  the 
walls  and  floor  of  a  cellar  10  ft.  by  12  ft.  and  8  ft. 
high  inside  measurements,  if  the  side  walls  are 
8  in.  thick  and  the  floor  4  in.  thick?  Ans. — 
15  cu.  yds. 

Estimate  concrete  needed  to  build  a  circular 
silo  20  ft.  in  diameter  and  32  ft.  high,  with  12-in. 
walls  and  8-in.  floors.     Ans. — 82  (plus)  cu.  yds. 


What  quantity  of  each  material  will  be  re- 
quired in  a  1-2-4  mixture  for  a  walk  to  the 
barn  108  yds.  long,  2h  ft.  wide  and  4  in.  thick? 
Ans. — 15.1  bbls.  cement;  4.48  cu.  yds.  sand; 
8.96  cu.  yds.  stone. 

How  many  sacks  of  cement  will  be  required 
to  make  4.5  cu.  yds.  of  a  1-2-1  mixture,  also  how 
much  sand  and  gravel  or  stone?  Ans. — 27.2 
sacks  or  6.8  bbls.  of  cement;  2.02  cu.  yds  of 
sand;  4.03  cu.  yds  of  stone 

What  would  be  the  cost  of  the  concrete  in  a 
walk  108  yds.  long,  2|  ft.  wide,  and  4  in.  thick, 
with  cement  costing  $1.35  a  bbl.,  sand  75  cts. 
a  cu.  yd.,  and  crushed  stone  $1.25  a  cu.  yd.? 
Ans.— $35.22. 

What  will  be  the  cost  of  the  materials  in  a 
cement  basement  floor  15  ft.  wide,  and  24  ft. 
long,  the  base  consisting  of  l-2|-5  mixture  4  in. 
thick  and  the  top  coat  a  1-2  mixture  2  in. 
thick,  when  material  costs  the  same  as  in  the 
foregoing  problem?  Ans. — Base,  $14.05;  top, 
$11.19;   total,  $25.24. 


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The  Little  Petticoats 


The  Doll's  Little  Frock 

A  Little  Winter  Garden 

How  to  Make  Our  Own  Zoo 

Things  We  Can  Make  at  the  Dinner  Table 


STORIES  AND  PLAYS 


Stories  With  a  Mora 

Stories  About  Animals 

Stories  Connected  with  History 

Nature  Stories 

Stories  of  the  Imagination 

Stories  of  the  Sea 


Stories  of  Patriolism 

Stories  of  Childhood 

Nursery  Stories 

Stories  of  Myths 

Plays  for  Home  Production 

Fables  and  Folk  Stories 


THUMBELINE    FLOATED    DOWN    THE    STREAM 


Thumbellne  became  happy  again,  for  everything  she  passed  was  so  lovely  in  the  sunshine,  and  the  birds  on  the  branches 
sang  to  her  as  she  floated  by  with  her  pretty  butterfly  tied  to  the  leaf  of  the  water  lily  with  her  sash.     (See  page  371.) 


264 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


267 


A  P  spells 
AP,  which  is  not 
a  word  at  all ; 
but  if  we  put 
a  C,  or  an  M,  or 
a  T  in  front  of 
it  in  turn,  we 
get  real  words. 

E    N    spells 
EN,  and  if  vve      '^: 
put   first   a    D,  ^^^j 
Or  an  H,  or  an 
M  in  front,  we    ( 
get  DEN,  HEN  ^^ 
and  MEN. 


.^^"^^ 


CAP 


MAP 


TAP 


I     N     spells 
IN ;  put  an  F, 

or  a  P,  or  a  Tin  _-^L£^^^ia 
front,  and  what  ^^^ 
Hn     vou     find  ?      '^.-'.<'/r'^,-i^:== 


do  you  find  r 
Why,  FIN,  PIN 
and  TIN. 


'  J-  <!■   r 


FIN 


PIN 


TIN 


MUG 


One  more. 
U  G  spells  UG, 
and  with  an 
M,  or  a  P,  or 
an  R  in  front, 
we  have  these 
very  different 
words  —  MUG, 
PUG  and  RUG. 

Or  perhaps  you  can 
learn  words  better  in  this 
way  : 

When  boys  and  girls  are 
fast  asleep, 
And  beasts  go  out  to 
prowl. 
If    you're   awaKe,   you'll 
often  hear 
The     hooting    of     an 
OWL. 


PUG 


If 


RUG 


give 


father    would 
me  a  penny, 

I  would  soon  be  inside 
of  this  shop. 
It's  the  jolhest  window 
of  any. 
And  oh,  how  I  should 
like  that  TOP ' 


TOP 


OWL 


COW 


^-zz^-y 


-T^-'    .    . 


T 


BOY— TOY 


SUN 


S68 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


BILL 


HILL 


MILL 


Then  again,  AIL  spells  AIL,  and  out  of  this  you  can  make  many  words  of  four 
letters  each,  such  as  FAIL.  HAIL,  PAIL,  and  those  given  with  pictures  below. 


NAIL  SAIL  TAIL 


SAIL 

You  will  be  able  to  make  many  other  words  from  four  letters.     Perhaps  you 
can  make  the  next  words  out  by  yourselves 


LOCK 


ROCK 


BACK 


RACK 


SACK 


CAKE 


LAKE 


RAKE 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


269 


STORY    QUESTIONS    AND    PICTURE    ANSWERS 

Before  we  go  on  to  longer  words,  we  should  be  sure  that  we  can  read  all  kinds  of 
short,  easy  words.  So  in  this  lesson  we  will  have  a  few  more  words  of  three  or  four 
letter's  each,  and  then  we  shall  be  able  to  go  on  to  something  better. 


ARK 


What  did  Noah 
build  to  save 
himself,  and  his 
family,  and  the 
animals  from 
the  flood  ? 


What  bird  did  he  send 
out  after  the  raven  ? 


LEAF 


DOVE 

What  did  the  dove 
bring  back  in  its 
mouth  ? 


What  did  Jacob  make 
for  his  little  son  Joseph  ? 


COAT 


PIT 


Into  what 
did  Joseph's 
b'"others 
throw  him  ? 


/^NCE  upon 
^^  a  time 
the  Prophet 
Mahomet 
hid  from  his 
enemies  in  a 


Suddenly 


CAVE 


grew  at  the 
entrance  of 
the  CAVE.  A 


built  its 


BIRD 


What  did 
Joseph's 
brothers  go 
down  into 
Egypt  to  buy  ? 


CORN 


What  did  Joseph's 
youngest  brother,  Benja- 
min, find  in  his  sack  ? 


CUP 


On  what  musical  instru- 
ment did  David  play  to 
comfort  Saul  ? 


HARP 


What 
beasts 
David 
while     he 


LION      BEAR  Zt'3?l 


wild 
did 

kill 

was 

his 

father's  flocks  ? 


When  David 
grew  up,  what 
did  he  become  ? 

KING 


TREE 


LEAF 


in  the 

TREE,  and 
a  spider 
spun  Its 


NEST 


WEB 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


WE  ARE  GOING   TO  THE  ZOO 


WE   WILL   HEAR  THE   LION   ROAR 


SEE  THE  MONKEY   AT    HIS  TRICKS 


WATCH  THE  LITTLE  MOLES  TilAT  DELVE 


THE  COCK  CREW 


'^^'y 


HEAR   THE   BULL  ROAR 


THE  CLOCK  TICKS 


FOR    COAL   THEY    DELVE 


THE    HOUSE   THAT   JACK   BUILT 


HThis  is  the  house 
^     that  Jack  built 


IS 


the 


THIS 
malt 
that  lay 
in      the 
house 
that  Jack  built.  \L 


THIS  is  the  rat  that  ate  the 
malt 
That  lay  in  the   house  that 
Jack  built. 


T 


HIS  is  the  cat 
That  killed 
the  rat  that  ate 
the  malt 

That  lay  in  the 
house  that 
Jack  built. 


'T'his  is   the  dog 
•*■      that    worried 

the  cat 
That  killed  the  rat 

that     ate      the 

malt 
That    lay   in    the 

house  that  Jack 

built. 


"T'his  is  the  cow 
•'•      with    the 

crumpled  horn 
That    tossed    the 

dog  that  worried 

the  cat 
That     killed    the 

rat  that  ate  the 

malt 
That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 


his     is      the 
maiden   all 
forlorn 
That    milked    the 
cow     with      the 
crumpled  horn 
That  tossed  the  dog 
that  worried  the 
cat 
That  killed  the  rat   that  ate  the  malt 


This  is  the  man 
all      tattered 

and  torn 
That     kissed     the 

maiden  all  forlorn 
That     milked     the 

cow     with     the 

crumpled  horn 

That  tossed  the  dog  that  worried  the  cat 
That  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt 
That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 

This  is  the  priest  all  shaven  and  shorn 
That  married  the  man  all  tattered 
and  torn 
That     kissed     the 
maiden  all  forlorn 
That    milked    the 
cow     with     the 
crumpled  horn 
That  tossed  the  dog 

that  worried  the  cat 

That  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt 
That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 
HThis  is  the  cock  that  crowed  in  the 
*■      mom 
That  wakened  the  priest  all 

shaven  and  shorn 
That    married   the   man  all 

tattered  and  torn 
That  kissed  the  maiden  all  forlorn 
That  milked  the  cow  with  the  crumpled 

horn 
That  tossed  the  dog  that  worried  the  cat 
That  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt 
That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 

This  is  the  farmer  so\ving  the  com 
That  kept  the  cock  that  crowed  in 
the  morn 
That  wakened  the  priest  all  shaven  and 

shorn 
That  married  the  man  all  tattered  and 

torn 
That  kissed  the  maiden  all  forlorn 


That  milked  the  cow  mth  the  cmmpled 

horn 
That  tossed  the  dog  that  worried  the  cat 
That  killed  the  rat  that  ate  the  malt 
That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built.     That  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 


MOTHER  GOOSE  IN  REBUS 


IS    YOUR    NAME    IN    THESE    GIRLS'    PICTURES 


IS    YOUR    NAME    IN    THESE    BOYS'    PICTURES? 


SJ^l^     LOYDS     PUZ:ZLES 


OeogeaphicalPuzzles 


45 


■'t-^^cr- 


'*r  vs* 


+  1 


I 


+ 


=7 


+0-' 

=? 


WHAT  TWO  AMERICAN  CITIES  DO 
THESE  SUMS  SPELL? 


Zoological  Puzzles  69 


+F,-i 


:^'^ 


=? 


WHAT  TWO  ANIMALS  DO  THESE  SUMS  SPELL? 


Bird  Puzzles 


V 


87 


Puzzle  Svns 


76 


? 


? 


WHAT  BIRDS  DO  THESE  SUMS  SPELL  7 


NO.   T.    WHAT  REPTILE  DOES  THIS  SUM  SPELL? 
NO.  IL     WHAT  ANIMAL  DOES  THIS  SUM  SPELL? 


SAM     LOYDS    PUZZLES 


<^mzu;^^yfois^ 


99 


MOWAV 

THU5»Ay 
fRlDAY-- 

-1— gjBa' 


The  young  musician  is  surrounded  by  a  variety  of  noises.  Number 
one  is  plainly  a  squeak.  How  many  other  noises  can  you  find  in  the 
little   pictures  ? 


E  PEN  PUZZLB- 


117 


!n  how  few  moves  can  you  place  each  of  the  animals  in  its  proper  pen.  without  ever 
having  two  in  the  same  pen  ?  The  numbers  on  the  animals  should  correspond  to  the 
number'^  of  the  pens. 

I  St.   Nest  +  One  —  Stone  +  Wheel  —  Heel  + 

Ark  =  Newark. 

2d.    WTieel  +  Pic  +  Ring  -  Pier  =  Wheeling. 

I  St.   Can  —  N  +  Melon  +  E  -  One  =  Camel, 
zd.    Tie  —  E  ^  Finger  —  Fin  =  Tiger. 

ist.  Wrench  -f-  .\nn  —  Charm  =  Wren. 
2d-    Magnet  —  Net  +  Pie  =  Magpie. 


43 

69. 
87. 


76.      isL   Scoop  —  Coop  +  Nail  =  Snail. 

2d.    Fowl  -  Owl  +  0.\  =  Fo.\. 
99.     i.Stiueak;    2,  Squall ;    3,  Howl ;    4,  Roar ;    5, 

Bellow;  6,  Ring;  7,  Growl;  8.  Wail;  9,  Bark. 

117.  The  animals  are  rearranged  into  their  proper  pens- 
by  moving  them  in  the  following  order ;  4,' 3.  2, 
4.  3-  5.  '.  2.  4.  3.  5.  4.  2.  I.  4,  and  5. 


BY     PERMISSION      OF      DAVID     M9K«r     CO. 


HOW   TO    DRAW    HUNDREDS    OF    FACES 


VY/iTH  the  diagram  on  this  page  we  can 
**  draw  hundreds  of  different  pictures, 
even  though  we  may  not  be  artists  in- any 
sense  of  the  word.  First  of  all,  we  should 
take  a  piece  of  good,  tracing-paper  and  trace 
the  diagram  upon  it  quite  carefully  and 
accurately.  Then  we  should  ink  over  the 
lines,  ^nd  when  the  ink  is  quite  dry  paste  the 
tracing-paper  with  the  design  upon  a  piece  of 
cardboard.  To  do  this,  cover  the  card  with 
a  smooth  paste  and   lay    the    tracing-paper 


the  tracing-paper  round  until  oneof  the  pairs 
of  eyes  comes  into  position  within  the  outline 
of  a  face  that  we  have  drawn.  Trace  the 
eyes  with  pencil,  and  finally  turn  the  paper 
round  to  another  position  and  trace  a  nose 
and  mouth.  We  now  have  a  complete  face 
with  eyes,  nose  and  mouth,  hair,  and  hat.  .. 
Hy  ringing  the  changes  and  drawing  the 
different  eyes  in  the  different  face  outlines, 
and  putting  sometimes  one  hat  or  mouth  and 
sometimes   another,  we  are    able    to    make 


BY  FOLLOWING  THE  DIRECTIONS,  WE  CAN,  FROM  THIS  DIAGRAM,   DRAW    HUNDREDS  OF   FACES 


upon  it,  smcothing  out  all  wrinkles  with  a 
clean  cloth.  When  this  is  dry,  we  are  ready 
to  draw  any  number  of  faces. '  Take  a  piece  of 
tracing-paper  and  pin  it  down  upon  the  card, 
pressing  the  pin  through  the  centre  of  the 
diagram  where  a  star  is  marked.  Now  we 
must  trace  any  one  of  the  hats  upon  the 
transparent  paper.  Then  let  us  turn  the 
paper  round  until  the  hat  that  we  have  drawn 
comes  over  one  of  the  other  hats  in  the 
diagram.  Now  trace  the  shape  of  the  face 
that  appears  under  our  hat.     Again  turn 


hundreds  of  different  pictures.  There  are 
one  or  two  things  to  remember  if  we  want 
to  be  successful  in  thus  producing  an  imagi- 
nary portrait  gallery.  The  tracing-paper 
must  be  pinned  down  firmly  upon  the  card 
and  must  not  be  allowed  to  shift  about,  or 
the  different  parts  of  the  different  faces  will 
not  join  up  properly.  Then  we  should  use  a 
soft  black  lead  pencil  in  tracing  the  faces,  and 
we  must  not  press  too  heavily  or  we  shall 
indent  the  card  and  spoil  the  diagram.  We 
can  ink  over  the  pencil-lines  afterwards. 


DIFFERENT  EXERCISES  WITH  DUMB-BELLS 


A  \  K 


*s* 


»#  ».:'*'_: 


r\ 


J^#» 


t 


i-^ 


1 


A  f    \  / 


♦■St-i* 


V 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


211 


Rembrandt  in  his  studio 


LESSONS    IN    THINGS    BEAUTIFUL    AND    USEFUL 


SHAKESPEARE  says  in  one  of 
his  plays  that  if  we  could  cast  off 
this  "muddy  vesture  of  decay" 
we  should  be  able  to  hear  the  "music 
of  the  spheres."  He  means  that  if  we 
were  more  thoughtful  and  quiet,  we 
should  find  that  all  the  sights  and 
sounds  about  us  are  really  beautiful 
and  pleasant  and  that  if  they  do  not 
seem  so  to  us  the  fault  is  not  in  these 
things,  but  lies  in  ourselves. 

Now  artists — who  include  poets, 
writers  of  books,  musicians,  painters, 
designers,  sculptors,  and  architects — 
are  those  who  hear  this  "music  of  the 
spheres,"  and  put  it  down  so  that  the 
rest  of  us  may  hear  it  too. 

Let  us  try  to  find  out  how  this 
music  is  heard  by  painters  and  de- 
signers, architects  and  sculptors,  and 
how  they  write  it  down.  We  know 
all  beautiful  things  by  our  minds  or 
our  souls.  Our  eyes,  ears,  touch, 
taste,  and  smell  are  only  the  roadways 
to  our  true  selves,  so  that  music  may 
travel  by  any  one  of  these  paths,  and 
not  by  the  ear  roadway  only. 


And  music  does  not  mean  only 
pleasant  sounds  coming  together;  it 
means  also  beautiful  shapes  falling 
side  by  side,  or  colors,  placed  one 
against  another.  So  that,  when  we 
see  a  beautiful  picture,  or  a  piece  of 
sculpture,  or  a  grand  building,  or  a 
lovely  decoration,  the  music  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  shapes  is  appealing 
to  our  eyes,  and  giving  us  joy  and 
pleasure  quite  apart  from  the  subject 
of  the  work.  In  these  pages  are 
some  pictures  with  their  musical 
shapes.  Look  carefully  at  them,  and 
see  if  you  can  find  any  of  this  music. 
Look  carefully  to  see  if  one  line 
appears  to  be  the  continuation  of 
another,  though  there  is  no  actual 
connection.  Join  these  lines,  and 
note  the  beautiful  shape  they  enclose. 

Again,  boys  and  girls,  men  and 
women,  the  flowers  and  trees,  the 
birds  and  animals,  the  earth  itself 
are  all  struggling  for  existence.  The 
very  winds,  the  clouds,  and  the  sun- 
shine are  all  the  results  of  struggling, 
of  fighting,  of  victory,  and  of  failure. 


^2 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Joy  and  sorrow  touch  everything  on 
earth,  and  he  is  an  artist  who  is  able 
to  picture  this  joy  and  sorrow  for  us 
so  that  we  can  feel  them  strongly. 

So  an  artist  must  possess  two 
things — an  eye  quick  to  see  and  love 
beautiful  shapes,  and  a  mind  quick 
to  feel  and  to  respond  to  the  joys  and 


and  feelings,  and  not  be  ashamed  or 
afraid  of  them. 

Now,  though  drawing  is  music,  it 
is  also  speech,  and  we  draw  in  order  to 
tell  to  others  facts  that  we  could  not 
put  so  well  into  any  other  form,  things 
that  give  us  pleasure  which  we  would 
share  with  others. 


How  the  hand  (il  I  hi'  artist  draw.s  a  picttirr 


struggles  that  all  the  things  about  us 
are  enduring — that  is,  he  must  want 
to  rejoice  with  glad  things,  to  be 
sorrowful  with  sad  things,  to  admire 
all  brave  efforts,  wherever  they  are 
made  and  whatever  makes  them. 

All  of  us  possess  more  or  less  these 
two  essentials — the  quick  eye  and  the 
sympathetic  mind.  We  do  not  always 
realize  it,  and  we  are  too  often  afraid 
of  our  feelings.  Now  this  is  wrong, 
for  if  we  would  become  brave  and 
tender  men  and  women,  capable  of 
doing  big  and  effective  work  in  the 
world,  we  must  reverence  our  thoughts 


t:':*^^iil 

V 

y^f^:- 

.  ^p 

^^^ 

% 

f\^'^  1 

•  ** 

"^                  *v     ft? 

ft/ 

-J^^-" 

The  completed  picture 


It  is  not  possible  for  us  all  to  become 
great  artists,  but  we  should  all  be  able 
to  read  what  the  artist  is  eager  to  tell 
us  in  his  work,  and  by  reading  his 
pictures  our  lives  will  become  bigger 
and  more  sympathetic.  ^Ye  shall 
begin  to  see  the  beautiful  laws  of  order 
and  music  that  are  at  the  heart  of 
everything,  and  then  we  shall  want  to 
link  this  music  together  ourselves,  in 
order  to  make  others  feel  it  as  we  do, 
and  we,  too,  may  be  artists,  creators. 
So  let  us  set  about  our  lessons  in  this 
wonderful  subject,  whereby  we  shall 
become  friends  with  the  things  around 
us. 

Materials:  For  the  little  ones  we 
will  choose  white  and  colored  crayons, 
these  should  be  soft  and  not  greasy. 
The  mind  must  work  readily  through 
the  fingers  and  the  muscles  of  the  hand 
must  become  very  sensitive,  which 
cannot  happen  if  hard  unyielding 
pencils  are  used.  You  who  are  older 
may  use  pencils,  which  must  be  soft 
known  as  B  or  BB  so  that  they  will 
yield  readily  to  the  slightest  pressure. 
If  you  have  a  paint  box  you  must 
learn  to  use  it.  These  boxes  contain- 
ing moist  colors  in  pans  or  tubes  are 
preferable.     With  these  you  will  need 


THE   WORLD    AT  WORK  TO   FILL   A    PAINT-BOX 


^^F«^^^ 


:<P^^^^ 


■sjSit 


*r 


si 


*< 


n.. .  4^  % 


-'4 


All  over  the  world  men  work  hard  iu  order  to  fill  this  little  girl's  paint  box.  Here,  reading  from  left  to  right,  we  see 
men  collecting  ivory  for  black,  insect-cells  for  crimson  lake,  resin  for  gamboge,  cochineal  for  carmine,  the  indigo  plant  for 
indigo,  the  madder  for  brown.  Iron  and  potassium  for  Prussian  blue,  cuttlefish  for  sepia,  earth  for  sienna,  mercury  for  ver- 
milion, and  mineral  (or  ultramarine. 


27J^ 


THE  HUMAN  IXTEREST  LIBRARY 


a  pointed  camel's  hair  brush,  number 
six,  a  jar  for  water,  and  a  small 
sponge-box,  water  and  sponge  must  be 
kept  quite  clean.  Untidy  materials 
make  an  untidy  mind. 

Use  white  or  colored  paper  to  work 
on.  There  is  a  cheap  unglazed,  soft- 
textured,  warm  gray  paper  which  is 
delightful,  and  which  may  be  obtained 
from  any  dealer  in  artists'  materials. 
Ordinary  unglazed  brown  paper  is 
good  if  neither  too  light  nor  too  dark. 
Do  not  let  your  paper  become  creased 
or  crumpled,  keep  it  flat  and  neatly 
together  in  a  portfolio.  The  portfolio 
may  be  bought  or  made  at  home  from 
two  pieces  of  cardboard  joined  to- 
gether at  the  back  and  fastened  at  the 
front  with  a  piece  of  tape. 

A  small  drawing  board  will  l)e  neces- 
sary to  which  the  paper  should  be 
fixed  by  four  thumb  tacks  or  drawing 
pins.  When  drawing  do  not  lay  your 
board  flat  upon  the  table,  let  it  slope 
toward  you  resting  the  top  against 
the  table. 

Sit  well  away  from  your  work,  hold 
crayon,  pencil  or  brush  lightly  with 
end  of  same  pointing  into  the  palm  of 


your  hand,   and  your  hand   scarcely 
touching  the  paper  as  you  work. 

Face  squarely  the  object  you  wish  to 
draw  so  that  you  may  glance  quickly 
from  your  drawing  to  the  object. 
Hold  your  work  frequently  at  full 
arms  length  from  you,  or  better  still 
stand  away  and  look  at  it  as  though 
you  were  a  teacher  correcting  exercises. 

Forget  yourself  and  do  not  be  afraid 
of    your    materials.     Think    only    of 
putting  down  on  the  paper  just  the 
appearance  of  the  object  before  you. 
Things  to  draw 

All  living  things,  if  they  have  been 
allowed  to  grow  up  without  suffering 
from  accident,  have  beautiful  shapes. 
We  cannot  do  better  than  to  draw, 
from  every  possible  view,  the  things 
we  see  about  us  and  so  learn  to  rec- 
ognize a  beautiful  shape  before  we 
consider  the  second  great  essential 
underlying  all  art — that  is,  the  true 
self  of  everything. 

When  using  crayons  do  not  press 
lieavih^  or  you  will  fill  every  crevice 
of  your  paper,  then  the  color  of  the 
paper  will  not  show  through  the  crayon 
as  a  soft  gray.     If  your  drawing  is  not 


This  is  how  the  laurel  spray  should  look  when  it  is  drawn 
from  memory  in  black  chalk  on  brown  paper. 


If  we  have  chosen  ivy  leaves  to  draw  instead  of  laurel 
leaves,  this  picture  will  do  to  compare  our  drawing  with. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


215 


good,  do  not  try  to  rub  it  out,  make  it 

again  and  again. 

Drawing  and  painting  a  spray   of 

LEAVES 

Let  us  find  and  draw  or  paint  a 
spray  of  leaves.  Any  kind  of  leaves 
will  do  but  since  all  leaves  and  flowers 
change  quickly  after  they  are  picked 
we  will  need  to  work  rapidly.  You 
will  notice  that  wherever,  the  leaf 
springs  from  the  stem  there  is  a  little 
swelling;  sometimes  it  is  much  bigger 
than  at  other  times 

The  stalk  of  the  leaf  is  not  the  same 
thickness   all   the   wav   down.     Some 


getting  the  direction  the  leaf  takes 
carefully,  and  drawing  it  big.  The 
pictures  show  laurel  and  ivy,  but  any 
leaves  must  be  drawn  in  the  same  way, 
beginning  first  with  the  long  stems. 
We  can  practice  drawing  the  spray 
with  a  brushful  of  color  in  green  paint 
to  match  the  shade  of  the  leaves,  or 
in  brown  or  black  paint  like  the  picture 
above.  Moisten  the  paper  with  the 
damp  sponge  first.  If  the  paper 
glistens  when  you  hold  it  level  with  the 
eye,  it  is  too  wet. 

A  good,   bright  green  is  made  by 
mixing  Prussian  blue,   gamboge,  and 


Now  we  have  to  make  a  copy  of  our  laurel  leaves,  paint- 
ing them  straight  away  on  white  paper. 


Here  is  a  picture  of  a  spray  of  ivy  leaves  painted  on  white 
paper.     Remember  to  start  with  the  stalk. 


kinds  of  laurel  leaves  are  rounded  at 
the  tips  and  where  they  join  the  stalks 
and  some  are  pointed.  Wh'chever 
kind  of  leaf  we  have  chosen,  we  must 
look  at  all  these  things  and  notice  the 
different  shapes,  begin  with  the  big 
stem.  Notice  if  it  curves  or  bends, 
then  draw  the  leaf-stalks  and  then  the 
leaves  themselves.  We  shall  find  it 
better  not  to  draw  the  leaves  with  a 
single  line  round  them  at  first,  but  to 
rub  the  chalk  sideways  on  the  paper. 


burnt  sienna.  A  good  dark  green 
is  made  by  mixing  together  indigo  and 
burnt  sienna  or  Prussian  blue  and 
Vandyke  brown.  We  shall  find  that 
there  are  a  great  many  ways  of  mixing 
gi-eens  when  we  know  our  paints. 

Remember  that  we  draw  with  our 
mind,  and  that  our  hands  can  do  only 
what  our  mind,  or  soul,  tells  them.  If 
we  do  not  look  at  the  object  carefully, 
and  judge  its  edges  carefully,  our 
hands  cannot  put  the  truth  down. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


A  PLAY   LESSON 

Now  let  us  have  a  play  lesson. 
Take  one  of  the  things  you  think  you 
can  draw,  place  it  before  you,  and  look 
at  it  for  a  minute  or  two.  Then  cover 
it  up  and  try  to  draw  what  you  have 
seen  from  memory. 

^Yhen  you  have  finished  your  draw- 
ing, uncover  the  object,  get  up  from 
your  seat,  stand  behind  your  work 
and  compare  it  with  the  original.  Be 
a  teacher,  and  do  not  allow  any  fault 
to  go  uncorrected. 

Do  this  with  every  object — the  cat, 
the  dog,  your  toys,  leaves,  fruits,  and 


flowers — about  you.  Look  at  it,  turn 
away  and  draw  it;  then  change  your- 
self into  a  teacher  and  criticize.  You 
must  be  a  judge,  and  bring  up  every 
accusation  you  can.  You  must  defin- 
ately  and  fairly  judge  each  one — 
length  against  breadth,  curve  against 
curve.  You  cannot  realize  too  clearly 
how  important  this  part  of  your  work 
is. 

You  will  never  draw  freelv,  or  for- 
get  your  pencil  and  paper  and  your- 
self, until  you  can  draw  from  memory. 
It  is  only  then  that  you  can  be  said 
to  know  what  an  object  is  like. 


THE     LITTLE     CLAY     MODELER     AT     HOME 


A    SIMPLE    LESSON    IN    AN    INTERESTING 
PASTIME 

THOSE  of  us  who  have  ever 
done  modeling  will  agree  that 
it  is  a  delightful  pastime. 
There  is  no  end  to  the  things  that  can 
be  made  out  of  those  little  lumps  of 
clay  which  look  so  uninteresting  till 
they  have  been  pinched  and  poked  and 
rolled  into  all  manner  of  fascinating 
shapes.  And  modeling  is  as  useful  as 
it  is  delightful,  for  it  not  only  makes 
practical  use  of  our  patience  and  our 
perseverance,  but  it  trains  the  senses 
of  sight  and  touch,  and  makes  us 
observant,  and  consequently  more 
accurate  and  self-reliant. 

The  "tools"  that  are  needed  are  few 
in  number,  and  quite  inexpensive. 
All  that  is  required  is  a  piece  of  clay, 
or,  better  still,  of  plasticine — which  is 
cleaner  to  work  with  and  better  in 
many  ways — an  unframed  slate,  and 
one's  fingers.  Of  course,  the  more 
plasticine  the  better,  and  the  gray 
color  is  the  most  suitalile  for  the  work 
it  is  proposed  to  do.  It  can  be  bought 
at  ahnost  any  shop  in  which  artists' 
materials  are  sold,  and  a  slate  may  be 
procured  from  a  shop  dealing  with 
school  requisites. 


Just  a  word  as  to  the  care  of  the 
materials.  Keep  the  plasticine  in  a 
moderately  cool  place,  and  when  not 
in  use  see  that  it  is  kept  free  from  dust 
or  grit.  x\fter  long  usage,  plasticine 
has  a  tendency  to  become  stiff  and 
difficult  to  manipulate.  This  is  owing 
to  the  evaporation  of  the  oil  which  it 
contains.  When  it  becomes  so,  work 
a  small  c{uantit,y  of  vaseline  into  it  by 
kneading  in  j^our  hands  until  it  be- 
comes plastic  again.  The  slate  should 
always  be  scraped  clean  before  each 
model  or  exercise  is  attempted. 

The  first  few  models  will  not  need  to 
be  worked  on  the  slate  at  all;  they 
must  be  done  almost  entirely  in  the 
hands  and  with  the  finger-tips. 


Let  us  take  the  first  picture — a 
model  of  a  bunch  of  cherries.  Break 
off — do  not  cut — a  lump  of  plasticine 
and  roll  three  balls  about  the  size  of 
cherries.     Slightly    press    the    top    of 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


S77 


each  to  give  the  shape  shown  at  A, 
and  in  the  center  of  each  depression 
bore  a  hole,  as  at  B,  with  a  match,  to 
receive  the  ends  of  the  stalks.  For 
the  stalks,  roll  out  on  a  clean  slate  a 
long  thin  strip,  as  at  C.  To  do  this 
successfully,  and  to  preserve  equal 
thickness  throughout  the  length,  re- 
quires care.  The  small  piece  of  plas- 
ticine used  should  be  rolled  beneath 
the  flat  hand  on  the  slate,  and  not 
between  the  two  hands.  Press  evenly 
as  the  strip  begins  to  lengthen,  and 
move  the  hand  slowly  to  the  right  as 
you  proceed  with  the  rolling.  The 
right  thickness  to  obtain  is  equal  to 
that  of  an  ordinary  match.  This  is, 
of  course,  a  little  thicker  than  the 
natural  stalks  of  the  cherries  would  be; 
but  we  take  a  little  liberty,  for  if  we 
reduced  them  to  such  a  degree  they 
would  hang  limply  down.  Divide 
the  strip  into  three  equal  lengths,  and 
make  the  little  thickening,  as  shown 
at  D,  by  lightly  holding  the  strip 
between  fingers  and  thumbs  and 
pressing  with  both  hands  at  once  to- 
wards the  thickening.  Fix  the  stalks 
into  the  cherries,  pinch  the  three  ends 
together,  and  the  model  is  complete. 

Our  other  model  is  an  apple,  and 
this  will  demand  a  greater  effort. 
Of  course,  there  are  many  shapes  of 
apples  and  a  round  one  as  at  A,  with 
just  the  end  depressions  and  the  stem, 
would  be  very  easy  to  make. 

But  the  apple  we  wish  to  do  is  one 


with  a  well-defined  and  somewhat 
angular  shape,  of  the  type  shown, 
exaggerated  a  little,  in  the  illustration 
marked  B.  This  is  much  more  diffi- 
cult. The  size  of  the  model  must  be 
left  to  the  worker  for  it  must  not  be 
too  big  to  handle  comfortably.  First, 
make  a  ball  as  before,  and,  with  the 
real  apple  before  you,  work  it  into 
the  same  shape  adding  to  or  taking 
from  the  model  as  you  proceed.  You 
will  find  the  finger-tips  very  useful 
for  this.  Notice  all  the  little  angu- 
larities of  surface,  look  well  at  the  copy 
from  every  side,  and  compare  the  two 
constantly  as  you  work.  Do  not  be 
satisfied  merely  with  the  model  of  an 
apple,  but  try  to  make  a  faithful  copy 
of  the  apple  before  you.  The  stem 
is  inserted  in  a  similar  manner  to  those 
of  the  cherries,  and  the  markings  at 
the  opposite  end  are  made  with  the 
match  end  as  at  C. 

The  model  should  have  a  smooth 
finish,  and  this  can  be  done  by  lightly 
smoothing  with  the  forefinger.  It 
must  be  held  carefully  and  without 
undue  pressure  while  this  process  is 
being  carried  out. 


BASKETRY 
Basketry— A  doll's  Christmas 

HAMPER 

WHILE  we  are  enjoying  the 
good  things  that  Christmas 
brings,  we  surely  must  not 
forget  our  dolls.  Here  we  are  going 
to  learn  how  to  make  a  little  doll's 
hamper,  and  later  on  to  fill  it  with 
Christmas   "goodies"  which  we  shall 


find  it  quite  easy  to  model  with  our 
fingers  out  of  clay. 

First,  then,  we  will  make  the  ham- 
per, for  which  we  must  carefully 
measure  off  seven  pieces  of  "No.  4" 
(or  fairly  thick)  cane.  Most  of  the 
big  toy-shops  sell  cane  for  cane-weav- 
ing, or,  of  course,  it  can  be  bought 
from  any  basket  factory. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


If  we  maKe  the  hamper  three  inches 
high,  each  piece  of  cane  must  be  sixteen 
inches  long.  These  seven  lengths  of 
cane  are  for  the  foundation  of  our 
hamper,  and  we  will  call  them  the 
"spokes"  whenever  we  refer  to  them, 
as  they  remind  us  of  the  spokes  of  a 
wheel. 

Form  a  cross  with  four  spokes 
across  and  three  spokes  upright,  the 
three  upright  spokes  being  in  front  as 
in  picture  1. 


1.  Position  of  the  canes      2.  Beginning  to  make  the  basket 

Hold  these  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand. 

Our  next  step  is  to  select  a  long  piece 
of  "No.  1"  (or  fine)  cane,  which  we 
shall  call  the  "weaving-cane,"  as  it 
weaves  in  and  out  the  spokes,  just  as 
the  threads  of  any  woven  material 
pass  over  and  under  each  other. 

We  must  hold  the  weaving-cane  in 
our  right  hand,  a  few  inches  from  one 
end.  Place  this  end  of  the  weaving- 
cane  at  the  dot  in  picture  1,  and  pass 
it  under  the  four  spokes  at  A,  over 


the  three  spokes  at  B,  under  at  C,  and 
again  over  at  D.  We  draw  this  as 
tightly  as  possible  and  pass  the  cane 
under  the  tiny  end  to  form  a  tie. 

In  picture  2  we  are  able  to  see  just 
how  the  weaving-cane  travels,  if  we 
follow  it  up  from  the  letter  L. 

From  this  point  we  weave  over  one 
spoke  and  under  the  next  until  we 
have  passed  eight  spokes,  which  brings 
us  to  the  left  side  of  the  picture  where 
we  see  two  spokes  taken  together. 
Some  of  us  may  think  this  a  mistake, 
but  in  weaving  we  must  have  an  odd 
number  of  spokes,  because  where  the 
weaving-cane  passes  over  one  time, 
the  next  time  it  must  go  under. 

At  the  place  marked  X  in  picture  2, 
we  take  two  spokes  together  and  treat 
them  just  as  one  spoke. 

By  taking  the  two  together  it  fastens 
the  odd  number  in  quite  securely. 
Continue  the  weaving  over  and  under, 
taking  care,  when  you  come  to  the 
spoke  with  the  little  bit  beside  it,  that 
you  treat  that  spoke  and  the  little  bit 
as  one.  We  must  remember  always 
to  weave  in  the  direction  in  which 
we  began. 

If  we  have  done  our  weaving  cor- 
rectly, the  weaving-cane  will  now  pass 
under  the  spoke  over  which  it  went  the 
last  time  round. 

We  must  continue  our  weaving  until 
we  have  covered  about  one  inch  from 


The  basket  without  the  lid 


4.     The  lid  of  the  basket 


5,     The  basket  complete 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK  279 

the  center  of  the  basket.     Then  cut  By  this  time  the  side  of  our  hamper 

off  one  of  the  two  spokes  taken  to-  measures  two  and  a  half  inches  from 

gether  and  what  is  left  of  the  tiny  bit  where  we  turned  it  up.     Here  we  take 

of  weaving-cane  where  we  started.  a  length  of  No.  4,  or  rather  thick  cane 

One   very   important   thing   is   the  to    weave    the    other    half-inch.     An 

fight  way  to  hold  our  work.     Hold  the  important  point  to  learn  just  now  is 

work  in  the  left  hand  perpendicularly,  how  to  join  a  new  piece  of  cane   so 

the  weaving-cane  being   held   in    the  that  it  will  be  least  observable, 

right  hand  just  like  a  skipping-rope  We  must  always  finish  off  the  end 

about    two    inches    away    from    the  of  the  old  weaving-cane,  when  we  have 

basket.     We  now  slip  the  first  finger  come  under  a  spoke,  by  pushing  the 

out  and  hold  the  cane  between  the  loose  end  of  the  weaving-cane  down 

thumb  and  the  second  finger.  the   side   nearest   to   us   of   the   same 

Don't  think  Mr.  First  Finger  has  spoke, 

nothing  to  do.     He  is  a  very  important  Take  a  new  piece  of  weaving-cane 

person,  and  acts  as  a  guide  to  Mr.  and  pass  the   end  down  the  far  side 

Weaving-cane,    guiding   and    pressing  of  this  spoke.     Both  the  old  and  the 

him  always  into  his  proper  place.     We  new    weaving-cane    pass    behind    the 

must  also  be   very   careful   never  to  same    spoke,    but  the  join   does    not 

pull  the  weaving-cane,  but  to  bend  it  show  on  the  right  side  of  the  basket, 

round  the  spokes,  moving  the  basket  To  finish  our  basket  we  cut  an  inch 

up  and  down  at  the  same  time.  off  each  spoke  with  the  exception  of 

Every  touch  of  our  fingers  has   a  two,  which  we  leave  to  form  the  han- 

permanent  effect  on  the  ultimate  shape  die,  as  seen  in  picture  3.     Each  spoke 

of  our  basket,  and  no  subsequent  pres-  must    be    turned    back    the    opposite 

sure  will  alter  it.     We  shall  be  able  to  way  from  which  we  have  been  weav- 

begin  a  second  basket  much  better  after  ing,  and  pressed  down  the  far  side  of 

we  have  thus  learned  to  weave  properly,  the  next  spoke  until  it  lies  level  with 

How  are  we  to  turn  up  the  cane  for  the  last  line  of  weaving.     To  form  the 

the  sides  of  the  hamper?  little  handle,  we  cross  the  two  spokes 

We  notice  the  alternate  spokes  are  and  push  the  ends  down  so  that  one 

on    the    top    of    the    weaving-cane,  end   goes   in   where   the   other   starts 

These  spokes  we  bend  away  from  us.  from. 

Weave   round   once   again,    when,    of  Having  made  our  hamper,  we  must 

course,  the  other  spokes  are  on  the  turn  our  attention  to  the  lid  for  it, 

top.     These  also  must  be  bent  away  which  is  made  exactly  as  the  bottom 

from    us.     We    continue    weaving    as  of    the   hamper,    using    seven    spokes 

before,  taking  care  to  keep  the  spokes  about  six  inches  long, 

nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  bottom  of  When  the  weaving  exactly  fits  the 

the  basket.  top  of  our  hamper,  we  finish  by  pusli- 

We  must  remember,  as  we  weave  the  ing  the  spoke-ends  down  the  sides  of 

side  of  the  hamper,  when  the  weaving-  their  left-door  neighbors, 

cane  is  going  behind  a  spoke,  to  draw  Basket-weaving  is  most  fascinating 

that  spoke  back  with  the  guiding  finger  work  when  once  we  have  acquired  the 

and  slip  the  whole  hand  behind  it  to  art  of  weaving  easily;    therefore  it  is 

put  the  weaving-cane  in  place.     The  worth  while  to  practice  weaving,   as 

more  we  press  on  the  spokes  when  from  this  small  beginning  it  is  possible 

drawing  them  back,  the  more  the  sides  to  make  any  number  of  very  pretty 

of  our  basket  will  slant  outwards.  and  useful  articles. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE      WONDERFUL      LAND      OF      SOUND 

THERE  is  a    wonderful  land  of   Sound,    a  country  so 
beautiful  that  it  may   be    called    a  magic  kingdom 
In    this   kingdom  there  are  fairies    who    will   sing; 
and  little  kind-hearted  goblins.      In    this    beautiful  land 
fairies    and   goblins  help  one  another,  and  join  together 
to   tell  the   most   delightful   stories.      When  we  know 
them  and  can   understand  their  language,   they  will 
tell   us   stories   of  the  winds;  they  will  bring  to  us 
the  songs  of  the  birds ;  the  murmurs  of  the  brook, 
and  all  the  beautiful  sounds  in  the  world.      This 
magic  kingdom  w^e  call  the  Piano. 

When  we  open  the  door  of  this  fairyland  we 
see  what  looks  like  a  long  black  line  and  a 
long  white  line.     If  we  look  closely  we  see 
that  these  lines  are  really  made  up  of  about 
fifty  little  white  pieces  and  not  quite  so 
many  little  black  pieces.   The  fifty  little 
white  pieces  are  where  the  fairies  dwell 
the  black  pieces  are  the  homes  of  the 
goblins. 

The  fairies  are  very  simple  little 
people,  and  like  to  make  it  easy 
for  us  to  talk  to  them,  so  they 


have  very  short  names  which 
we    will   find    easy  to   re 
member.     There  areonl.v 
seven  of  them  and  they 
have  taken  the  names 
of  the  first  seven  let 
ters  of  the  alphabet 
Let  us  say  to  our 
selves,    "Seven 
little       fairies, 
seven    little 


Fairy 

/  C,  Fairy 

D,  Fairy 

E,  Fairy 

F,  Fairy  G. 

/    The  homes  of 

the  goblins — 

the  thirty -five 

little  black  houses, 

are  arranged  in 

twos  and  threes,  and 

this  arrangement  is  a 

great  help  in  finding  out 

and  remembering  all  the 

homes  of  the  fairies. 

In  nearly  all  pianos  Fairy  A 

has  eight  houses.  They  all  look 

<^     exactly  alike  and  all  are  named 

A  after  Fairy  A  herself. 

cf    To  find  where  Fairy  A  lives   we 

must  first  notice  the  group  of  three 


names.    A, 
B,C,D,E, 
F,      G 

Fairy  A, 
Fairy 


black  houses.   Look  carefully  at  these 
three  goblins'  homes  and  then  remem- 
ber that  Fairy  A  lives  on  the  right  side 
of  the  middle  black  house.     Fairy    B    is 
satisfied  with  seven  homes  all  exactly  alike 
and  one  is  named  after  herself,  B.     Again  we 
must  notice  the  three  little  black  houses,  for  Fairy 
B  is  always  found  on  the  right  side  of  the  third 
black  house.  Fairy  C  has  seven  houses  all  named  C, 
^    after  herself,  and  they  are  on  the  left  side  of  the 
^     tico  little  black  houses  grouped  together. 

Fairies  D,  E,  F  and  G  have  also  seven  homes  each, 

and    each  of  these  little  houses  bears  the  name  of  the 

fairy  to  whom  it  belongs.     Let  us  see  where  they  live. 

Look  again  at  the  little  group  of  two  goblins'  houses.     The 

fairy  living  between  these  two  black  houses  is    Fairy  D, 

and  wherever  we  see  just  two  goblins  together  we  can  be 

quite  sure  that  Fairy  D  is  to  be  found  between  them. 

Fairy  E   feels  that  she  wants  to  be  one  of  this  happy  party  and 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


281 


she  has  her  home  next  to  D,  so  that 
Fairy  E  is  on  the  right  side  of  the 
second  black  house. 

Fairy  F  and  Fairy  G  are  Hke  a  group 
of  three  goblins,  so  Fairy  F  lives  on 
the  left  of  the  first  of  the  three  black 
houses  while  Fairy  G  lives  next  door 
to  her  on  the  left  side  of  the  middle 
black  house. 

Now  that  we  have  found  out  where 
all  the  little  fairies  live,  let  us  go  to 


Home  of  the  seven  fairies 

the  piano  and  see  if  we  can  find  the 
little  houses.  Every  day  we  should 
enjoy  a  real  game  of  play  with  the 
fairies  and  goblins  in  the  magic  king- 
dom. We  can  think  we  are  the  post- 
men of  fairyland  and  each  morning 
we  must  take  the  fairies  their  letters, 
being  sure  to  go  to  the  right  houses 


and  careful  not  to  forget  any  of  our 
little  friends. 

Let  us  ask  the  fairies  to  play  a  game 
with  us  and  see  if  we  cannot  learn  to 
sing  the  note  of  each.  We  will  knock 
first  at  Fairy  C's  door.  We  will  choose 
that  house  of  hers  which  is  almost  in 
the  middle  of  the  long  white  line, 
remembering  that  her  houses  are 
always  found  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  group  of  two  goblins'  houses. 
To  knock  at  her  door  so  that  we 
may  really  hear  her  voice  in  answer, 
we  must  press  down  the  little  white 
piece  very  gently  and  firmly. 

Listen!  Do  you  hear  her?  It 
is  Fairy  C's  voice.  Try  to  sing  the 
same  sound  exactly.  Try  a  great 
many  times,  and  then,  when  we 
think  we  know  it  quite  well,  we  will 
run  away  to  the  end  of  the  room 
and  sing  it  again,  coming  back  very 
quickly  to  the  magic  kingdom  to  see 
if  we  have  remembered  it  rightly. 

Fairy  C  likes  to  hear  us  say 
"This  is  Fairy  C's  voice,"  and  she 
will  always  sing  if  we  go  to  her  house, 
C,  and  press  the  door  very  gently. 

When  we  have  played  as  long  as 
we  like  with  Fairy  C,  we  may  go 
to  her  next-door  neighbor.  Fairy  D. 
Fairy  D's  voice  is  not  quite  like 
Fairy  C's.  We  will  press  the  door 
here,  too,  and  listen  to  the  answer, 
and  then  try  and  sing  the  same 
sound. 

But  we  must  not  forget  Fairy  C's 
voice,  so  we  will  touch   the    door 
again  and  listen.      Now  we  will  go 
back  to  Fairy  D,  to  be  quite  sure 
that  we  know  each  fairy's  voice. 

But  there  are  more  fairies,  and  so  we 
go  to  Fairy  E's  house  and  learn  her 
httle  "note,"  and  then  to  Fairy  F  and 
Fairy  G,  until  we  reach  Fairy  C's 
second  little  house. 

If  we  have  a  fairy  concert  every  day. 
we  shall  soon  come  to  know  all  the 
beautiful  fairy  voices  quite  well. 


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LITTLE      PROBLEMS      FOR      THE      WISE 


When  was  the  watch  right? 

1.  At  noon  on  Monday  Herbert 
asked  his  father  what  o'clock  it  was. 
His  father  told  him  that  it  was  noon, 
and  said  that  his  watch  was  two  min- 
utes fast.  On  Wednesday  morning 
Herbert  again  asked  the  time,  and  his 
father  replied  that  the  exact  time  was 
eight  o'clock,  but  added  that  his  watch 
was  one  minute  slow.  Herbert  then 
told  his  father  at  what  time  his  watch 
had  been  exactly  right.  Could  you 
have  done  it? 

Answer. — From  noon  on  Monday 
to  8  o'clock  on  Wednesday  morning  is 
44  hours.  His  father's  watch,  there- 
fore, lost  3  minutes  in  44  hours.  But 
it  was  right  when  it  had  lost  only 
2  minutes,  which  it  would  do  in  two- 
thirds  of  44  hours — that  is,  in  29  hours 
20  minutes.  This  number  of  hours 
from  noon  on  Monday  would  make  it 
5 :20  on  Tuesday  afternoon. 

How  MANY  DUCKS? 

2.  "How  many  ducks  did  you 
drive  home.''"  asked  Farmer  Bell. 

"There  were  two  ducks  in  front  of  a 
duck,  two  ducks  behind  a  duck,  and 
a  duck  between  two  ducks,"  was  the 
reply. 

What  was  the  number  of  ducks? 

Answer. — Three. 
What  vehicles  were  sent? 

3.  An  order  had  been  received  at 
a  garage  for  automobiles  for  a  party 
of  fifty-nine.  The  manager  had  auto- 
mobiles to  seat  nine  and  cabs  to  hold 
four,  and  he  sent  some  of  each,  so  that 
everyone  had  a  seat  and  there  was 
no  seat  vacant. 

How  did  he  do  it? 

Answer. — Try  one  automobile  first. 
This  will  seat  9  and  leave  50.  There 
is  not  an  exact  number  of  4's  in  50, 
so  that  they  could  not  be  seated  in 
cabs.    Next  try  2  automobiles.    These 


will  seat  18  and  leave  41,  which  again 
cannot  be  seated  in  cabs.  Next,  3 
automobiles  will  seat  27  and  leave 
32.  Now  8  cabs  will  seat  exactly 
32,  so  that  the  manager  must  have 
sent  3  automobiles  and  8  cabs. 

How  DID  THE  SHEEP  STAND? 

4.  "I  saw  an  odd  sight  the  other 
day,"  said  Jones.  "Two  sheep  were 
standing  in  a  field,  one  looking  due 
north  and  the  other  due  south.  How 
do  you  think  that  each  could  see  the 
other  without  turning  round?" 

Can  you  give  the  answer? 

Answer. — This  is  what  is  usually 
known  as  a  "catch,"  and  the  answer 
is  that,  as  they  stood,  they  faced  each 
other,  one  looking  north  and  the  other 
south. 
The  clock  strikes  twelve 

5.  John  and  his  sister  stood  under 
the  church  tower  and  heard  the  clock 
strike  six.  John  looked  at  his  watch 
while  it  did  so,  and  said  to  his  sister: 
"It  took  30  seconds  to  strike  six." 
His  sister  replied:  "Then  how  long 
would  it  take  to  strike  12?"  John 
replied,  "Sixty  seconds,  of  course!" 
John  was  wrong.  What  is  the  correct 
answer? 

Answer. — The  clock  would  take 
sixty-six  seconds  to  strike  twelve. 
Between  the  first  stroke  and  the  sixth 
stroke  there  were  five  intervals  of 
time,  each  interval  being  six  seconds. 
Between  the  first  and  the  twelfth 
stroke  there  were  eleven  intervals  of 
time,  each  of  six  seconds,  so  that  th^ 
clock  would  take  sixty-six  seconds  to 
strike  twelve. 

How  MANY  eggs? 

6.  If  a  hen  and  a  half  lays  an  egg 
and  a  half  in  a  day  and  a  half,  how 
many  eggs  will  one  hen  lay  in  six  days? 

Answer. — Four  eggs.  One  hen 
would  lay  one  egg  in  a  day  and  a 


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half— that  is,  two  eggs  in  three  days,  How  many  stamps  had  they? 

or  four  eggs  in  six  days.  10.     Three  children — Jack,   Frank, 

Twelve  eggs  in  basin  and    Harry — divided    some    postage- 

7.  There  are  12  boys,  and  on  the  stamps  among  them.  Jack  had  half 
table  is  a  basin  with  12  eggs.  Each  of  them  and  one  more;  Frank  had  one 
boy  took  one  egg  and  there  remained  more  than  half  of  those  left;  Harry 
one  egg  in  the  basin.     How  was  this?  had  the  remaining  three.     How  many 

Answer. — The  last  boy  took  the  stamps  were  there? 

basin  as  well  as  the  egg  in  it.  Answer. — First    let    us    find    how 

The  farmer  and  the  tramp  many  stamps  were  left  when  Jack  had 

8.  A  tramp  lies  down  for  a  nap  at  taken  his  share.  Since  Frank  had  one 
the  side  of  a  haystack,  and  hears  the  more  than  half,  Harry  must  have  had 
farmer  approaching.  He  runs  round  one  less  than  half.  You  know  that 
and  round  the  stack  chased  by  the  Harry  had  three,  therefore  four  must 
farmer.  They  start  from  opposite  have  been  half  of  the  quantity  that 
corners,  the  tramp  taking  forty  seconds  Harry  and  Frank  divided.  Half  of 
to  run  completely  around  and  the  eight  is  four  so  Frank  had  five.  Now 
farmer  thirty  seconds.  How  often  we  must  find  how  many  Jack  had. 
must  the  farmer  run  around  before  Jack's  share  was  one  more  than  half 
catching  the  tramp?  the  total  quantity  and  therefore  the 

Answer. — x\s  the  tramp  runs  round  quantity  divided  by  Frank  and  Harry 

the  stack  in  forty  seconds,  and  the  must  have  been  one  less  than  half  the 

farmer  in  thirty  seconds,  the  farmer  total.     Frank  and  Harry's  share  came 

can  run  round  four  times  in  the  same  to  eight  as  we  have  seen  and  the  half 

time  that  the  tramp  takes  to  run  round  of  the  total  quantity  being  one  more 

three  times.     This  means  that  in  four  than  eight  was  nine.     Jack  had  ten 

rounds  run  by  the  farmer  he  would  which    is    one    more    than    half    the 

gain  one  round  upon  the  tramp;  but,  total   quantity   and   thus   there   were 

as  the  tramp  had  a  start  of  only  half  eighteen  altogether. 

a  round,  the  farmer  would  overtake  Whose  portrait  is  it? 

him  after  running  only  two  rounds,  11.     One  of  the  problems  that  have 

which  is  the  answer.  most  puzzled  our  fathers  and  mothers 

How  many  persons  were  they?  is  the  old  problem  of  a  man  looking  at 

9.  Brown  arrived  at  the  inn  to  a  portrait,  saying:  "Brothers  and  sis- 
arrange  lunch  for  his  party.  "How  ters  have  I  none,  but  this  man's 
many  of  you  are  there?"  asked  the  father  is  my  father's  son."  Whose 
innkeeper.      "Well,       we       represent  portrait  is  it? 

father,    mother,    uncle,    aunt,    sister,  Answer. — If  a  man  says  that  he 

brother,     nephew,     niece,     and     two  has  no  brothers  and  sisters,  his  father 

cousins."  would    have    only    one    son — himself. 

What  was  the  fewest  number  that  Thus,  if  what  he  says  is  put  in  simple 

could  be  in  the  party?  language  it  is:  "That  man's  father  is 

Answer. — There  were  four  in  the  myself."  This  means  that  the  pic- 
party.  The  father  and  mother  were  ture  at  which  he  looked  was  that  of 
brother  and  sister,  one  having  a  son  his  own  son. 

and     the     other     a     daughter.     The  Did  george  walk  round  the  monkey? 

children      were     cousins,      therefore,  12.     George  was  trying  to  tease  the 

nephew  and  niece,  and  the  father  and  monkey  which  was  seated  on  the  top 

mother  were  thus  uncle  and  aunt.  of  a  barrel-organ.     But,  although  he 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


walked  all  round  the  barrel-organ,  the 
monkey  always  turned  so  as  to  face 
the  boy  the  whole  time. 

When  the  boy  has  walked  round  the 
organ,  has  he  walked  round  the 
monkey? 

Answer. — No.  George  never  sees 
the  monkey's  back,  which  he  clearly 
would  do  if  he  walked  round  the 
monkey. 

How  LONG  WAS  THE  STRING? 

13.  A  boy  had  two  pieces  of  string, 
one  of  which  was  just  twice  as  long  as 
the  other.  He  cut  6  inches  oflP  each 
piece,  and  then  found  that  one  was 
just  three  times  as  long  as  the  other 
How  long  were  they  at  first  .5^ 

Answer. — To  begin  with,  one  piece 
of  string  was  1^2  inches  long  and  the 
other  piece  24  inches.     After  cutting 


How  MUCH  DOES  A  BRICK  WEIGH? 

15.  A  brick  weighs  six  pounds  and 
half  of  its  own  weight.  What  is  the 
weight  of  the  brick? 

Answ^er. — The  brick  weighed  12 
pounds.  The  weight  of  each  of  the 
two  halves  is  the  same,  so  that  if  a 
brick  weighs  half  of  its  own  weight 
and  6  pounds,  the  6  pounds  must 
represent  the  other  half. 

How  MUCH  WATER  WAS  SPILLED  ? 

16.  A  boat  leaving  a  wreck  had 
water  to  last  13  days,  allowing  each 
man  one  quart  each  day.  After 
five  days  some  water  was  spilled  and 
one  man  died  on  the  same  day.  The 
water  then  lasted  just  the  expected 
time.     How  much  water  was  spilled? 

Answer. — The  amount  spilled 
would  have  served  the  man  who  died 


How  did  the  engineer  cliange  the  cars? 


6  inches  off  of  each  the  shorter  piece 
was  6  inches  long  and  the  longer  piece 
18  inches  long. 

How  FAST  WAS  THE  HORSE  WALKING? 

14.  I  was  walking  along  a  country 
road  steadily  at  the  rate  of  four  miles 
an  hour.  I  saw  a  horse  and  cart 
going  in  the  same  direction,  and  wdien 
I  saw  them  they  were  exactly  2'-20 
yards  in  front  of  me.  I  overtook 
them  in  15  minutes.  At  wdiat  rate 
was  the  horse  walking? 

Answer. — In  15  minutes  I  had  gone 
one  mile  and  the  horse  220  vards  less 
than  one  mile.  In  one  hour  the  horse 
would  walk  880  yards  less  than  four 
miles — that  is  three-and-one-half  miles 
in  one  hour. 


for  8  days,  and  this,  at  1  quart  each 
day,  would  have  been  8  quarts. 

How  DID  THE  ENGINEER  DO  IT? 

17.  The  illustration  represents  a 
railway  line  with  a  short  loop  line 
extending  from  one  part  of  the  main 
line  to  another  part  of  the  main  line. 
In  the  middle  of  the  loop  line  is  a 
bridge,  under  which  a  car  can  be 
pushed  by  the  engine,  but  which  is  too 
low  for  the  engine  itself  to  pass  through. 
On  the  left  side  of  the  loop  line,  near 
the  lamp-post  marked  A,  is  a  car 
marked  B,  and  on  the  right  side  of 
the  loop  line,  near  the  lamp-post 
marked  C,  is  a  car  marked  D.  The 
engineer  is  told  to  take  car  B  to  the 
lamp-post  C  on  the  right  side,  and  to 


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285- 


take  car  D  to  the  lamp-post  A  on  the 
left  side,  leaving  them  at  these  points, 
and  then  to  bring  his  engine  back  to 
the  main  line.  The  main  line  extends 
further  at  each  end  than  is  seen  in  the 
picture. 

How  did  he  perform  his  task? 

Answer. — The  engine  goes  forward 
along  the  main  line,  backs  up  the  left 
side  of  the  branch  line,  and  pushes 
car  B  through  the  bridge.  Then  the 
engine  comes  down  the  branch  line, 
to  the  main  line,  along  the  main  line  to 
the  right  of  the  picture,  then  up  the 
right  side  of  the  branch  line,  and 
pushes  car  D  up  to  car  B.  At  this 
stage  the   position  is  like  this : 


Then  the  engine  pulls  down  both 
cars,  brings  them  both  to  the  middle 
portion  of  main  line,  where  it  leaves 
car  B  (which  is  the  one  farthest  in 
front  of  it),  and,  going  back  again 
with  car  D,  pushes  it  up  the  right  side 
of  the  branch  through  the  bridge. 
The  position  is  then  like  this: 


Now  the  locomotive  comes  back 
again  to  the  main  line,  takes  car  B, 
and  leaves  it  at  the  post  C,  finally 
coming  down  again  along  the  main  line, 
up  the  left  side  of  the  branch  line,  and 
pulls  car  D  into  its  place.  It  can  then 
return  to  the  main  line  alone. 

How  DOES  JULIA  GET  THE  EGGS? 

18.  Dora  and  Julia  gather  the  eggs 
on  the  farm.  One  morning  Dora 
discovers  that  several  eggs  have  been 
laid  on  a  small  square  island  in  the 
middle  of  a  square  pond,  and,  having 


no  plank  long  enough  to  reach  across, 
she  leaves  the  eggs  alone. 

Julia  sees  them  the  next  morning, 
and,  looking  round  for  a  means  to 
reach  the  island,  finds  two  planks, 
neither  of  which  will  quite  reach  from 
the  edge  of  the  pond  to  the  island. 
But  they  are  her  only  means  of  access 
to  the  eggs,  and,  placing  them  so  that 
she  can  step  across  them,  Julia 
reaches  the  island  and  takes  the  eggs 
home  in  her  basket.  How  does  Julia 
reach  the  island. f* 


How  does  Julia  get  the  eggs? 

Answer. — Julia  put  the  planks  as 
shown  in  the  picture,  and  thus  reached 
the  island. 


How  Julia  got  the  eggs 

Riddles 

1.  To  what  island  should  hungry 
people  go? 

2.  Why   is   a   policeman   like   an 
aeroplane? 

3.  Why    are  watches  like    grass- 
hoppers? 

4.  What  tree  is  nearest  to  the  sea? 

5.  Why   is   charity   like   an   um- 
brella? 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


6.  Why   is   the   eye  like   a   very 
severe  schoohiiaster? 

7.  What  flower  is  most  Hkely  to  be 
found  in  the  shop  of  a  shoemaker? 

8.  Why  is  Sunday  the  strongest 
day? 

9.  What  flower  would  you  wish 
for  when  oppressed  with  woe? 

10.  Why  are  pen,  ink  and  paper 
like  fixed  stars? 

11.  Why  are  hay  and  straw  like 
spectacles  ? 

12.  Ten  men's  strength  and  ten 
men's  length,  and  ten  men  cannot 
set  it  on  end,  yet  one  can  carry  it. 

13.  What  is  that  which  goes 
through  the  wood  yet  never  touches 
the  ground  or  the  trees  ? 


14.  What  tradesmen  are  always 
robbing  themselves? 

Answer. — (1)  The  Sandwich  Isles; 
(2)  Because  he  takes  people  up;  (3) 
Because  they  move  by  springs;  (4) 
The  beech;  (5)  Because  it  is  most 
useful  when  most  widely  extended; 
(6)  He  always  has  a  pupil  under 
the  lash;  (7)  Lady's  slipper;  (8) 
Because  the  others  are  all  week 
(weak)  daj^s;  (9)  Heartsease;  (10) 
Because  they  are  stationery  (sta- 
monary);  (11)  Because  they  are 
forage  (for  age);  (12)  A  rope  twenty 
yards  long;  (13)  The  blast  of  a  horn; 
(14)  Butchers,  because  they  are  always 
stealing  (steeling)  their  own  knives 
and  other  tools. 


THINGS     DIFFICULT    TO     SAY 


WE  ALL  know  the  curious 
sentence  with  many  saws  in 
it  that  we  were  asked  to  say 
when  we  first  went  to  school:  "Of  all 
the  saws  that  ever  I  saw  I  never  saw 
a  saw  to  saw  like  this  saw  was  to  saw." 
That  is  quite  easy  to  say,  but  there 
are  many  other  sentences  with  the 
same  word  or  syllable  or  sound  that 
are  so  hard  to  say,  and  especially  to 
say  several  times  in  quick  succession, 
that  they  have  obtained  the  apt 
name  of  tongue-twisters.  "Truly 
rural"  seems  quite  a  simple  expression, 
and  yet  there  are  very  few  people 
who  can  say  it  quickly  six  times  run- 
ning without  twisting  it  into  some- 
thing like  toore-looral. 

Here  is  a  tongue-twister  in  the  form 
of  a  verse : 
Oliver  Oglethorpe  ogled  an  owl  and 

oyster; 
Did  Oliver  Oglethorpe  ogle  an  owl  and 

oyster? 
If  Oliver  Oglethorpe  ogled  an  owl  and 

oyster, 
Where  are  the  owl  and  oyster  Oliver 

Oglethorpe  ogled? 


Perhaps  even  more  difficult  to  repeat 

than   either   of   these   is    a    verse    in 

which  the  sound  of  q  occurs  in  almost 

every  word. 

Quixote  Quicksight  quizzed  a  queerish 
quidbox; 

Did  Quixote  Quicksight  quiz  a  queerish 
quidbox? 

If  Quixote  Quicksight  quizzed  a  queer- 
ish quidbox, 

Where's  the  queerish  quidbox  Quixote 
Quicksight  quizzed? 
The  sound  of  c,  too,  mixed  up  with 

the  sound  of  cr,  is  difficult  to  repeat 

over  and  over  again   in   a   sentence. 

Here  is  a   sentence  combining  these 

sounds : 

Captain  Crackskull  cracked  a  catch- 
poll's cockscomb; 

Did  Captain  Crackskull  crack  a  catch- 
poll's cockscomb? 

If  Captain  Crackskull  cracked  a  catch- 
poll's cockscomb, 

Where's    the    catchpoll's    cockscomb 
Captain  Crackskull  cracked? 
A  very  good  tongue-twister  is  the 

verse  about  the  sea-shells : 

She  sells  sea-shells  on  the  sea-shore; 


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287 


The  shells  she  sells  are  sea-shells  I'm 
sure. 

So  if  she  sells  sea-shells  on  the  sea- 
shore ; 

Then  I'm  sure  she  sells  sea-shore 
shells. 

Here  is  a  prose  tongue-twister 
which  should  be  repeated  very  rapidly : 

How  much  wood  would  a  woodchuck 
chuck  if  a  woodchuck  could  chuck 
wood?  If  a  woodchuck  could  chuck 
wood,  the  wood  that  a  woodchuck 
would  chuck  is  the  wood  that  a  wood- 
chuck could  chuck,  if  the  woodchuck 
that  could  chuck  wood  would  chuck, 
or  a  woodchuck  could  chuck  wood. 

A  shorter  but  scarcely  less  difficult 
tongue-twister  is  this  sentence  of  only 
six  words : 

Seven  Severn  salmon  swallowing 
several  shrimps. 

Here  is  a  series  of  sentences  that  Dr. 
Moberlj^  headmaster  of  Winchester 
School,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Salisbury,  used  to  make  his  boys  read, 


placing  the  emphasis  on  the  right 
words.  They  are  all  perfectly  correct 
but  take  a  good  deal  of  examination 
before  the  sense  can  be  understood  in 
each  case : 

I  saw  that  C  saw. 
C  saw  that  I  saw. 
I  saw  that  that  that  C  saw  was  so. 
C  saw  that,  that  that  that  I  saw  was  so. 
I  saw  that,  that  that  that  that  C  saw 

was  so. 
C  saw  that  that,  that  that  that  that  I 
saw  was  so. 

I  saw  that  that,  that  that  that  that 
that  C  saw  was  so. 

It  is  very  amusing  to  try  to  repeat 
this: 

Mrs.  Biggar  had  a  baby.  Which 
was  the  bigger  .'*  The  baby  w^as  a 
little  Biggar!  Which  was  the  bigger, 
Mrs.  Biggar  or  the  baby?  Mr.  Biggar 
was  father  Biggar!  Mr.  Biggar  died; 
was  the  baby  then  bigger  than  Mrs. 
Biggar?  No,  for  the  baby  was  father- 
less! 


MYSTERY 

Simple  experiments  with  air  and 

WATER 

WE  can  learn  a  great  deal  of 
science  from  the  most  fa- 
miliar objects  in  our  homes. 


AND    MAGIC 

ments  that  will  teach  us  much  that 
we  ought  to  know. 

First  of  all,  we  can  perform  an 
experiment  that  will  show  us  how  the 
air,    that    is    invisible    and    does    not 


and  an  interesting  half-hour  may  be      seem  to  have  any  weight,  is  actually 
spent    in    performing    simple    experi-      pressing    down    upon    us    and    upon 


Easy  experiments  that  can  be  tried  in  every  home 


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everything    on    the    earth's    surface,  cause  of  this  is  that  when  the  paper  is 

We   take  a   wide-necked   bottle,   and  burned  out  the  air  cools  again,  and  as 

also  prepare  a  hard-boiled  egg  to  help  it    does    not    now   fill    the    glass    the 

us    in    our    experiment    by    carefully  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  surface  of 

removing  all  the  shell.  the  water  drives  it  up  into  the  tumbler. 

Now  we  put  into  the  bottle  a  piece  Still  another  experiment  will  prove 
of  lighted  paper,  and,  after  a  second  that  the  air  exercises  a  pressure,  not 
or  two,  place  the  egg  in  the  neck  of  only  downwards,  but  upwards  as  well, 
the  bottle  as  though  it  were  the  We  take  a  wine-glass,  and  fill  it  care- 
stopper.  The  egg  will,  of  course,  fully  up  to  the  brim  with  water, 
remain  there  just  as  if  it  were  in  an  Then  take  a  thin  sheet  of  paper,  and 
egg-cup.  At  least,  that  is  what  some  place  it  on  top,  so  that  it  touches  both 
of  us  would  expect.  But  if  we  watch  the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  rim 
the  hard-boiled  egg  we  shall  see,  after  of  the  glass.  Now,  holding  the  paper 
a  time,  that  it  is  gradually  going  down  carefully  in  position,  we  turn  the  glass 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  as  though  it  of  water  upside  down,  and  the  water 
were  being  sucked  in.  Then,  suddenly,  will  remain  in  the  glass  apparently 
it  will  enter  the  bottle  with  a  loud  suspended.  Of  course,  it  is  not  really 
noise.  What  is  the  explanation  of  suspended,  but  the  air  is  pressing  it 
this?  It  is  very  simple.  The  burning  up  into  the  glass.  The  air  must  not 
paper  heated  and  expanded  the  air  in  be  allowed  to  get  into  the  glass  while 
the  bottle,  and  some  of  it  was  driven  we  are  inverting  it,  or  the  water  will 
out  through  the  opening  at  the  neck,  come  out;  and  as  any  carelessness  will 
Then  the  egg  was  placed  in  the  neck  result  in  an  accident,  it  is  always  wise 
and  the  opening  was  stopped  up.  to  perform  the  experiment  over  a 
Presently  the  air  in  the  bottle  cooled,  basin. 

and,  as  it  lost  its  heat,  it  contracted,  or  If  we  should  like  another  experiment 

filled  less  space,  so  that  there  was  a  to  prove  the  downward  pressure  of  the 

partial  vacuum  in  the  bottle,  and  the  air,   we  can  use  our  basin  of  water 

air    outside    pressing    upon    the    egg  again,  and  take   a  small    ear-syringe 

drove  it  into  the  bottle.     The  report  such  as  is  found  in  every  house.     We 

was  caused  by  the  outside  air  rushing  fill  it  with  water,  and  invert  it  with 

in  as  soon  as  the  falling  of  the  egg  the  point  in  the  water  in  the  basin, 

opened  the  neck  once  more.  Now  we  press  down  the  rod  and  empty 

There  is  another  simple  experiment  the  syringe.     But  directly  we  pull  up 

which  shows  clearly   the  pressure  of  the  rod  again  the  water  rushes  up  and 

the    atmosphere.       Take    a   basin   of  fills  the  syringe.     The  reason  of  this  is 

water,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  water  that  the  pressure  of  the  air  all  over 

let  a  cork  float.     Now  place  on  the  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  basin 

cork  a  piece  of  lighted  paper,  and  over  drives  the  water  up  into  the  syringe, 

these  invert  an  empty  glass,  pressing  An  interesting  experiment,  this  time 

it  down  gently  into  the  water.  Bubbles  with    a    pair    of    ordinary    domestic 

will  be  seen  to  come  from  under  the  bellows,  proves  that  the  pressure  of 

glass.     This   is   the  air  being   driven  the  atmosphere  is  exerted,   not  only 

out  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  heat  above  and  below,  but  sideways  and 

from  the  lighted  paper  has  expanded  in   all   directions.     Having  blown  all 

the  air,  and  the  glass  will  not  hold  it  the  air  out,  we  completely  stop  up  the 

all.     A  few  moments  after,  the  water  nozzle  and  the  vent-hole  with  corks, 

is  seen  to  rise  in  the  tumbler.     The  and  then,  if  the  bellows  are  in  proper 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


289 


order  and  are  air-tight,  no  boy  will  be 
able  to  open  them,  no  matter  in  what 
position  they  may  be  held.  The  air 
outside  pressing  equally  on  all  sides 
holds  the  bellows  together. 

All  bodies,  solids,  liquids,  and  gases 
alike,  when  heated  expand — that  is, 
fill  more  space — and  two  simple  ex- 
periments will  show  this  clearly  in  the 
case  of  liquids  and  gases.  We  take  a 
small  bottle,  fill  it  with  some  colored 
liquid,  such  as  water  in  which  a  little 
coloring  has  been  dropped,  and  cork 
it  up.  But  we  must  see  that  the  cork 
is  pierced,  and  a  piece  of  glass  tube, 
open  at  both  ends,  inserted.  Now, 
if  we  plunge  the  bottle  into  a  vessel 
of  warm  water,  as  seen  in  picture  6, 
the  colored  liquid  will  be  seen  to  rise 
in  the  tube  to  A.  This  is  because  the 
warm  water  in  which  the  bottle  was 
plunged  has  heated  the  liquid  in  the 
bottle,  and  caused  it  to  expand  and 
overflow  into  the  tube. 

To  show  that  gases  expand  we  must 
use  a  glass  tube  closed  at  one  end. 
We  take  the  tube,  which  is,  of  course, 
full  of  the  gas  that  we  call  air,  and 
put  it  into  a  tumbler  of  water,  as 
shown  in  picture  7.  The  water  rises 
to  a  certain  point,  B.  Now  we  hold 
a  lighted  taper  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
glass  tube,  and,  after  a  second  or  two, 
the  water  descends  in  the  tube  from 
B  to  C.  This  is  because  the  heat 
expanded  the  air  in  the  tube,  and  as  it 
wanted  more  room  drove  some  of  the 
water  out. 

Another  experiment  with  a  wine- 
glass and  a  jar  of  water  will  show  that 
gases,  such  as  the  atmosphere,  possess 
the  property  of  compressibility — that 
is,  they  can  be  pressed  into  smaller 
space.  We  take  the  wine-glass  and 
invert  it  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  glass  is  full  of  air,  which  occupies 
the  whole  of  the  space  A  in  picture  8. 
Now  we  press  the  glass  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  jar,  and  we  see,  as  in 


picture  9,  that  some  water  has  risen 
in  the  glass,  and  the  air  that  formerly 
occupied  the  whole  glass  now  fills 
only  the  space  B.  As  we  gradually 
lift  the  glass  out  of  the  jar,  we  see  that 
the  air  expands  and  fills  the  glass  as 
easily  as  it  was  compressed. 

There  is  a  simple  experiment  to  show 
that  liquids,  like  gases,  exert  a  pressure 
equal  in  all  directions.  Take  an 
ordinary  lamp  chimney  and  p^ace 
below  the  widest  opening  a  piece  of 
cardboard.  Hold  this  against  it  and 
plunge  the  whole  into  a  jar  of  water. 
Now  remove  the  hand  that  held  the 
cardboard,  and  it  will  be  found  to 
remain  in  position,  the  upward  pres- 
sure of  the  water  holding  it  against 
the  glass.  Now  pour  water  gently 
into  the  lamp  chimney  from  above; 
the  card  continues  in  position  until 
the  water  in  the  glass  reaches  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  jar.  The 
pressure  of  water  top  and  bottom 
being  then  equal  the  card  will  be 
displaced,  and  sink  to  the  bottom  of 
the  jar  by  its  own  weight. 

A  TRICK  TO  PLAY  WITH  A  BOOK 

This  is  a  trick  of  a  really  startling 
kind,  which  will  puzzle  even  the  wisest 
man  if  he  does  not  know  it. 

You  invite  someone,  the  older  and 
wiser  the  better,  to  take  down  any 
book  he  pleases  from  the  bookshelves, 
to  open  it  haphazard,  and  to  choose 
a  word  in  the  first  nine  lines  of  any 
page,  and  not  after  the  ninth  word 
in  the  line.  He  is  then  to  notice  the 
number  of  the  page,  and  multiply  it 
by  10.  To  the  product  he  is  to  add 
25  and  the  number  of  the  line.  The 
result  thus  obtained  is  in  turn  to  be 
multiplied  by  10,  and  the  number 
at  which  the  word  stands  to  be  added 
to  the  product. 

He  is  then  to  hand  you  the  book, 
with  a  slip  of  paper  on  which  are 
written  the  figures  last  obtained. 
After  thinking  for  a  few  moments  you 


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open  the  book  and  read  out  the  word 
chosen. 

To  obtain  this  surprising  result, 
all  that  you  have  to  do  is  to  subtract 
in  your  mind  250  from  the  amount 
given  you  on  the  slip  of  paper  handed 
to  you. 

The  last  figure  of  the  answer  will 
give  you  the  number  at  which  the 
word  stands  in  the  line,  the  last  but 
one  the  number  of  the  line,  and  the 
remaining  figures  the  number  of  the 
page. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the 
person  choosing  the  word  had  hap- 
pened to  choose  the  fifth  word  in  the 
ninth  line  of  the  eighty-fourth  page. 
In  such  case  the  process  would  be  as 
follows : 

84X    10       =  840 

840+  25+9=  874 

874X    10       =8740 

8740  +     5       =8745 

8745—250       =8495 

And  8495,  dissected  as  explained, 
gives  84,  9,  5,  being  the  three  clues 
necessary  to  the  discovery  of  the  word. 
The  Disappearing  dime 

This  is  a  capital  trick.  Two  things 
only  are  wanted  for  it — a  handkerchief 
spread  out  upon  the  table,  and  a 
dime  laid  in  the  middle  of  it.  The 
corners  of  the  handkerchief  are  folded 
down  over  the  coin,  and  anyone 
is  permitted  to  feel  that  it  is  still 
there.  And  yet,  at  the  conjur- 
er's command,  it  passes  through 
handkerchief  and  table,  and  is  found 
on  the  floor  beneath.  The  handker- 
chief is  shaken  out,  and  proves  to  be 
empty.  This  trick  is  good  enough 
to  make  quite  a  reputation  for  the 
youthful  wizard,  and  yet  it  is  simplic- 
ity itself — when  you  know  it ! 

In  the  first  place  we  must  have  two 
dimes  in  appearance  as  nearly  alike 
as  possible,  and  one  of  these  we  take 
an  opportunity  to  drop  quietly  before- 
hand  under   the   table   at   which   we 


propose  to  perform  the  trick.  The 
only  other  thing  required  is  a  little 
pellet  of  beeswax.  This  we  must 
knead  between  the  fingers  till  it  is 
fairly  soft,  and  then  press,  till  needed 
in  another  sense,  against  the  back 
part  of  our  lowest  vest  button. 


To  perform  the  trick,  take  the  wax 
off  the  button,  and  press  it  against  one 
corner  of  the  handkerchief  which  you 
are  going  to  use.  Then  lay  the  hand- 
kerchief on  the  table  squarely  in  front 
of  you,  with  the  waxed  corner  nearest 
to  the  right  hand.  Lay  the  dime  on  the 
center  of  the  handkerchief,  or  better 
still,  let  somebody  else  do  this,  to  prove 
that  there  is  "no  deception."  Then 
fold  down  the  corners  of  the  handker- 
chief one  by  one  over  the  coin,  begin- 
ning with  the  waxed  corner,  and  press- 
ing this  down  a  little,  so  as  to  make  it 
adhere.  This  done  we  ask  someone 
to  make  sure,  by  feeling  through  the 
handkerchief,  thatthecoinis  still  there. 
Each  person  who  does  so  presses  the 
wax  a  little  closer. 

Now  comes  the  exciting  moment. 
"Now,  ladies  and  gentlemen,"  you 
say,  "I  am  going  to  make  the  dime 
pass  right  through  the  table,  and  be 
found  upon  the  floor.  If  you  will  all 
be  very  quiet,  perhaps  you  will  hear 
it  fall."  They  won't,  but  they  may 
as  well  imagine  that  they  do  so. 

We  blow  upon  the  center  of  the 
handkerchief  saying,  "Presto!     Pass!" 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


291 


Then,  hooking  the  first  and  second 
fingers  of  each  hand  inside  the  nearer 
opening  of  the  handkerchief,  as  shown 
in  the  picture,  we  draw  the  two  corners 
smartly  apart,  one  in  each  hand,  and 
shake  it  out.  The  coin,  adhering  to 
the  handkerchief,  is  drawn  into  the 
right  hand.  "Look  under  the  table, 
and  see  whether  it  has  gone  through," 
you  say,  and  while  general  attention 
is  occupied  by  looking  for  and  picking 
up  the  other  coin,  you  will  have  ample 
opportunity  to  get  rid  of  the  one  in 
the  hand. 

Of  course  we  are  not  bound  to  make 
the  coin  pass  "through  the  table." 
If  we  prefer  it  we  may  order  it  to  pass 
under  a  candlestick,  into  a  vase  on 
the  mantelpiece,  or  even  into  some- 
body's breast-pocket.  All  that  is 
needful  is  to  place  the  duplicate  dime 
where  we  intend  that  it  shall  be  found, 
and  alter  the  command  accordingly. 
Making  a  ball  vanish  and  reappear 

For  the  performance  of  this  con- 
juring trick  the  only  apparatus  we  need 
is  a  little  ball,  light  in  weight  and  rather 
smaller  than  a  marble  in  size,  and  a  small 
stick  for  a  wand.  We  hold  the  ball 
up  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  our  right  hand,  as  shown  in  the 
first  picture,  so  that  all  the  spectators 
may  see  it  clearly.  Then  w^e  say  that 
we  shall  place  the  ball  in  our  left  hand, 
and  we  proceed  to  do  so;  but  instead  of 
putting  it  in  the  left  hand,  we  skillfully 
roll  the  little  ball  down  the  right  hand, 
and  fix  it  as  shown  in  the  second  picture, 
so  that  it  is  supported  between  the 
second  and  third  fingers.  To  do  this 
quickly  and  successfully  needs  a  little 
practice,  but  it  is  quite  possible  for 
any  boy  or  girl  to  learn  the  trick  in  a 
very  short  time. 

Now  we  close  the  left  hand  as  if  we 
were  holding  the  ball  in  it.  Then, 
still  supporting  the  little  ball  between 
the  second  and  third  fingers  of  the  right 
hand,   we   take   up   the   wand,    and, 


tapping  on  the  knuckles  of  the  closed 
left  hand,  we  say,  "Vanish,  little  ball!" 
and  instantly  we  open  the  hand  and 
show  that  the  ball,  which  was  supposed 
to  be  in  it,  has  disappeared. 

If  we  are  skillful  in  performing  the 
trick  so  far,  we  shall  have  no  difficulty 
in  continuing  it,  and,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  the  spectators,  we  shall  call 
the  little  ball  back  from  the  inside  of 
the  wand.  We  continue  to  support 
the  ball  between  the  second  and  third 
fingers  of  the  right  hand,  keeping  the 
back  of  the  hand  towards  the  audience 
all  the  time,  though,  of  course,  without 


How  the  ball  is  concealed 


appearing  to  do  this  purposely.  We 
take  the  wand  in  the  right  hand,  as  in 
the  third  picture,  and,  holding  the 
other  end  with  the  left  hand,  we  call  to 
the  ball  to  come  forth  from  inside  the 
wand.  As  we  speak  we  work  the  ball  in 
an  instant  from  its  hiding-place,  and 
hold  it  up  once  again  before  the  spec- 
tators, as  in  the  first  picture.  Of 
course,  in  all  such  tricks  as  this  we 
should  practice  well  alone  before  at- 
tempting to  give  an  exhibition  before 
others. 

The  boy  conjurer's   joke   with  his 
audience 

At  the  end  of  a  series  of  tricks  it  is 
often  a  source  of  great  amusement  to 
entertain  the  audience  with  what 
schoolboys  call  a  "sell" — a  practical 
joke  in  the  disguise  of  a  conjuring 
trick.  The  only  apparatus  needful 
is  the  pencil,  and  this  you  can  manu- 
facture    for     yourself.       You    have 


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merely  to  change  an  ordinary  pencil 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  look 
like  an  extraordinary  one.  For  in- 
stance, you  may  paint  it  in  three 
colors — red,  blue,  and  yellow,  successive 
rings  of  each  color;  or,  for  lack  of 
paint,  colored  paper  may  be  used — 
anything,  in  fact,  to  give  it  an  un- 
usual appearance. 

Having  performed  a  few  genuine 
tricks,  you  produce  the  pencil  and  a 
blank  sheet  of  paper,  inviting  the 
company  to  examine  them.  "Now, 
ladies  and  gentlemen,"  you  remark, 
"you  notice  no  doubt,  that  this  is  a 
rather  peculiar-looking  pencil.  But 
its  appearance  is  the  least  of  its  pecu- 
liarities. In  point  of  fact,  it  is  an 
electric  pencil.  At  present,  you  see, 
it  writes  plain  black  like  any  other 
pencil."  Here  you  make  a  few  marks 
with  it  and  proceed :  "But  if  I  electrify 
it  a  little,  it  will  write  red,  blue,  or 
yellow — in  fact,  any  color,  just  as  I 
please.  What  color  will  you  have.^ 
Choose  for  yourselves."  "Red,"  we 
w^ill  suppose  is  the  reply.  You 
gravely  breathe  upon  the  pencil,  rub 
it  upon  your  coat-sleeve,  and  proceed 
to  write  the  word  "red"  in  bold  letters. 
"There  it  is,  you  see — red.  If  you 
had  asked  for  blue  or  yellow,  it  would 
have  been  just  the  same."  Which 
nobody  can  deny. 

The  success  of  the  trick  rests  on  the 
fact  that  the  audience  have  been 
prepared,  by  seeing  sundry  surprising 
things,  to  expect  something  equally 
surprising.  If  the  trick  were  offered 
offhand,  without  such  preparation, 
some  of  the  audience  would  probably 
see  through  the  joke;  but  if  it  is  led  up 
to  in  a  proper  manner,  they  will  hardly 
ever  do  so. 

A  GOOD  CONJURING  TRICK  WITH  NUTS 

There  is  an  excellent  conjuring  trick 
that  can  be  performed  with  very  little 
preparation  or  apparatus,  and  if  it  is 
practiced  once  or  twice  until  skill  is 


acquired,  it  will   greatly  mystify  the 
spectators. 

We  hand  round  us  for  the  inspection 
of  the  audience  an  empty  dessert  plate 
and  a  clean  pocket-handkerchief. 
These  can  be  handled  by  anyone  who 
likes  to  prove  that  they  have  no 
secret  pockets  or  recesses.  We  now 
place  the  empty  plate  on  the  table, 
spread  over  it  the  pocket-handkerchief, 
and  then,  after  making  a  few  mysteri- 
ous passes  with  the  hand  or  a  wand, 
we  raise  the  handkerchief  and  shake 
out  of  it  upon  the  plate  a  number  of 
sweetmeats  or  nuts. 

This  is  the  explanation  of  the  trick. 
We  make  a  small  triangular  bag,  as 
shown  in  the  first  picture,  by  sewing 


The  trick  bag 

together  two  triangular  pieces  of  linen 
or  calico,  and  in  the  two  hems  on  each 
side  of  the  opening  we  sew  straight 
pieces  of  watch-spring,  taking  care 
that  in  each  case  the  spring  goes  the 
whole  length  of  the  hem.  These 
springs,  if  flat,  will  close  the  opening 
of  the  bag,  and  keep  it  closed  unless 
force  is  used  to  open  it.  A  pin,  bent 
to  a  hook,  is  put  through  the  apex  of 
the  bag. 

Nuts  or  sweetmeats  are  now  placed 
in  the  bag,  and  the  spring  closes  the 
mouth,  so  that  when  the  bag  is  sus- 
pended they  will  not  fall  out.  Having 
prepared  the  bag  in  this  way,  we  hang 
it  by  the  hooked  pin  on  the  side  of  the 
table  that  is  awaj^  from  the  spectators, 
this  being  done,  of  course,  in  advance, 


TEE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


298 


before  they  sit  down,  so  that  they  know 
nothing  about  it. 

After  showing  the  empty  plate  to  the 
audience,  we  place  it  on  the  table  near 
the  edge  where  the  bag  is  suspended, 
and  in  spreading  the  handkerchief 
over  it  we  see  that  part  of  it  hangs  over 
the  edge  of  the  table  where  the  hooked 
pin  is.  Then  in  picking  up  the  hand- 
kerchief we  dexterously  pick  up  with 
it  the  bag.  The  handkerchief  falhng 
around  so  as  to  hide  the  bag.  The 
rest    of    the    trick     is    simple.      We 


shake  the  handkerchief  with  a 
few  vigorous  jerks  and  the  impact 
of  the  nuts  or  sweets  parts  the 
springs,  which  are  not  very  stiff,  and 
allows  the  objects  to  fall  out  on  the 
plate.  The  bag  can  then  be  skillfully 
dropped  behind  the  table,  which 
should,  of  course,  have  a  thick  cloth 
on  it,  reaching  to  the  floor,  to  effect- 
tively  hide  the  back.  There  are  few 
conjuring  tricks  so  easy  to  per- 
form, and  yet  so  surprising  in  their 
effects. 


GAMES    AND     AMUSEMENTS 


The  "ALICE  IN  WONDERLAND"  TUB 

ALL  boys  and  girls  know  "Alice 
in  Wonderland,"  and  there 
is  a  good  Alice  game  that  we 
can  play. 

We  prepare  a  shallow  tub  and  deco- 
rate it,  inside  and  out,  with  green 
muslin  and  pretty  wreaths  of  ivy. 
Boys  will  easily  put  together  a  lattice 
made  of  wire,  one,  perhaps,  with  four 
large  squares  or  oblongs;  the  outer 
circle  should  be  of  the  same  size  as  the 
tub.  A  very  pretty  cover  is  made 
when  this  lattice  is  decorated  with 
greenery. 

Then  lovers  of  "Alice  in  Wonder- 
land" collect  as  many  as  they  can  of 
the  people  in  the  book — white  rabbits, 
the  Mad  Hatter,  the  Dormouse,  Bill, 
the  Lizard,  and  a  host  of  other  char- 
acters can  easily  be  made  up  by  clever 
boys  and  girls.  They  should  be 
wrapped  carefully  in  prettily  tinted 
papers,  and  the  packets  should  be  tied 
with  ribbons  or  tapes  to  match, 
leaving  a  long,  trailing  end.  All  the 
parcels  should  now  be  placed  carefully 
in  the  tub,  in  such  a  way  that  the  ends 
of  ribbon  can  be  drawn  through  one 
of  the  openings  in  the  cover.  Then, 
when  pulled  by  a  pair  of  eager  hands, 
the  ribbon  brings  out  with  it  a  package 
one  longs  to  open.     No  packet  must  be 


opened,  however,  until  the  magic  tub 
is  empty. 

Who  will  get  the  White  Rabbit,  the 
Black  Kitten,  or  the  dear,  sleepy  Dor- 
mouse? How  delightful  to  find  a 
lobster  or  a  walrus,  or  one  of  the 
poor  little  oysters !  A  little  pig  may  be 
in  one  parcel ;  a  pepper-pot  in  the  next. 
There  is  really  no  end  to  the  number  of 
delightful  people  and  things  that  may 
be  popped  into  the  Lewis  Carroll 
lucky  tub.  But  the  packages  may 
only  be  felt  by  those  who  take  posses- 
sion of  them,  they  are  not  to  be  opened 
until  a  signal  is  given,  and  even  then 
they  may  be  opened  only  privately — 
just  a  private  peep. 

Everybody  then  scampers  to  a  seat 
and  waits  for  more  fun.  A  clever 
grown-up  somebody  takes  a  chair  in 
the  middle  of  the  room  and  begins 
telling,  quickly  and  cleverly,  the  story 
of  "Alice  in  Wonderland,"  and  when 
the  moment  comes  for  the  dear,  fussy 
White  Rabbit  to  be  mentioned  a 
pause  is  made,  the  storyteller  strikes  a 
gong,  and  before  sixty  seconds  have 
passed  the  child  with  the  White 
Rabbit  must  have  loosened  the  cover- 
ings that  conceal  him,  run  to  the  side 
of  the  storyteller,  and  hold  him  up  for 
general  observation,  pronouncing  his 
name.     Sometime  three  or  four  people 


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must  run  at  the  same  moment;  what 
would  the  Mad  Hatter,  the  March 
Hare,  the  Dormouse,  and  Ahce  do 
without  the  big  teapot  or  the  wonder- 
ful watch? 

Each  boy  or  girl  who  succeeds  in 
getting  to  the  center  of  the  room  at 
the  right  moment  takes  a  chocolate 
from  a  box  placed  close  to  the  story- 
teller, and  returns  to  his  or  her  place 


until  wanted  again.  This  time  the 
concealing  papers  need  not  cover  the 
treasure  drawn  from  the  lucky  tub;  it 
may  be  placed  on  the  floor  of  the 
owner's  feet,  so  that  its  beauties  may 
be  properly  noted.  Then,  when  the 
story  comes  to  an  end  a  big  march 
past  to  music  takes  place,  and  a  boy, 
wearing  the  Mad  Hatter's  Hat,  makes 
a  fine  leader  of  the  procession. 


GAMES  TO  BE  PLAYED  IN  THE  NURSERY 


Hunt  the  slipper 

ALL  the  players  but  one — 
"cobblers,"  as  they  are  called 
— sit  on  the  floor  in  a  circle 
a  few  inches  apart.  Then  the  cus- 
tomer comes  and  says:  "Please,  I 
want  this  old  slipper  mended.  I  will 
call  for  it  in  ten  minutes." 

She  hands  one  of  the  cobblers  an 
old  slipper,  and  turns  away.  When 
she  has  counted  up  to  ten,  she  comes 
back,  but  is  told  the  slipper  is  not 
ready. 

"I  must  have  it,"  says  the  customer. 

"Then  you  must  find  it,"  all  the 
cobblers  reply. 

At  that  the  search  begins.  Each 
cobbler  passes  the  slipper  on  to  his  or 
her  neighbor,  hiding  it  from  sight  as 
much  as  possible;  but  should  the  seeker 
spy  it  and  call  out  the  name  of  the 
cobbler  who  has  got  it,  that  cobbler 
must  take  her  place,  and  bring  it  to 
be  mended  again.  The  slipper  must 
not  stop  in  one  place,  but  must  keep 
passing  round  the  circle,  either  one  way 
or  the  other. 
The  garden  gate 

The  garden  fence  is  made  by  all  the 
players,  except  one,  holding  each 
other's  hands,  standing  in  a  big  ring. 
In  the  middle  stands  the  single  player, 
while  the  rest  dance  round  her  three 
times.  Then  they  stand  still  while  she 
sings : 


"Open    wide    the    garden    gate,    the 
garden  gate,  the  garden  gate. 
Open  wide  the  garden  gate  and  let  me 

through." 

But  the  "fence,"  as  the  ring  is  called, 

only  answers,  as  it  dances  round  again : 

"Get  the  key  of  the  garden  gate,  the 

garden  gate,  the  garden  gate. 

Get  the  key  of  the  garden  gate  and  let 

yourself  through." 
Then  the  poor  prisoner  cries : 
"I've  lost  the  key  of  the  garden  gate, 

so  what  am  I  to  do?" 
Still  dancing,  the  others  sing: 
"Then  you  may  stop,  may  stop  all 
night  within  the  gate, 
Until    you're    strong    enough,    you 
know,  to  break  a  way  through." 
At  this  the  prisoner  runs  between 
two  of  the  boys  and  girls — the  "pal- 
ings" of  the  fence — and  if,  by  pushing, 
she  can  make  them  unclasp  hands,  one 
of  them  takes  her  place  in  the  middle 
and  the  game  begins  again. 
Hold  fast  !  let  go  ! 

You  must  listen  to  what  is  said  in 
this  game,  and  be  careful  to  do  exactly 
the  opposite.  Four  players  stand  up, 
and  each  takes  hold  of  one  corner  of  a 
square  sheet  of  paper  or  a  handker- 
chief. A  fifth  player  calls  out:  "Hold 
fast!"  and  anyone  who  does  not  let  go 
will  be  out;  while,  if  the  order  is  "Let 
go!"  those  who  fail  to  holdfast  will  be 
out.        The    orders    must    be    given 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


295 


rapidly,  one  after  another,  and  some- 
one is  sure  to  make  a  mistake,  but  the 
last  to  do  so,  of  course,  is  the  winner. 

Puss   IN   THE   CORNER 

In  this  game  all  the  children  pretend 
to  be  mice,  except  one,  who  is  the  puss. 
"Puss"  stands  in  the  middle  of  the 
room.  Each  mouse  stands  in  a  corner. 
While  there  puss  cannot  touch  them, 
but  when  they  run  across  the  room  to 
change  corners  with  one  another  she 
may  capture  any  she  can.  No 
mouse  should  venture  from  a  corner 
until  she  has  made  signs  to  another 
mouse  with  whom  she  would  like  to 
change  houses,  or  she  may  find  herself 
half-way  across  the  room  with  no 
corner  to  run  to.  The  mouse  that  is 
caught  must  take  the  place  of  puss. 
Blind  man's  buff 

Those  who  want  to  make  a  great 
noise  will  have  a  chance  now.  One 
player  is  taken  into  the  middle  of  the 
room,  where  a  handkerchief  is  tied 
over  his  eyes.  He  is  then  turned  round 
three  times  and  told  to  catch  whom  he 
can.  The  other  players  run  to  and 
fro,  passing  as  near  to  him  as  they  dare, 
while  the  blindman  rushes  in  all  direc- 
tions, clutching  at  those  who  seem 
nearest.  When  he  succeeds  in  catch- 
ing someone,  he  must  guess  who  it  is, 
and,  if  correct,  the  person  caught  must 
be  blindfolded  in  his  place.  If  he 
cannot  guess,  he  must  leave  go  and 
try  again. 
Wolf 

The  "wolf"  is  a  player  who  creeps 
away  to  one  side  of  the  nursery,  and 
hides  behind  chairs  and  tables  or  boxes. 
The  "sheep"  all  huddle  up  at  one  end 
of  the  room,  and  the  shepherd  stands 
at  the  other.  Presently  he  calls  out  to 
the  sheep  to  "come  home,  for  the  night 
is  falling." 


"We  are  afraid  of  the  wolf,"  answer 
the  sheep. 

"The  wolf  is  away!"  cries  the 
shepherd. 

Then  the  sheep  all  run  across.     Out 
jumps  the  wolf  and  catches  whom  he 
can.     The  game  lasts  till  there  are  no 
sheep  left  to  be  caught. 
Bingo 

The  players  join  hands  in  a  ring, 
with  one  of  their  number,  who  is  called 
the  "miller,"  in  the  center.  Then  all, 
still  holding  hands,  dance  round  and 
sing: 

"The  miller's  mill  dog  lay  at  the  mill 
door. 

And  his  name  was  little  Bingo: 
B  with  an  I,  I  with  an  N,  N  with  a  G, 
G  with  an  O, 
And  his  name  was  little  Bingo." 

Then  as  they  stand  still  again  the 
miller  cries  out  "B"  and  points  at  one 
of  the  players  in  the  ring,  who  must 
say  "I,"  the  next  to  her  "N,"  and  so  on, 
until  the  little  dog's  name  is  spelled. 
The  first  player  to  say  the  wrong 
letter  has  to  change  places  with  the 
miller. 
Feather  and  fans 

A  fluffy  feather  out  of  any  cushion  will 
do  for  this  game,  and  if  there  are  not 
enough  fans  to  go  round,  stiff  pieces  of 
paper  or  thin  card  will  do  quite  as  well. 
Draw  a  line  across  the  nursery  floor, 
and  let  half  the  number  of  players  be 
on  one  side,  and  half  the  number  on 
the  other.  When  all  are  ready,  toss 
the  feather  into  the  air  and  keep  it  up 
with  the  fans.  No  players  must  leave 
their  side  of  the  line,  but  should  do 
their  best  to  stop  the  feather  sailing 
across  it.  Those  in  whose  country 
it  falls  at  last  lose  the  game.  Of  course 
the  feather,  while  in  flight,  must  not  be 
touched. 


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GAMES  TO  PLAY  BY  THE  FIRE 


Word-making 

NEAR  the  top  of  a  slip  of  paper 
each  player  writes  down  a  word 
given  out  by  the  leader  of  the 
company.  Then  all  start  to  make  a 
list  below  it  of  other  words,  spelled 
from  the  letters  it  contains — and  these 
letters  only.  When  the  leader  says 
that  time  is  up  (about  ten  minutes 
should  be  allowed),  the  lists  are  added 
up,  and  the  player  who  has  made  the 
largest  number  of  words  is  the  winner. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  choose  a  very 
long  word,  for  it  is  surprising  how  many 
words  may  be  made  from  the  letters 
contained  in  any  word  of  ordinary 
length.  For  example,  from  the  word 
"animal"  we  can  get:  am,  nail,  main, 
lain,  and  so  on. 
Magic  answers 

This  is  a  game  in  which  two  of  the 
players  form  a  plan  between  them- 
selves to  puzzle  the  rest.  One  of  these 
two  leaves  the  room,  while  his  partner 
remains  behind  to  choose  with  the  rest 
of  the  company  some  object  to  be 
guessed. 

The  one  outside  is  then  recalled  and 
questioned  by  his  accomplice  as  to  what 
this  object  is.  Several  things  are 
touched.  "Is  it  this?"  "Is  it  this?" 
he  is  asked.  To  every  inquiry  he 
answers  "No,"  until  something  is 
mentioned  that  has  four  legs,  and  as 
he  and  his  friend  have  previously  ar- 
ranged that  such  an  article  shall  not  be 
referred  to  till  just  before  the  real  object 
is  named,  he  knows  that  the  next  ques- 
tion may  be  answered  with  a  "Yes." 
Proverbs 

While  one  of  the  players  is  out  of 
the  room,  the  rest  think  of  a  proverb. 
It  should  contain  at  least  as  many 
words  as  there  are  players. 

The  boy  or  girl  who  has  been  sent 
out  is  now  called  back,  and  begins  the 
game  by  asking  the  first  in  the  row  a 


question.  This  question  may  be  of 
any  kind,  but  the  answer  to  it  must 
contain  the  first  word  of  the  proverb. 
The  next  is  then  questioned,  and 
replies  with  the  second  word,  wrapped 
up,  as  it  were,  in  the  answer. 

Supposing  the  proverb  to  be,  "It  is 
never  too  late  to  mend,"  and  the  first 
question  is,  "How  many  apples  do  you 
eat  in  a  day?"  the  answer  might  be, 
"As  it  is  not  wise  to  eat  too  much  of 
anything,  there  are  some  days  when  I 
don't  eat  apples  at  all."  The  word  "it" 
is  not  easy  to  notice  in  this  sentence. 
But  it  would  be  more  difficult  to  hide 
the  last  word  in  the  proverb. 

Let  us  take  as  a  question,  for 
example,  "Are  you  fond  of  reading?" 
The  answer  might  be,  "Yes;  but  I 
tore  the  pages  of  my  favorite  book, 
and  must  mend  them  before  I  can  go 
on  with  the  story."  If  you  wish  to 
puzzle  the  questioner  you  should  not 
let  your  word  begin  or  end  the  sentence. 
General  post 

All  the  players  sit  round  the  room 
in  a  large  circle,  and  one,  who  is 
blindfold,  stands  in  the  middle.  Each 
player  takes  the  name  of  a  town,  and 
the  leading  player  makes  a  list  of 
these,  from  which  he  calls  out  now 
and  then,  thus:  "The  Post  is  going 
from  Chicago  to  Denver,"  choosing 
"towns"  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
circle.  "Chicago"  and  "Denver" 
jump  up  and  slip  across  to  each  other's 
seat,  the  blindman  doing  his  best  to 
catch  one  of  them  as  they  pass.  When 
several  towns  have  changed  places, 
and  the  blindman  has  failed  to  make 
a  prisoner,  the  leader  cries  out 
"General  Post,"  when  all  must  jump 
up  and  cross  over  to  opposite  sides. 
In  the  hurry  and  confusion  the  blind- 
man  is  sure  to  catch  someone,  who 
takes  his  place  while  he  becomes  one 
of  the  towns. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


297 


A    LITTLE    SHADOW    THEATER 


BY  means  of  scissors,  paste, 
cardboard,  paper,  and  a  piece 
of  wood,  any  bright  boy  or 
girl  can  make  an  amusing  toy  that 
will  provide  plenty  of  fun  for  a  Christ- 
mas or  New  Year  party,  and  will  be 
equally  interesting  for  grown-ups  and 
for  children.  The  toy  is  a  shadow 
puzzle  game,  and  is  made  in  this  way. 
Take  some  stiff  cardboard,  and  cut 
out  two  pieces  15  inches  high  by  6 
inches  wide.  Then  cut  another  piece 
15  inches  high  and  18  inches  w^de,  and 
from  the  center  of  this  larger  piece  cut 
out  a  space  about  12  inches  high  and 
12  inches  wide,  so  that  what  is  left 
will  look  very  much  like  the  wings 
and  curtain  of  a  theater.  Now  take 
two  strips  of  gummed  paper,  and 
fasten  the  two  narrow  pieces  of  card 
to  the  larger  piece,  one  on  each  side, 
so  that  the  paper  will  form  hinges, 
and  the  side  pieces  can  be  turned  at 


right  angles  to  the  middle  card. 
Strips  of  linen  pasted  or  gummed  on 
to  the  card  make  even  better  hinges 
than  the  gummed  paper. 

To  make  this  screen  frame  neat, 
cover  one  side  of  it  with  black  paper — 
not  the  side  on  which  the  linen  or  paper 
strips  are  pasted.  Then,  turning  the 
screen  over,  paste  over  the  opening 
which  we  have  cut  out  a  piece 
of  ordinary  semi-transparent  tracing 
paper.  The  paper  should  be  as  white 
as  possible.  The  screen  is  now  ready, 
and  it  may  be  put  aside  while  we  make 
the  rest  of  the  toy. 

Cut  out  four  figures  in  stiff  card- 
board, each  about  three  inches  high, 
and  these  should  be,  if  possible,  rather 
fantastic  and  humorous,  as  that  will 
add  to  the  fun  of  the  game.  Any  kind 
of  upright  figures  will  do,  and  may  be 
copied  from  books,  but  if  there  is  any 
difficulty    about    drawing    men,    four 


Little  men  for  the  shadow  theater 


•  6" «■■  • _•         la    - * 6T....J 

The  framework  of  the  theater 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


upright  pieces  of  card  may  be  cut  into 
any  kind  of  irregular  shapes,  and  will 
serve  for  the  purpose  of  the  game. 

A  piece  of  wood,  12  inches  long  by 
about  6  or  7  inches  wide  and  ^4  of  an 
inch  thick,  is  wanted  for  a  stand  for 
these  figures,  and  running  the  whole 
length  of  the  board,  cut  six  grooves  at 
regular  intervals,  just  wide  and  deep 
enough  to  hold  the  figures  upright 
when  they  are  placed  in  these  grooves. 

Now  take  some  stiff  paper  an 
make  four  extinguishers,  by  rolling  u} 
the  paper  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  an 
cutting  the  opening  evenly  all  rount 
Then  sew  a  little  ring  in  the  top 
each.  The  extinguishers  should  b 
about  4  inches  high  and  2  inches  i 
diameter  at  the  bottom. 

Next  get  a  thin  stick  about  2 
23^  feet  long,  and  in  the  end  put 
nail  or  drawing-pin,  and  to  this  fast 
a  straight  piece  of  wire  about  12  inch 
long  with  the  end  turned  up  slight^ 
to  form  a  hook.     The  wire  should 
stout    enough    to    remain    stiff 
straight.     All   that  is   necessary   1 
for  the  game  is  an  ordinary  candl 
a  candlestick. 

Any  number  of  people  may  pla 
puzzle  shadows.     Stand  the  screei 
the  table,   with  the  wings  folde 
right  angles,  as  shown  in  the  pic 
and  put  a  lighted  candle  some  dist 
at  the  back  of  it.     One  who  doe> 
take  part  in  the  game  acts  as  m 
of  ceremonies.     He  puts  the  wc 
stand    between    the    screen    an 
candle,  and  then  places  each  o 
four  figures  in  a  groove. 

All  lights  in  the  room  except  the 
candle  are  turned  out.  The  first 
player  now  takes  his  place  before  the 
screen,  and  he  must  on  no  account 
look  round  or  over  it  to  see  what  is 
behind.  Hooking  the  wire  holder  into 
the  ring  of  one  of  the  extinguishers,  he 
lifts  this  over  the  top  of  the  screen, 
and  guided  only  by  the  shadows  of  the 


figures  and  extinguisher  on  the  paper 
front  of  the  screen,  he  tries  to  put  the 
extinguisher  over  one  of  ilm  figures. 
So  long  as  the  shadow  of  the  extin- 
guisher is  above  the  shadows  of  the 
figures  it  may  be  moved  about  in  any 
direction,  but  directly  it  touches  or 
begins  to  cover  the  shadow  of  a  figure 
it  must  be  let  down  at  once.  The 
gently  unhooked,  and  another 


catch  nre. 

You  MUSTN'T  LAUGH! 

All  sit  in  a  row  round  the  fire  and 
look  solemn.  Then  the  first  player 
says:  "Haw-haw!"  which  is  repeated 
all  down  the  line,  one  after  another. 
Those  who  cannot  do  this  without 
laughing  afterwards  are  declared  out, 
and  the  game  begins  again. 


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AMUSING    GAMES    FOR    HALLOWEEN 


HALLOWEEN,  or  All  Hallows' 
Eve,  is  a  festival  that  has 
long  been  observed,  particu- 
larly in  Scotland,  and  although  many 
of  the  customs  associated  with  the 
season  are  superstitious,  yet  there  are 
also    some    interesting    games    which 


apples  without  stalks  are  selected. 
The  greatest  fun  is  to  have  some  of 
each  kind.  Of  course,  those  with 
stalks  are  captured  first,  and  then 
the  excitement  increases.  Small  apples 
can  be  sucked  up  into  the  mouth,  but 
the  larger  ones  have  to  be  chased  to 


Ducking  for  apples  in  a  tub  ol  water 


Cutting  (iuwn  the  apple 


Tlie  apples  captured  frum  the  water 


boys  and  girls  have  played  for  genera- 
tions on  Halloween,  or  the  last  night 
in  October. 

Some  of  these  historic  games  are 
illustrated  on  this  page.  One  of  the 
most  popular  is  that  of  ducking  for 
apples.  A  large  tub  or  bath  is  nearly 
filled  with  water,  and  a  number  of 
apples  are  set  floating  on  the  water. 


the  bottom  or  side  of  the  bath,  and 
there  seized  with  the  teeth. 

Another  game  is  to  suspend  an 
apple  from  the  ceiling  or  chandelier 
by  a  string,  and  for  the  boys  and  girls 
then  to  take  it  in  turns  to  try  to  cut 
the  string.  They  have  to  be  blind- 
folded, and  are  placed  some  distance 
from    the    apple.     Then     they    take 


V... 


These  pictures  show  a  boy  and  girl  playing  the  Halloween  gams  ol  dropping  a  fork  to  pick  up  an  apple 


The  boys  and  girls  then  gather  round, 
and  take  it  in  turn  to  duck  their  heads 
into  the  water,  trying  at  each  duck  to 
seize  an  apple  in  their  teeth. 

Sometimes    the   apples   chosen   are 
provided  with  stalks,  and  sometimes 


three  steps  forward,  scissors  in  hand, 
and  make  a  cutting  motion  where  they 
think  the  string  is.  It  is  great  fun  to 
see  the  many  amusing  and  fruitless  at- 
tempts that  are  made  before  anyone 
succeeds  in  cutting  down  the   apple. 


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Still  another  game  with  apples  is  to 
place  several  of  them  in  a  tnb  or  bath 
of  water,  and  to  put  this  near  the  back 
of  a  chair.  Then  the  boys  and  girls 
take  it  in  turn  to  stand  or  kneel  on 
the  chair,  and  to  drop  a  kitchen  fork 
into  the  tub,  trying  to  spear  an  apple. 
If  the  player  succeeds,  the  apple  is  his. 
Sometimes  the  fork  is  held  by  the 
handle  in  the  mouth,  and  allowed  to 
drop  from  there  into  the  tub.  This 
makes  it  harder  to  spike  the  apples. 
We  must,  of  course,  be  careful  not  to 
overbalance  the  chair. 

Instead  of  the  tub  being  nearly  full 
of  water  and  having  apples  floating 
in  it,  it  is  sometimes  left  dry,  and  in  it 
are  placed  an  apple,  a  potato,  a 
carrot,  and  a  turnip.  The  boys  and 
girls  then  drop  the  fork  and  see  which 
they  can  manage  to  secure.  The  apple 
is  the  most  sought  after,  and  the 
turnip  is  regarded  as  the  least  desirable. 

In  addition  to  these  games,  there 
are  many  other  customs  practiced  on 
All  Hallows'  Eve  which  are  interesting 
as  being  survivals  of  a  past  age.  For 
instance,  nuts  are  placed  in  the  fire, 
and  according  to  the  order  and  the 
manner  in  which  they  crack  or  jump 
out,  so  certain  things  are  imagined  as 
to  what  will  happen  in  the  future. 
Very  few  people  believe  in  such 
foolish  superstitions  nowadays,  but 
there  is  much  amusement  in  watching 
the  nuts  and  seeing  how  they  happen 
to  fall  and  which  crack  first. 

Literature  is  full  of  references  to 
Halloween.  The  most  famous  is  per- 
haps Burns's  poem,  beginning 
"Among  the  bonnie  winding  banks." 
Goldsmith,  in  his  "Vicar  of  Wake- 
field," refers  to  the  custom  of  cracking 
nuts  on  Halloween. 
Good  games  for  a  Christmas  party 

To  make  a  Christmas  party  a  thor- 
ough success  there  is  nothing  like 
having  plenty  of  variety  in  the  games. 
There  is  no  chance  then  of  the  boys 


and  girls  getting  tired  because  some 
of  the  games  are  more  or  less  alike. 

A  very  good  game  for  a  large  or 
small  party  is  that  of  "guessing  with 
the  wooden  spoons."  One  of  the 
partj" — a  girl,  for  instance — is  blind- 
folded, and  sits  upon  a  chair.  She  is 
then  given  two  large  wooden  spoons, 
such  as  are  in  common  use  in  every 
kitchen.  One  after  another  the  other 
boys  and  girls  come  up  to  the  blind- 
folded sitter  and  stand  or  kneel 
before  her,  and  she  has  to  guess  who 
each  one  is  by  simply  feeling  him  or 
her  with  the  wooden  spoons,  as  shown 
in  the  picture  on  this  page. 


Guessing  with  the  wooden  spoons 

The  task  is  very  much  more  difficult 
than  it  looks,  and  there  is  great  fun 
as  the  spoons  go  over  the  face  and  body 
in  the  attempt  of  the  blindfolded 
player  to  discover  the  identity  of  the 
other.  It  is  not  easy  for  the  one  who 
is  being  touched  with  the  spoons  to 
abstain  from  laughing,  especially 
when  all  the  other  players  are  equally 
amused. 

Of  course,  any  outburst  of  laughter 
when  the  spoons  are  going  over  our 
face  would  disclose  our  identity,  so 
we  must  keep  perfect  silence.     When 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


301 


anyone's  identity  is  guessed,  he  has 
to  be  bhndfolded  and  must  take  the 
spoons.  We  must  be  careful  when 
using  the  spoons  to  touch  another 
player  with  them  quite  lightly,  so  as 
not  to  hurt  him;  and  any  player  who 
wears  glasses  should  remove  them 
before  going  to  be  felt  with  the  spoons. 
Another  good  game  for  a  Christmas 
party  is  that  of  blowing  the  egg.  Two 
pieces  of  cotton  or  tape  are  stretched 
across  the  carpet  in  a  straight  line 
about  two  feet  apart.  Then  an  ordi- 
nary hens'  egg— not  too  large — which 
has  been  prepared  beforehand  by  being 
blown — that  is,  having  the  contents 
removed  without  cracking  the  shell — 
is  laid  exactlv   midway   between   the 


A  CHRISTMAS  TREE  FOR  THE  BIRDS 

Christmas  would  not  be  Christmas 
without  a  Christmas-tree.  But  have 
you  ever  thought  when  you  have  been 
enjoying  yourself,  that  the  winter, 
which  brings  lots  of  fun  for  all  of  us,  is 
a  very  uncomfortable  time  for  the 
poor  things  who  do  not  have  warm 
homes? 

Perhaps,  on  some  cold  morning,  you 
have  looked  out  of  your  window,  and 
have  watched  the  birds  flying  about 
among  the  bare  branches  of  the  trees 
in  the  garden,  searching  the  ground 
in  the  hope  that  some  kind  person 
has  thrown  out  a  few  crumbs  for  them? 

Have  you  not  sometimes  wished 
there  was  a  Santa  Clans  to  bring  a  tree 


Bio  wing  llie  egg  across  lue  liue 

tape  lines.  A  girl  player  then  makes 
a  little  paper  fan  out  of  half  a  sheet 
of  notepaper,  and  kneels  down  on  one 
side  of  the  tapes,  and  a  boy  kneels 
down  on  the  other.  The  girl  then  has 
to  try  to  fan  the  egg-shell  across  the 
tape  on  the  boy's  side,  and  he  has  to 
try  to  blow  the  shell  back  across  the 
tape  on  the  girl's  side.  The  one  who 
first  drives  the  egg  across  the  partner's 
line  three  times  wins  the  contest. 
Nothing  must  be  used  by  the  girl  but 
the  paper  fan  or  her  hand;  and  the 
boy,  on  his  part,  must  simply  blow 
with  his  mouth.  If  more  convenient, 
a  large  dining-table  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  the  floor. 


Fanning  tue  egg  witn  a  paper  Ian 

full  of  good  things  for  the  birds?  Per- 
haps it  never  occurred  to  you  that  you 
might  be  the  birds'  Santa  Clans? 
Well,  we  are  going  to  see  how  to  make 
a  Christmas-tree  for  those  poor  little 
mites. 

First,  we  must  get  a  small  tree  that 
can  be  put  into  a  pot.  Probably  we 
shall  find  one  in  the  garden,  and  will 
be  allowed  to  dig  it  up.  If  not,  we 
can  buy  one  about  Christmas-time 
for  a  few  cents. 

When  we  have  our  tree  planted  in 
a  large  flower-pot,  we  must  get  some 
small  baskets — the  tiny  ones  that 
sweets  are  sold  in  will  do  splendidly — 
and  tie  these  baskets  to  the  branches  of 


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the  tree.  We  can  put  all  sorts  of 
things  into  these  baskets — bread- 
crumbs, nuts,  little  pieces  of  crust  or 
toast  from  the  breakfast  table,  or 
some  of  the  seeds  that  are  given  to 
tame  birds  and  little  pieces  of  suet. 


A  Christmas  tree  for  the  birda 

We  can  make  our  Christmas-tree 
look  very  pretty  with  some  bright 
pieces  of  cloth  and  ribbon,  or  colored 
paper  made  into  little  bags  to  hold 
bread-crumbs,  and  then,  when  it  is 
finished,  we  must  put  it  out  in  the 
garden  or  on  the  window-ledge  of  our 


own  room.  At  first  the  birds  will  not 
understand,  because  nobody  has  ever 
taken  the  trouble  to  make  a  Christmas- 
tree  for  them  before,  and  perhaps  they 
will  think  it  is  some  sort  of  trap. 
But  presently  some  of  the  bravest  ones 
will  come.  Then  we  shall  see  them 
perch  on  the  branches,  and  look  round 
in  everv  direction  to  see  if  there  is  anv 
danger. 

We  can  watch  them  through  the 
window,  and  they  will  not  be  frightened 
if  we  do  not  move.  As  long  as  we  keep 
quite  still,  they  will  not  think  we  are 
going  to  hurt  them.  In  a  little  time 
the  birds  will  put  their  tiny  heads  in 
the  baskets,  and  give  a  little  twitter  of 
delight  when  they  find  the  good  things 
there.  Other  birds  will  be  watching 
them  from  the  trees,  and  when  these 
see  that  the  braver  ones  have  not  been 
hurt,  they  too  will  come.  When  the 
tree  has  been  out  a  little  while,  we 
shall  see  perhaps  forty  or  fifty  birds 
of  all  sorts  fluttering  round  it. 

When  they  have  eaten  everything, 
we  can  refill  the  baskets. 


GARDEN     GAMES 


TOM  Tiddler's  Ground  is  a  good 
game  when  there  are  at  least 
three  players.  One  is  told  off 
to  be  Tom  Tiddler,  and  his  ground  is 
the  lawn,  or  the  path,  or  any  other 
part  of  the  garden  that  may  be  spe- 
cially marked  off.  Tom  Tiddler  gets 
on  to  his  ground,  and,  shutting  his 
eyes  as  he  stands,  pretends  to  be 
asleep,  and  the  other  players  venture 
upon  the  ground,  singing: 

Here  I  am  on  Tom  Tiddler's  ground. 
Picking  up  gold  and  silver. 

As  Tom  Tiddler  makes  no  sign  of 
being  awake,  the  other  players  go 
farther  and  farther  on  to  his  ground, 
and  then  suddenly  Tom  Tiddler  makes 
a  dash,  and  tries  to  touch  one  of  the 


others.  If  he  succeeds,  the  one  touched 
becomes  Tom  Tiddler.  If  he  does 
not,  and  both  of  the  other  players  get 
quite  safely  off  his  ground,  he  must 
continue  to  be  Tom  Tiddler. 

Games  of  touch 

Cross  Touch  is  a  good  game  for 
three  players,  and  provides  plenty  of 
exciting  play  and  healthy  exercise. 
One  player  is  "He,"  and  has  to  call 
out  the  name  of  another  player,  and 
then  to  run  after  him. 

The  third  player  tries  to  run  be- 
tween the  hunter  and  the  hunted,  and 
if  he  succeeds  in  doing  so,  "He,"  has  to 
run  after  him  and  try  to  touch  him. 
But  if  the  second  player  manages  to 
run  between  the  others,  then  he  draws 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK  303 

off    "He"    after    himself.     The    more  knocking  them  into  each  hole  as  it  is 

frequently   the   player   runs   between  reached,  and  the  one  who  does  this 

hunter  and  hunted,  the  more  exciting  and  gets  round  to  the  starting  point 

and  varied  the  game  becomes.  with  the  fewest  strokes  wins.  ^  Each 

Touch  Wood  is  another  game  that  player,  of  course,  only  hits  his  own 

can  be  played  by  three  players.     One  ball.     The  starting-place  should  also 

is   "He,"   and  runs  after  the  others,  be  used  as  the  last  hole, 

trying  to  touch  either  of  them.     But  jug  of  war 

if    a    player    touches    wood — a    tree-  ^  strong,  long  rope  is  laid  on  the 

trunk,  or  fence,  or  wooden  shed,  or  ground    across    a    chalk    line.     The 

anything  of  that  kind — he  cannot  be  players    are    then    divided    into    two 

touched  by  "He."     Of  course,  those  parties,  one  side  taking  up  the  rope 

who  are  being  pursued  must  not  touch  ^^^  ^j^g  gi^je  of  the  line  and  the  other 

wood  too  often,  nor  must  they  remain  ^j^^  opposite  side.     At  a  given  signal 

touching  it  for  very  long,  or  the  game  ^j^gy    p^^    against    each    other    with 

will  get  slow.    What  "He"  has  to  do  niight  and  main,   and  the  side  that 

is  to  try  to  drive  them  where  there  is  draws  the  enemy  over  the  line  are  the 

no  wood  to  touch.  victors. 

Follow  my  leader  Flags 

If  the  garden  is  a  large  one   Follow  ^             ^^             j.^^  j^  ^^^^^^^  ^^ 

My  Leader  can  be  played  with  a  good  ^^^^              ^^^  ^^^             ^^  pl^^^^^  ^^ 

deal  of  fun.     One  is  chosen  as  leader,  ^.^.^^^  .^^^^  ^^^           ^  ^^^^^^^^^^^   ^^ 

and    wherever    he    leads    the    others  ^.^^^      ^^^^  ^.^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^   .^^^  .^^ 

must  follow,  whatever  he  does  they  ^^^    "country,"    the    Hue    stretching 

must  do,  even  to  a  motion  of  the  arm  ^^^^^^^    ^^^^^^                    ^^^^^,   ^^^^ 

or  leg,  or  head.     The  first  one  to  fail  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^^^^   ^^.^^^   g^^^^^   g^^   ^^ 

in  following  the  leader  loses  the  game  ^^.^^  ^^^^  .^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  1^^  ^^^^^  ^^ 

Of  course   the  leader  must  be  careful  ^^^              ^  ^^^        .^^  .^^.^^  j^.^  ^^^^ 

to  do  nothing  that  will  mean  danger  ^   i^^^^kerchief,    a    cap,    or    a    scarf; 

for  a  younger  player    and  he   must  ^^^^^           ^^  ^^^  .^^^^  „     ^^  ^  ^-^^^ 

be  very  careful  not  to  go  too  near  ^^^  ^.^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^-^^ 

flower-beds,   or  to  do  anything  that  J          ^^  ^^            ^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^ 

will  result  m  damage  to  flowers.  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^^ 

Field  golf  to  return  to  their  country,  but  any 

We  are  going  to  play  golf  in  a  new  ^              ^^^^^^    ^^^^^.^^    ^    ^^g    ^^^ 

way,  which  IS  quite  simple,  but  very  -^^^^^^      j^  -^  ^h^^  the  other  side's 

good  fun.     Choose  a  startmg-point  in  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^.^^^^  ^^^^  ^j^^.^  p^i^. 

a  large  field  and  dig  there  a  very  small  ^^^^^                ^^^^^^^  j^^^p  ^^  ^^p^^^^  ^^^ 

hole.     One  hundred  steps  away,  in  a  ^^^^             ^^^^  ^^^^^^  belonging  to  the 

straight    me  from  this,  we  make  an-  ^^                ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^ 

other  hole  in  the  ground.     Then,  at  ^^^^  ^^^          ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^ 

the    end    of    another    hundred    steps,  ^.^^  ^^^^  .^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^   .^^  g^^^  j^ 
another  hole,  and  so  on  until  we  have 
gone  round  the  field  and  are  back  at 

the  starting-point.     These  holes  mark  Bounce  about 

our  golf-course.  Each  player  is  armed  Two  players,  with  two  marbles, 
with  a  club-ended  stick  and  a  small,  play  this  game.  The  larger  the  mar- 
hard  indiarubber  ball.  The  game  is  bles  the  better.  One  boy  throws  his 
to  strike  these  balls  round  the  course,  marble  down.     If  his  companion  can 


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hit  it  with  his  own,  he  wins  10  marks, 
and  has  the  right  to  try  again,  aiming 
from  the  spot  at  which  his  marble 
stops.  He  may  keep  on  till  he  misses, 
when  the  other  player  takes  a  turn. 
A  certain  number  should  be  fixed  upon 
— say,  100 — and  the  player  whose 
marks  reach  this  first  will  be  the 
winner.  Sometimes  this  game  is  played 
with  smooth  pebbles. 
Catch-ball 

Any  number  of  players  can  join  in 
this  game.  It  simply  consists  of 
tossing  the  ball  from  one  to  another, 
but  it  may  be  made  more  exciting  if 
no  special  plan  is  followed  as  to  whom 
the  ball  is  to  be  thrown  next.  This 
keeps  everyone  on  the  alert,  and  a 
very  good  trick  is  to  look  at  some  other 
player  than  the  one  you  intend  to 
throw  to.  This  nearly  always  leads 
to  a  slip  on  the  part  of  the  catcher. 
Steeplechase 

This  is  hard  work  as  well  as  good 
play.  Before  starting,  a  certain  point 
is  fixed  upon  at  some  distance,  with 
fences  and  ditches  and  hedges  and 
brooks  in  between.  Then  the  word 
"Off!"  is  given,  and  the  players  race 
away  to  see  who  can  get  there  first. 
In  such  a  race  it  is  not  certain  that  the 
fastest  runner  will  win,  for  the  boy 
who  knows  how  to  get  over  a  difficulty 
stands  a  good  chance. 
The  traveler  and  the  wolves 

The  smallest  boy  or  the  slowest 
runner  is  the  traveler,  and  the  traveler 
has  to  get  to  his  journey's  end  without 
being  caught.  The  rest  of  the  players 
are  the  wolves.  Before  setting  out  on 
his  journey,  the  traveler  is  given  as 
many  tennis-balls  as  there  are  wolves, 
and,  of  course,  there  should  not  be 
more  than  four  or  five,  or  he  w  ill  have 
too  much  to  carry.  When  he  has  got 
some  distance  away,  the  wolves  roar 
out  that  they  are  coming,  and  the 
race  begins.     When  the  traveler  finds 


a  wolf  overtaking  him,  he  throws  out 
one  of  the  balls,  which  the  wolf  must 
secure  before  he  can  take  up  the  race 
again.  Of  course,  the  traveler's  ob- 
ject should  be  to  throw  the  ball  in 
a  way  that  will  lead  the  wolf  from  the 
direct  path.  Thus,  he  should  never 
throw  it  in  front,  or  the  swifter  run- 
ner will  pass  him  to  secure  it,  and  then 
merely  wait  for  him  to  come  up. 
Knowing  what  the  traveler  is  going  to 
do,  the  wolves  will  probably  spread  out 
a  little  to  either  side  in  the  hope  of 
stopping  the  balls  more  quickly. 
Therefore,  the  traveler  should  do  his 
best  to  find  out  where  the  nearest  wolf 
is,  and  the  more  skill  he  shows  in 
managing  the  balls  the  greater  will 
be  his  chance  of  escape.  Above  all, 
he  should  not  throw  them  away  too 
soon. 

If  the  chances  against  him  are  very 
great  at  the  start,  he  might  be  pro- 
vided with  more  balls  than  there  are 
wolves.  Of  course,  a  distant  spot 
should  be  chosen  as  a  goal. 

Leap-ball 

This  game,  which  can  be  played 
out  of  doors,  is  also  suitable  for  a 
large,  clear  room.  AVe  attach  an 
ordinary  indiarubber  or  tennis  ball 
to  a  piece  of  string.  The  best  way 
to  do  this  is  to  put  the  ball  in  a  net 
and  fix  the  string  to  the  net.  Then 
one  player  takes  the  other  end  of  the 
string  and  swings  the  ball  round  and 
round  on  the  ground  in  a  circle.  The 
other  players  stand  round  in  a  circle, 
and  as  the  ball  comes  round  and  round 
each  player  must  jump  so  that  the 
ball  goes  under  his  feet  and  does  not 
touch  him.  Any  player  who  is  touched 
must  take  his  place  in  the  center  and 
have  a  turn  at  swinging  the  ball  while 
the  others  jump. 
Cross-ball 

Cross-ball  should  be  played  by  two 
players  standing  two  or  three  yards 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


305 


apart.  They  should  start  with  two 
balls,  and  should  each  toss  at  the  same 
time  so  that  the  balls  pass  in  mid-air. 
It  requires  quickness  of  sight  and 
hand  to  keep  this  up,  but  a  little 
practice  will  make  it  easy,  and 
by-and-by  a  third  ball  may  be  added, 
when  the  effect  is  very  pretty. 

Chestnuts,  or  any  small  round 
objects  that  are  not  heavy,  or  too 
hard,  are  better  for  this  game  than 
balls,  as  they  are  quickly  and  easily 
handled.  If  the  players  count  aloud 
as  they  throw,  their  actions  will  become 
more  regular,  and  slips  less  frequent. 
Fives 

This  is  a  game  for  two  or  four 
players.  Draw  on  a  flat  brick  wall  a 
long  chalk  line,  three  feet  six  inches 
above  the  ground,  and  another  one 
along  the  ground,  ten  feet  from  the 
foot  of  the  wall.  Then  across  each  end 
of  this  last  line,  which  should  be  about 
ten  feet  in  length;  draw  another  at 
right  angles  to  it,  and  connecting  it 
with  the  wall.  These  lines  are  to 
show  where  the  ball  is  to  bounce. 

The  players  divide  into  two  parties 
— we  will  call  them  A  and  B.  A 
throws  the  ball  against  the  wall, 
where  it  must  strike  above  the  chalk 
line,  and  when,  on  springing  back,  it 
bounces  from  the  ground,  B  must 
strike  it  with  his  open  hand,  sending 
it  against  the  wall  again.  Then 
comes  A's  turn  to  hit  it  on  the  bounce, 
and  this  is  kept  up,  turn  by  turn,  until 
someone  makes  a  slip. 

If  the  ball  strikes  beneath  the  chalk 
line,  or  rebounds  outside  the  ground- 
lines,  the  side  that  did  not  make  this 
mistake  counts  1  to  itself.  The  side 
that  first  reaches  12  or  24  marks 
wins,  but  any  number  may  be  chosen 
as  the  players  decide. 
Driving  a  blindfold  team 

A  very  good  game  to  play  in  a  field 
or  playground,  or  large  schoolroom,  is 
that  of  driving  a  blindfold  team  in  and 


out  of  a  line  of  bottles  or  tins.  We 
place  the  bottles  in  a  row,  as  shown  in 
the  picture,  taking  care  that  there  is 
room  between  any  two  bottles  for  two 
boys  or  girls  to  walk  abreast.  Then, 
having  blindfolded  the  horses,  the 
driver  ties  the  reins  to  their  arms,  and 
drives  them  in  and  out  of  the  bottles, 
turning  the  horses  alternately  to  the 
right  and  to  the  left,  until  they  have 
passed  through  the  whole  line. 

For  every  bottle  that  is  knocked 
over  or  touched  by  the  horses  in  their 
passage,  one  mark  is  counted  against 
the  team.  When  one  team  has  driven 
over  the  course,  another  takes  a  turn, 
and  so  on,  until  all  the  teams  have 
been  through.  Then  the  team  that 
has  the  lowest  score  wins  the  game. 


A  successful  blindfold  team 

The  reins  are  tied  on  the  outer 
arms  of  the  team,  and  the  only 
guidance  the  blindfolded  horses  have 
as  to  where  they  shall  go,  and  how 
they  shall  avoid  knocking  over  the 
bottles,  is  by  the  pull  to  right  or  left 
given  by  the  driver.  It  is  therefore 
essential  for  success  in  a  race  that  the 
driver  should  keep  a  clear  head,  and 
give  the  necessary  directions  to  his 
team  with  skill  and  care. 
Egg  hat 

The  caps  of  the  players  are  laid  in  a 
row  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a 
wall;  they  should  be  tilted  a  little,  so 
as  to  make  it  easier  to  toss  a  ball  into 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


them.  The  players  then  stand  in  a 
row  at  a  hne  about  eight  steps  away, 
and  one  of  them  pitches  the  ball  at  the 
hats.  The  moment  this  is  done  they 
all  scatter,  except  the  boy  who  owns 
the  hat  it  has  fallen  into. 

He  must  take  out  the  ball  as  quickly 
as  possible  and  throw  it  at  one  of  the 
other  players.  If  it  hits  him  this  boy 
must,  in  turn,  pitch  the  ball  at  the 
hats. 

But  if  the  thrower  misses  him,  a 
small  pebble  is  placed  in  his  cap  as  a 
bad  mark,  and  when  any  player  has 
missed  so  often  that  the  number  of 
pebbles  in  his  cap  equal  the  number  of 
players,  he  is  made  to  stand  at  a  short 
distance  while  the  rest  throw  the  ball 
at  him,  each  in  turn.  The  game  then 
starts  afresh. 

A  pebble  should  also  be  added  for 
every  time  a  player  fails  to  toss  the 
ball  into  a  hat. 


overbalance  in  the  course  of  pushing 
the  matchbox  forward  we  have  to 
start  again.  Success  depends  almost 
entirely  upon  knack  and  balance 
learned  in  practice,  for  short,  stout 
boys  are  sometimes  more  successful 
than  tall,  thin  boys.  We  should  bend 
as  low  as  possible  on  the  right  side, 
keeping  the  left  shoulder  and  arm  well 
back  to  counterbalance  the  forward 
weight  of  the  right  arm. 

A  somewhat  similar  trick  is  shown  in 
the  second  picture.  In  this  case  we 
bend  forward  on  all  fours,  and  then, 
raising  the  right  hand,  push  the  match- 
box as  far  as  we  are  able.  Here,  again, 
practice  makes  perfect,  and  it  is  aston- 
ishing how  far  we  can  push  the  box 
after  we  have  tried  several  times. 
In  this  trick,  knack  does  not  count  for 
so  much;  we  need  strength  to  support 
ourselves  upon  the  left  arm  while  reach- 
ing   forth     to    push    the    matchbox. 


PUSHING   THE   BOX 


THE  ARM  AND  LEG   STRETCH 


KICKING   THE   BOX 


The  matchbox  on  the  lawn 

Here  are  three  amusing  tricks  need- 
ing no  apparatus  other  than  an  empty 
safety  matchbox.  We  make  a  line 
upon  the  ground  either  with  chalk 
or  by  stretching  a  piece  of  string 
across;  or  we  can  use  as  the  toe-line 
any  line  that  there  may  be  upon  the 
linoleum  or  on  the  carpet.  Then 
stooping  down  into  the  position 
shown  in  the  first  picture,  and  placing 
the  right  hand  under  the  knee,  we  push 
the  matchbox  as  far  as  we  possibly 
can,  keeping  our  toes  all  the  time  to  the 
marking-line,  and  taking  care  not  to 
lose   our   balance.     Of   course,   if   we 


Some  prefer  to  close  up  the  left  hand 
when  resting  upon  it,  but  keeping 
the  hand  open  and  resting  upon  the 
palm  gives  a  better  support. 

In  the  third  trick  we  have  to  stretch 
with  our  leg  and  foot.  Some  line  is 
marked  or  decided  upon  on  the  floor 
or  lawn,  and  we  toe  this  line.  Then 
we  stretch  out  with  our  foot  as  the  boy 
in  the  picture  is  doing,  and  place  the 
matchbox  on  the  ground  just  beyond 
where  the  foot  reached.  Now,  again 
toeing  the  line,  we  take  great  care  not 
to  overbalance,  and,  stretching  the 
right  foot  and  leg  forward,  try  to  kick 
over  the  box. 


TEE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOR 


301 


If  we  succeed  we  mark  the  spot  by 
a  match,  and  put  the  box  still  farther 
away.  Then,  again,  we  try  to  kick  it 
over,  and  so  long  as  we  succeed  we 
continue  putting  it  farther  and  farther 


from  the  toe-line,  until  at  last  we  mark 
the  limit  of  distance  to  which  we  can 
reach.  Other  players  then  take  a  turn, 
and  it  is  very  exciting  to  watch  the 
efforts  and  see  who  can  kick  farthest. 


GAMES     TO      PLAY      WHEN      OUT      WALKING 


TO  MAKE  a  walk  thoroughly 
interesting  and  enjoyable,  even 
though  it  be  over  an  old  and 
familiar  route,  is  quite  easy.  We 
merely  want  to  arrange  some  simple 
and  amusing  games  that  can  be  played 
as  we  walk,  and,  of  course,  those 
games  that  will  draw  out  our  powers 
of  observation  and  encourage  us  to 
take  note  of  the  things  that  we  see 
during  our  walk  are  the  best. 

Counting  the  dogs 

One  such  game  is  that  of  counting 
dogs.  One  player  takes  one  side  of 
the  road  and  all  the  streets  leading 
out  of  it,  and  the  other  player  takes 
the  other  side  of  the  road  and  all  the 
turnings  out  of  it.  Then,  as  they 
walk  along,  they  watch  their  own 
particular  side  and  see  how  many 
dogs  they  can  count.  Every  ordinary 
dog  counts  one  point,  but  a  black  dog 
counts  two,  and  for  every  perfectly 
white  dog  seen  one  point  is  deducted. 
Any  player  who  sees  a  Dalmatian  or 
coach  dog  wins — the  game,  no  matter 
how   many   points  others  have  made. 

This  game  can,  of  course,  be  devel- 
oped, and  general  objects  taken  in- 
stead of  dogs.  Thus,  a  perambulator, 
a  truck,  a  two-wheeled  cart,  a  police- 
man, a  bicycle  could  score  one  point; 
a  soldier,  a  sailor,  a  tricycle,  or  a  four- 
wheeled  van  could  score  two;  and  for 
a  rider  on  horseback,  a  motor-cycle, 
or  a  flock  of  pigeons,  a  mark  could  be 
deducted,  and  so  on.  Players  can 
always  make  their  own  rules  before 
setting  out,  the  rules  varying,  of  course, 
according  to  the  district  where  the 
walk  is  to  be  taken. 


On  country  roads  sheep  and  cattle 
would  be  very  common,  and  in  city 
streets  vans,  carts,  and  automobiles 
would  appear  in  great  numbers.  Of 
course,  more  than  two  players  can 
play  these  games.  If  there  are  four 
or  five  players,  sides  can  be  formed. 

Guessing  the  color  of  tails 

Another  good,  quiet  game  that  can 
be  played  while  out  walking  is  that  of 
guessing  the  color  of  horses'  tails. 
Every  horse  that  we  see  coming 
towards  us  gives  an  opportunity  for 
guessing.  We  must  guess  while  the 
horse  is  some  distance  away,  and  the 
one  who  is  proved  to  be  right  when  the 
horse  comes  near  scores  a  point. 

A  game  for  the  city  or  town  is  to 
look  out  for  the  names  of  tradesmen, 
printed  up  over  their  shop-fronts, 
that  form  ordinary  words.  Names 
that  are  trades,  for  instance,  might  be 
selected,  and  one  looks  at  one  side  and 
the  other  at  the  other  side  of  the  street. 
Every  name  over  a  shop  that  is  the 
name  of  a  trade  would  mean  one  point. 
Such  words  as  Baker,  Butcher,  Brewer, 
Taylor,  and  so  on,  would  score.  Of 
course,  other  kinds  of  words  could  be 
selected — names  of  animals,  like  Bull 
and  Lamb. 

Another  game  for  a  walk  in  a  shop- 
ping thoroughfare  is  to  select  some 
number,  like  6,  and  every  time  it 
occurs  over  a  shop-front,  on  a  cart, 
or  on  any  other  similarly  conspicuous 
place,  for  the  players  to  say  six.  This 
would  happen  whenever  such  numbers 
as  6,  16,  26,  and  so  on,  appeared.  But 
if  the  number  appears  twice  running, 
as  in  66,  166,  and  266,  the  players  must 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


say  six,  six.  In  the  numbers  61  to  69 
the  players  must  say  six  one,  six  two, 
and  so  on.  Any  faihire  on  a  player's 
part  to  keep  to  these  rules  means 
one  mark  against  him,  and  the  player 
wins  who  has  the  fewest  such  marks 
to  his  credit. 
The  game  of  adjectives 

Of  course,  many  games  that  are 
played  in  the  living-room  can  be  played 
equally  well  when  out  Avalking.  There 
is,  for  instance,  the  old  game  of  ad- 
jectives. Somebody  starts  by  saying, 
"My  mother  had  a  cat."  Then  the 
players  take  it  in  turn  to  put  an  adjec- 
tive before  cat.     First  of  all,  it  must 


be  a  w^ord  beginning  with  A,  as  an 
artful  cat,  an  awkward  cat,  an  apt  cat, 
and  so  on.  When  at  last  a  player 
cannot  think  of  a  word  beginning  with 
A  that  has  not  already  been  used,  he 
has  a  point  scored  against  him.  If 
nobody  can  think  of  a  fresh  word 
beginning  with  A,  then  B  is  taken — 
a  bad  cat,  a  blessed  cat,  a  beautiful 
cat,  and  so  on.  The  one  who  has 
few^est  points  scored  against  him  for 
failure  to  think  of  an  adjective  wins 
the  game.  This  is  a  good  game  to 
play  when  a  considerable  number  of 
companions  are  out  walking  together 
in  the  countrv. 


THE     GAME    OF    WHERE     IS    IT 

One  boy  gives  a  description  of  an  interesting  place  visited,  a  scene  in  history,  or 
reads  one  of  the  descriptions  given  below,  and  the  game  is  to  guess  the  place  or  incident 
described. 


The  city  of  crowded  streets 

How  hot  it  is!  The  sun's  rays  beat 
down  from  a  cloudless  sky  so  fiercely 
that  our  eyes  turn  with  relief  to  the 
broad  river  speeding  by  eastwards. 
Low  down  on  the  banks  are  crowds  of 
people  with  brown  skins,  and  here  and 
there  some  wearing  white  turbans. 
They  are  bathing  in  the  water  and 
crowding  up  and  down  stone  steps, 
leading  to  curious  little  buildings. 
Can  these  be  little  temples .'^  Farther 
along  the  banks  steamers  are  busy 
loading  indigo  and  saltpeter  to  take 
away.  All  around  we  hear  strange 
speech,  and  we  look  in  vain  for  clean 
streets.  How  narrow  and  crooked 
they  appear! 

Answer:      Benares,  India. 
The  city  with  the  golden  dome 

It  is  winter,  and  we  are  in  a  big  city 
where  the  streets  are  deeply  covered 
with  snow;  there  is  no  sound  of 
vehicles,  only  the  tinkling  of  sleigh- 
bells  and  voices  to  break  the  silence. 
The  shops  have  signboards  and  objects 
hung  outside  to  tell  what  they  sell, 
because  many  of  the  people  cannot 


read,  and  certainly  we  cannot  recog- 
nize the  letters.  We  follow  the  way 
the  sleighs  take  and  come  to  a  cathedral 
with  a  golden  dome  and  wide  granite 
pillars  at  the  entrance.  In  front  is  a 
river — but  a  river  frozen  over.  The 
ice  will  bear  carriages;  it  will  stay 
there  till  the  spring,  and  when  it  melts 
there  will  be  a  religious  ceremony  and 
a  blessing  of  the  waters. 

Answer:      St.  Petersburg. 
Trees  for  Europe's  ships 

We  are  in  a  country  covered  with 
thick  forest,  so  dense  that  it  is  only 
with  great  difficulty  w^e  can  make  a 
way  through  it.  Hark!  That  must 
be  men  sawing  wood  and  chopping 
down  trees,  and  a  young  man,  wearing 
a  white  helmet,  is  directing  them,  and 
— why,  yes ;  those  big  animals  working 
so  hard  are  elephants.  They  are  piling 
up  the  big  logs  with  their  strong  trunks 
as  though  they  were  handling  little 
sticks,  and  others  are  dragging  along 
the  chained  trunks.  The  man  tells 
us  they  are  clearing  a  way  for  a  railway 
through  the  forest,  and  the  teak-trees 
they  are  cutting  down  are  to  be  used 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK  309 

for  building  ships.  He  says  there  are  a  table  before  him.  At  last  he  con- 
nearly  twenty  thousand  square  miles  sents,  sets  his  seal  on  a  lump  of  wax 
of  tropical  forest,  and  that  some  and  throws  himself  on  the  ground  in 
tigers  and  leopards  have  been  seen  a  rage.  Who  is  he,  and  what  is  the 
near.  Do  you  know  what  country  deed  he  has  been  forced  to  do  by 
we  are  in?  others  and  now  so  regrets.? 

Answer:      Upper  Burma.  Answer:     King  John  signing  Magna 

Where  the  cocoa-nuts  grow  Charta. 

We  seem  to  be  on  an  island  in  the  The  landing  of  a  brave  band 

midst  of  a  big  sea,  for  there  is  water  We  are  on  the  coast  of  a  wild,  un- 

everywhere,    except    here    and    there  cultivated  country.     Behind  the  bare 

where    small    islands    are    scattered  rock     on     which     we     stand,     forest 

about.     W^e  are  standing  on  a  beauti-  stretches  far  inland.     Off  the  shore  is 

ful   white   sandy   shore,    dotted   with  a  small  bark  at  anchor,  and  from  it 

lovely  colored  shells.     It  is  only  one  we  watch  men,  women  and  children 

o'clock  in  the  day,  yet,  when  we  look  landing.     They   are   dressed  in  plain 

at  our  little  pocket  compass  and  then  garments,  and  seem  to  belong  to  the 

at  the  sun  in  the  sky,  we  find  the  sun  artisan    class.     They    are    evidently 

is  to  the  north  of  us.  weary,  yet  how  brave  they  must  be  to 

Away   inland   the   ground   rises   in  cross  that  wild  sea  in  their  small  boat 

terraces,   forming   a   kind   of   amphi-  of  180  tons,  and  land  with  their  little 

theater,  up  to  the  highest  point  in  the  children  on  an  unknown  shore.     Who 

middle  of  the  island,  which  looks  about  are  they  and  why  have  they  come  here, 

8000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  reminds  where  there  is  neither  shelter  nor  food 

us   of   a   broken-down   volcano.     We  for  them? 

turn  up  one  of  the  gorges,   and  see  Answer:     Landing    of    the    Pilgrim 

palm-trees    with    cocoa-nuts    growing  Fathers  with  their  wives  and  children 

on  them,  great  tree-ferns,  sugar-canes,  from  the  Mayflower. 

and    oranges.     We    meet    some    con-  An  interrupted  game  of  bowls 

tented-looking,  brown-skinned  natives.  We  have  before  us  a  bowling  green, 

who  tell  us  in  broken  French  that  they  where  men  are  intent  on  their  play, 

are  going  to  dive  for  oysters  to  get  Near  by  stands  a  man  gazing  out  to 

mother-of-pearl  from  the  shells  that  sea  across  the  harbor.     He  pays  no 

they  find.  attention    to    the    game,    but    stands 

Answer:    Tahiti,    Society    Islands,  shading  his  eyes  from  the  sun.     Sud- 

Pacific  Ocean.  denly  he  sees  something,  for  he  turns. 

What  scene  in  history?  and  striding  up  to  one  of  the  players, 

We  are  in  a  tent  in  a  meadow  by  the  eagerly  points  out  to  him  the  beacon 

bank    of    a    river.     In    the    tent    are  being   lighted   close  by.     But   to   his 

gathered    a    number    of    men    armed  surprise  the  player  goes  on  with  his 

after  the  fashion  of  the  Middle  Ages,  game    of    bowls,    coolly    remarking: 

and  through  the  opening  of  the  tent  "There  is  plenty  of  time  to  finish  the 

we  see  troops  standing.     The  men  in  game   and  beat  the  Spaniards   too." 

the  tent  look  angry  and  determined.  Yet,  all  around,  people  are  gazing  out 

and   bend   threatening   looks   on   one  across  the  harbor,  or  making  hurried 

who  is  the  center  of  attention,   and  preparations.      What  incident  is  this? 

wears   a  crown.     The  foremost   man  Answer:     Sir  Francis  Drake  warned 

of  the  group  is  urging  him  to  put  his  of     the     approach     of     the     Spanish 

signature  to  a  document  spread  out  on  Armada  while  at  bowls. 


2 


U. 

O 


s 


X 
H 

0 


810 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


311 


THINGS      FOR      BOYS     TO      DO 


I  am  going  east 


I  have  not  gone  I'ar  I  have  gone  far 

TELLING  A  STORY  WITH  BRANCHES  AND  TWIGS 


eionc  nve  clays'  journey 


THE    SILENT   MESSAGES    OF  THE   RED    MAN 


ALL  readers  of  Fenimore  Coop- 
er's Indian  stories  know  how 
clever  the  red  men  were  at 
following  a  trail  and  reading  the 
silent  messages  which  their  friends 
had  left  for  them,  and  which  would 
pass  unnoticed  by  most  of  us. 

This    was,    of    course,    in    the    last 


friend  following  is  to  turn  to  the  right 
or  left,  the  direction  is  indicated  by  a 
third  stone  or  by  the  direction  in  which 
a  twig  is  laid  or  the  knotted  grass  is 
twdsted. 

Sometimes  a  more  permanent  and 
substantial  sign  is  fixed  up.  A  stick 
or  small  branch  of  a  tree  is  stuck  in 


century,  before  civilization  had  spread      the  ground  slanting-wise,  and  accord- 


into  the  far  w^est,  but  even  now  he  is 
very  clever  at  giving  and  receiving 
silent  messages,  and  some  of  the 
signs  wdiich  he  uses  are  well  worth 


^ 

.4^ 


PK. 


ing  as  its  free  end  points  north  or 
south,  east  or  west,  so  an  observer 
could  know  which  way  the  traveler 
had  gone.  If  the  one  fixing  up  the 
sign  wished  to  indicate  how  far  he 
was  going,  he  w^ould  place  another 
smaller  stick  upright  in  the  ground 
against  the  slanting  stick.  If  it  was 
near  the  fixed  end  it  meant  he  had 
not  gone  far,  but  if  it  was  near  the 
free  end  of  the  slanting  branch  the 
traveler  had  gone  far.  By  placing  a 
knowing.     They  wall  be  particularly      number  of  uprights  along  the  slanting 


THIS     IS     THE     TRAll. 
T;jftN     TO    THE     RIC.MT 


eX-^ 


TURN     TO    THE     L.E  F.T 


atones,  twigs,  grass,  and  tree  signs 


useful  to  Boy  Scouts  and  all  w^ho  love 
to  spend  their  spare  time  in  the  open 
country. 

The  red  man  can  make  use  of  any 
common  object  of  the  countryside  to      drawn  on  the  ground,  with  a  stone  or 


stick,  the  red  man  would  show  how 
many  days'  journey  he  had  gone. 
Two  sticks  crossed  means  "this  path 
not    to    be    followed."     A    circle 


IS 


convey  his  message.  If  he  wants  to 
tell  his  friend  who  follows  an  hour  or 
a  day  later  which  way  he  has  gone, 
the  road  is  marked  by  a  series  of  stones 
every  here  and  there,  one  being  placed 
on  another.  Or,  if  there  are  no  stones, 
a  twig  from  a  bush  or  tree  is  stuck  in  the 
ground  at  intervals, 
or  a  bunch  of  grass 
is  knotted  as  show^n 
in  the  picture,  or  a 
mark  made  on  a 
tree-trunk.     If   the 


another  small  circle  inside,  means, 
"I  have  gone  home."  An  arrow 
drawn  in  the  dust  of  a  road  shows  the 
route  to  follow. 

But  not  only  does  the  Indian  use 
such  methods  of  leaving  information 
behind.     He  has  a  vast  code  of  signs 


The  camp  is  here  I  am  lost  Good  news  Summons  to  meet 

TALKING  TO  DISTANT  FRIENDS  BY  SMOKE  SIGNALS 


312 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


by  which  he  can  talk  to  one  of  his  own 
or  a  friendly  tribe  without  speaking 
an  audible  word.  Night  is  indicated 
by  closing  the  eyes  and  inclining  the 
head  as  though  it  were  on  a  pillow. 
Day  is  shown  by  joining  the  thumb 
and  forefinger,  describing  a  circle 
with  them,  and  pointing  from  east  to 
west.  Hunger  is  shown  by  sawing 
across  the  breast  with  the  hand; 
scratching  the  chest  means  fire;  the 
earth  is  indicated  by  pointing  to  the 
ground;  to  speak  of  a  house  or  tent, 
the  red  man  places  his  two  hands 
together  to  form  the  shape  of  a  gable 
roof;  when  he  wants  his  friend  to  look 
at  something  he  points  to  his  eye  and 
then  at  the  distant  object.  "I  under- 
stand" is  shown  by  making  a  circle 
with  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and 
passing  it  away  from  the  mouth. 
Wherever  possible  an  action  was 
indicated  by  imitating  the  operation, 
as  in  drinking,  eating,  burying  some- 
thing, and  so  on.  The  smoke  of 
fires  was  formerly  much  used  for 
sending  messages  to  friends  a  long 
distance  away  in  a  level  country  like 
the  prairie.  One  or  more  fires  were 
lighted,  and  the  rising  columns  of 
smoke  conveyed  the  message  accord- 
ing to  an  arranged  code.  Thus  one 
column  of  smoke  would  simply  indi- 
cate the  position  of  the  camp,  two 
fires  with  two  rising  columns  of  smoke 
would  be  a  cry  of  distress,  meaning 
"I  am  lost,"  three  columns  means 
"I  have  good  news  to  tell,"  four 
would  be  a  summons  to  a  council  of 
chiefs,  and  so  on.  It  is  not  necessary, 
of  course,  to  copy  the  actual  signs 
used  by  the  Indians.  We  can  take 
their  idea,  and  adapt  the  signs  to  the 
particular  country  in  which  we  happen 
to  be. 
Measuring  distance  by  sound 

Most  boys  and  girls  have  a  watch 
nowadays,  and  it  is  a  very  interesting 
occupation  for  the  country  to  measure 


distances  by  means  of  sound.  Sound 
travels  at  the  rate  of  about  1142  feet  in 
a  second,  which  is  equal  to  about  a  mile 
in  four  and  a  half  seconds,  or  thirteen 
miles  a  minute.  If,  then,  we  have  a 
watch  with  a  second  hand,  and  we  can  see 
the  cause  of  a  sound,  we  can  measure 
how  far  it  is  from  where  we  are  stand- 
ing to  the  place  where  the  sound  first 
arose. 

If  we  are  near  a  place  where  artillery 
practice  firing  their  guns,  we  shall  be 
able  to  measure  the  distance  of  the 
guns  from  where  we  happen  to  be  by 
noticing  the  puff  of  the  smoke,  which 
indicates  that  the  gun  has  been  fired, 
and  then  watching  the  second  hand 
of  cur  watch  and  seeing  how  many 
seconds  pass  before  we  hear  the  report 
of  the  guns. 

In  this  way  we  may  also  measure 
the  distance  of  a  tliunder-cloud.  We 
see  the  flash  of  lightning,  and  by 
means  of  our  watch  are  able  to  tell  how 
many  seconds  pass  between  the  flash 
and  the  thunder-clap,  which  is,  of 
course,  the  report  of  the  flash  or  electric 
spark.  Having  this  time  and  know- 
ing the  rate  at  which  the  sound  travels, 
a  very  simple  sum  in  arithmetic  will 
give  us  the  distance  away  of  the 
thunder-cloud.  Many  other  sounds 
will  enable  us  to  measure  distances  in 
the  same  way. 

If  we  are  on  a  broad  river  in  a  row 
boat  on  a  dark  night,  we  can,  by 
striking  the  water  with  the  flat  of  the 
oar  and  listening  for  the  echo  from  the 
bank,  judge  roughly  of  our  distance 
from  shore.  We  can  also  tell  which 
bank  we  are  nearer  to,  for  the  nearest 
bank  will  send  back  the  echo  first. 
An  easy  way  to  make  a  telephone 

To  make  a  real  telephone  is  a  some- 
what difficult  task,  but  we  can  make 
a  good  telephone  which  will  enable  us 
to  speak,  in  favorable  conditions,  up 
to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  away  with  very 
simple  materials. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


313 


The  materials  we  shall  require  in- 
clude two  boards  about  14  inches  long, 
10  inches  wide,  and  about  half  an  inch 
thick.  We  should  be  able  to  get  such 
boards  by  breaking  up  an  empty  box, 
and  sawing  up  two  of  the  boards  to 
these  sizes.  Then  we  cut  a  circular 
hole  about  eight  inches  across  in  the 
middle  of  each  board.  We  have  first 
to  mark  the  holes  to  be  cut  out. 

This  is  easily  done  by  getting  a  plate 
about  eight  inches  across,  laying  it 
face  downwards  in  the  middle  of  the 
board,  and  marking  the  wood  round 
the  edge  of  the  plate  with  a  lead-pencil. 
To  cut  out  the  holes  properly  we  should 
have  a  keyhole  saw  or  a  fret-saw;  but 
if  we  do  not  have  either  of  these  tools 
we  can  make  shift  by  making  holes 
with  a  gimlet  right  round  the  circle 
we  have  made.  The  holes  should 
be  as  close  together  as  we  can  get  them. 
Then  by  using  our  chisel  we  can  cut 
out  the  circular  hole.  Having  done 
this,  the  boards  are  ready,  and  we  can 
put  them  aside  until  we  have  the  other 
parts  of  our  telephone  ready. 


the  necks  with  string,  and  put  them 
aside  for  a  few  days  to  stretch.  We 
must  not  leave  them  so  long  that  they 
get  dry.  When  they  have  stretched, 
we  cut  off  the  necks  and  soak  the 
bladders  in  warm  water  until  they 
are  white  and  pliable.  Then  we 
put  them  over  the  holes  in  the 
boards  we  have  prepared,  putting 
the  outside  of  the  bladders  to  the  wood. 
They  should  be  put  on  evenly  without 


2.  Button 
and   wire 


1.     Fixing  the  bladder 


Now    we    want     two    fresh    beef- 
bladders.     We  blow  them  up  hard,  tie 


3.     Stretching  the  bladder 

creases,  and  not  stretched  in  one  direc- 
tion more  than  in  another  direction. 
Now  we  take  a  thin  leather  band, 
or  some  pieces  of  leather  which  we  can 
make  into  a  thin  leather  band,  and 
tack  it  all  round  one  of  the  holes  above 
the  bladder  as  seen  in  picture  1.    This 
will  attach  the  bladder  securely  to  the 
board.     The    tacks    should    have   big 
heads,  and  should  be  driven  well  hoi»e.> 
Old     boot-tongues      will      do    'irieply 
for    the    leather.     We    cut    theeef  31^ 
into  strips  about  half  an  inch  wide  for 
the  purpose.     We  fix  the  two  bladders 
in  this  way  to  the  two  boards  in  which 
we    have    cut    the    holes.     Then   the 
edges  of  the  bladder  outside  the  leather 
strips  should  be  cut  away. 


3U 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Now  take  a  button  and  attach  a 
thin  wire  to  it  by  passing  the  wire 
through  two  of  the  holes  in  the  button, 
as  seen  in  picture  2,  twisting  it  so  that 
it  will  not  come  out.  Make  a  hole 
right  in  the  middle  of  the  bladder  and 
put  this  wire  through.  Then  hang 
something  heavy — a  weight  of  about 
7  pounds,  or  a  large  stone — to  the 
other  end  of  the  wire,  as  seen  in 
picture  3,  putting  the  board  in  some 
position  so  that  the  weight  can  pull 
down  the  bladder.  We  treat  both 
bladders  in  this  way,  and  leave 
them  in  the  sun  until  the  bladders  are 
dry  and  hard. 

All  that  remains  to  be  done  now  is  to 
fix  up  the  two  boards  and  bladders  at  a 
distance  apart,  and  connect  them  by 
fixing  a  wire  to  the  two  wires  attached 
to  the  buttons.  This  wire  should  be 
fine  copper  or  tinned  iron  wire.  The 
wires  may  need  to  be  supported  if  the 
distance  is  great.  This  can  be  done  by 
hanging  loops  of  string  to  the  branches 
of  trees,  or  to  any  posts  that  may  be  in 
the  way.  Then  we  may  speak  from 
either  end,  and  the  words  should  be 
heard  distinctly  at  the  other  end. 
We  should  speak  close  to  the  bladder. 
When  we  wish  to  "ring  up"  the  other 
end,  we  tap  the  bladder  at  our  end 
with  a  pencil. 
Simple  kites  and  how  to  make  them 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of 
kites.  Some  are  very  simple,  and 
these  we  shall  see  how  to  make  in  this 
article. 

The  ordinary  kite  is  made  with  very 
simple  materials,  and  its  manufacture 
costs  very  little  indeed.  First,  we 
require  the  half  of  a  hoop.  The  size  of 
the  hoop  depends  upon  the  size  of  kite 
we  are  going  to  make,  or,  rather,  the 
size  of  kite  that  we  shall  have  will 
depend  upon  the  size  of  hoop  that  we 
use.  A  hoop  from  a  butter-cask  will 
do  very  well  for  a  small  kite,  and  any 
grocer  will  be  glad  to  give  us  one  if  we 


ask  him.  We  do  not  use  the  whole 
hoop,  but  only  a  piece  a  little  smaller 
than  half  of  it.  We  choose  the  best 
for  this  purpose,  and  cut  away  the 
remainder.  Then  we  thin  the  half- 
hoop  with  a  pocket-knife,  taking  care 
not  to  take  off  enough  to  weaken  it 
much.  We  must  thin  it  equally  all 
round,  and  we  should  test  it  to  see  that 
we  have  not  made  it  lighter  at  one  side 
than  at  another.  The  way  to  test  it 
is  simple.  Take  a  piece  of  string  and 
put  it  round  the  outside  of  the  half- 
hoop,  then  cut  it  off  to  the  exact 
length  of  the  half-hoop.  Double  the 
string  then,  and  again  put  it  round 
the  half -hoop  as  far  as  it  will  go 
from  one  end.  Make  a  notch  with 
the  penknife  where  the  end  of  the 
doubled  string  conies.  Then  balance 
the  half-hoop  on  the  edge  of  the 
knife-blade  at  this  point,  as  seen  in 
picture  1.      If  the  half-hoop      hangs 


1.     Testing  the  top 


2.     Top  With  notches 

evenly,  and  does  not  hang  down  at  one 
end  more  than  at  the  other,  it  is  all 
right;  but,  if  one  end  hangs  down  more 
than  the  other,  we  must  shave  a  little 
more  wood  from  the  heavier  end,  so 
as  to  make  it  the  same  weight 
as  the  other  end.  When  we  have 
got  the  half-hoop  thinned  properly 
and  balanced,  we  make  a  notch 
at  each  side  of  each  end,  close 
to  the  end,  as  seen  in  picture  2,  and  put 
it  aside  till  the  backbone  of  the  kite 
is  ready.  We  require  for  the  backbone 
a  length  of  wood  that  will  be  strong  and 
light.  A  piece  of  thin  cane  will  do 
nicely  if  it  is  rather  stiff. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


315 


But  a  long  slip  of  wood — say,  from 
24  to  30  inches  long — will  do  about  as 
well.     We  thin  and  smooth  this  slip, 
and  then  tie  it  to  the  notch  in  the 
center  of  the  half-hoop,  so  as  to  leave 
1  inch  sticking  up  beyond  the  top  of 
the  half -hoop.     Picture  3  shows  the 
kite  at  a  later  stage,  but  shows  also 
the  position  of  the  hoop  and  the  back- 
bone.    Now  tie  a  thin,  strong  string 
to  one  end  of  the  half-hoop,  or  top,  as 
we  shall  now  call  it,  at  one  of  the  end 
notches,  pass  the  string  once  round  the 
backbone,  and  the  other  end  tie  to  the 
notch  in  the  opposite  end  of  the  top. 


3.    Frame  of  kite 


5.     Strut  in  position 
Cutting  the  paper 


Balance  the  whole  by  placing  one  end 
of  the  backbone  on  one  forefinger, 
and  the  other  end  of  the  backbone  on 
the  forefinger  of  the  other  hand.  We 
can  then  see  if  the  top  swings  heavier 
at  one  side  than  at  the  other.  If  one 
side  is  heavier,  we  move  the  backbone 
along  the  string  a  little  bit,  until  we 
find  from  the  swing  that  it  is  right  in 
the  middle  between  the  two  ends  of  the 
top.  Picture  6  shows  how  we  test 
the  balance. 


Testing  the  balance 


Having  done  this,  we  join  each  end 
of  the  top  with  string  to  the  bottom 
end  of  the  backbone,  where  we  put  a 
notch  or  a  hole  to  receive  the  string. 


The  kite  now  looks  like  picture  3.     All 
the  strings  should  be  fairly  tight. 

We  now  get  a  large  sheet  of  thin 
strong  paper.  A  sheet  of  a  large  news- 
paper would  do,  but  imitation  parch- 
ment paper,  if  we  can  get  it,  is  stronger 
and  better.  The  paper  must  be  large 
enough  to  cover  the  entire  kite  from 
top  to  bottom  and  from  side  to  side. 
If  the  only  paper  we  can  get  is  in  too 
small  sheets,  we  can  make  one  sheet 
large  enough  by  pasting  two  or  more 
pieces  together  at  their  edges. 

We  place  the  kite  on  the  top  of  the 
paper,  on  a  table  or  on  the  floor,  and, 
with  a  pencil,  draw  a  line  round  the 
kite,  about  one  inch  outside  the  hoop 
top,  and  J^-inch  outside  the  string 
sides,  as  seen  in  picture  4.  Paste  or 
gum  the  edges  of  the  paper,  and  fold  it 
over,  and  stick  it  down.  Turn 
it  over  carefully,  and  stick  on  two  or 
three  patches  on  the  back,  thereby 
sticking  the  backbone  to  the  covering 
paper  and  strengthening  it.  The  kite 
is  made,  and  we  may  prepare  to  fly  it. 

Tie  a  string  at  the  back  from  side  to 
side,  from  one  end  of  the  top  to  the 
other  end  of  the  top.  Take  a  piece  of 
wood  about  4  inches  long,  and,  having 
cut  a  notch  in  each  end  of  it,  fit  it 
between  this  string  and  the  backbone 
with  one  end  on  each.  From  the  back, 
the  kite  will  now  look  like  picture  5. 

Tie  a  string  from  top  to  bottom  of 
the  backbone  in  front.  This  is  the 
bridle.  It  must  be  slack,  so  that  the 
kite  will  fly  properly. 

Tie  another  piece  of  string  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  backbone  and  let 
it  hang  loose — say,  about  5  yards  long. 
This  is  the  tail.  Make  some  loops  in 
the  tail  right  down,  2  feet  apart,  and 
put  in  tufts  of  paper,  and  then  pull 
the  loops  tight.  These  tufts  are 
streamers,  and  make  the  kite  look 
well  when  we  fly  it. 

The  kite  is  now  ready  for  the  field. 
We  take  it  out  when  the  wind  is  fairly 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


strong.  We  should  have  a  ball  of 
string,  or  more  than  one  ball,  wound 
upon  a  stick.  Tie  the  end  of  this 
string  to  the  bridle  so  that  the  kite 
hangs  horizontal  when  suspended,  and 
tie  a  piece  of  turf  to  the  end  tail.  One 
boy  takes  the  kite  by  the  bottom  end, 
leaving  the  tail  lying  free.  Another 
boy  takes  the  ball  of  string  to  which  the 
kite  is  tied,  and  goes  away  about  10 
yards  in  the  direction  from  which  the 
wind  is  blowing.  Both  stand  and  wait 
for  a  breeze.  Then,  as  the  boy  with 
the  kite  cries  "Go!"  he  throws  the  kite 
violently  forward  into  the  air,  and 
his  friend  runs  his  best.  Then,  if  it 
has  all  been  properly  done,  the  kite 
soars  aloft  steadilv  in  the  wind,  and 


7.    Flying  the  kite 


&  Sqoars  Idte- 


the  string  can  be  let  out  carefully  and 
gradually.  If  the  kite  does  not  rise, 
the  ,tail  may  be  too  heavy,  and  some 
of-  the  turf  must  be  taken  off.  If  it 
wobbles,  or  rushes  from  side  to  side, 
the  tail  may  be  too  light,  and  a  heavier 
ptiece  of  turf  must  be  put  on. 
,.,,Th{^t  is,  perhaps,  the  simplest  form 
of  J^te;    ,  A  square  kite  is  another  very 

liuq 

2.   Cutting  one, of  the  wings 

simple  shape,  and  is  shown  in  picture 
8.  From  this  picture,  and  from  the 
description  of  how  to  make  the  kite 


we  have  seen,  we  can  make  a  square 
kite  without  further  instructions. 

A  SIMPLE  FLYING  MACHINE 

Most  of  us  know  that  the  propeller 
of  a  steamship,  as  it  revolves,  drives  the 
ship  through  the  water.  This  is  because 
the  slope  of  the  blades  drives  the  water 
away  from  the  ship  behind,  and  this 
pushes  the  ship  forward.  A  very 
simple  flying  machine  can  be  made  on 
the  same  principle,  and  when  we  have 
made  it  we  shall  perhaps  understand 
better  how  it  is  that  a  ship  is  driven 


1.  Wood  for  the  Hying  machine 

forward  by  the  revolution  of  its  pro- 
pellers. 

First,  we  get  a  piece  of  wood  about 
5  inches  long,  1  inch  wide,  and  half 
an  inch  thick,  as  illustrated  in  picture 
1.  Soft  wood,  such  as  is  used  for  fire- 
wood, will  do  well  enough,  so  that  we 
may  simply  take  a  piece  of  firewood  if 
we  can  find  a  piece  large  enough  each 
way.  Right  in  the  middle  of  it  and 
on  the  flat  side  we  bore  a  hole  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  We 
can  do  this  with  a  gimlet,  and  we  must 
do  it  carefully  and  slowly  so  that  we 
do  not  split  the  wood.  The  hole  is 
made  right  through  from  side  to  side 
of  the  wood.  Picture  1  indicates  the 
position  and  size  of  the  hole.  A  little 
distance  from  this  hole  at  one  side 
we  cut  away  the  corner  until  we  get 
it  down  to  look  like  picture  2.  The 
end  of  the  piece  that  we  have  cut 
will   be   almost   triangular   in    shape. 


d 


3.  The  wings  after  cutting 


Now  we  begin  at  the  opposite  corner 
at  the  same  end  of  the  wood,  and  cut 
it  away  also  until  we  have  one  end  of 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


317 


the  wood  almost  up  to  the  hole  in  the     be  sufficient  if  we  push  it  in  firmly, 

form  of  a  slanting  blade,  but  very  thin,      but  not  so  far  as  to  split  the  blades. 

Its  resemblance  to  the  blade  of  a  ship's      When  we  have  the  stem  fixed,  we  have 

propeller  begins  to  be 

seen,  and  it  will  look 

something     like     the 

right    end   of   picture 

3.      We    make  the    corners 

part    we    have    cut    round 

of  leaving    them  square 

proves  the  appearance 


4.  The   completed 


of    the 
instead 
This    im- 
That  finishes 
one  end  of  the  blade.   We  do  the  same 
with  the  other  end  of  the  piece  of 
wood,  except  that  we  cut  away,  not 
the  same  corners  as  we  hr.ve  cut  away 
in    the    first    end,    but    the    opposite 
corners.     Then  we  shall  have  the  two 
ends  cut  away  to  the  form  of  thin 
blades,  but  the  slope  of  the  one  will 

be  opposite  from  that  of  the  other,  as  it  properly.  If  we 
shown  in  picture  3.  Our  toy  is  almost  have  not  done  it 
complete.  properly, we  may  find 

W^e  have  now  to  fix  a  stem  firmly  that  the  toy  strikes 
into  the  center  hole.  A  butcher's  the  ground  at  once 
meat  skewer,  if  made  of  wood,  will  do  instead  of  flying.  If  so  we  may  know 
for  the  stem,  or  a  wooden  penholder,  that  we  have  spun  it  in  the  wrong 
or  even  a  thin  lead  pencil.  The  stem  direction  before  releasing  it,  and  we 
may  be  any  length  from  6  to  9  inches,  can  do  better  at  the  next  attempt. 
We  may  glue  the  stem  into  the  hole,  A  little  practice  will  enable  us  to  make 
but  it  is  not  really  necessary.     It  will      it  soar  high  every  time. 


flying  machine 

only  to  hold  the  toy 

upwards    with   the 

stem   between    the 

palms   of    the  two 

hands,  then  rub  the 

hands      together 

cjuickly,  and  release 

the   machine  as  we 

make    it    spin.      It 

should  soar  aloft  as 

high  as  the  roof  of  a 

house  if  we  have  done 


5.  Flying  the  machine 


THE    PLEASURE    OF    A    LITTLE    GARDEN 


THE  spring  is  a  capital  time  in 
which  to  start  a  little  garden 
of  our  own — the  earlier  the 
better,  but  the  middle  of  April  will  do 
if  we  have  not  thought  of  it  before. 

Gardening  is  a  splendid  hobby, 
because  it  gives  us  plenty  to  do  and 
plenty  to  think  about,  and  plenty  of 
wonderfully  interesting  things  to  find 
out.  When  we  make  a  garden  and 
plant  it,  we  set  ourselves  the  task — 
and  it  is  a  very  pleasant  one — of 
looking  after  the  welfare  and  health 
and  comfort  of  all  sorts  of  plants, 
many  of  which  have  different  tastes 
and  requirements;  and  it  is  one  of  the 


experiments  we  must  always  be  making 
to  see  if  we  are  giving  each  plant  just 
what  it  most  wants.  Some  like  a  great 
deal  of  sunshine,  some  like  the  shady 
places;  some  like  a  dry  position,  some 
a  moist  one;  some  like  to  grow  among 
the  stones,  some  stretch  up,  and  need 
arches  or  posts  to  support  them. 

After  we  have  acquired  our  plot  of 
ground,  we  need  a  supply  of  tools 
before  we  can  transform  it  into  a 
beautiful  garden;  and  we  ought  to  get 
tools  as  large  as  we  can  comfortably 
handle.  This  applies  especially  to 
such  an  important  tool  as  the  spade. 
Other  tools  that  will  be  needed  will  be 


318 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


a  hoe;  and  many  people  find  what 
is  called  a  "Dutch"  hoe  the  most 
convenient  to  use  for  weeding. 

A  rake  will  be  necessary  to  smooth 
the  surface  and  to  clear  up  the  rubbish. 
Something  smaller  than  the  spade  will 
be  needed  for  planting,  and  for  this 
purpose  a  trowel  is  useful;  but  where 
it  is  a  cpiestion  of  digging  holes  in 
ground  where  many  bulbs  may  lie 
hidden,  a  trowel  may  damage  them, 
so  that  a  little  four-pronged  fork  in  a 
handle  of  the  same  length  as  that  of  the 
trowel  is  very  useful ;  and,  if  we  cannot 
have  both,  the  little  fork  will  do  all 
that  the  trowel  does,  and  should  be 
the  one  we  should  choose. 


Large  fork 


Watering  can 

Dutch 
hoe 
THE  LITTLE  GARDENER'S  TOOLS 


A  large  fork  set  in  a  handle  the  same 
length  as  the  spade  is  a  most  useful 
tool,  and  can  often  be  vised  for  digging, 
especially  round  about  plants  already 
established,  as  it  is  not  so  likely  to 
injure  their  roots  as  the  spade.  A 
watering-can  is  necessary,  and  one 
the  rose  of  which  takes  off  and  on 
should  be  bought,  as  quite  as  often  we 
need  to  water  through  the  spout  as  to 
sprinkle  the  water  through  the  rose. 
A    wheelbarrow    is   useful   to     have, 


either  to  bring  soil  or  to  cart  away 
weeds,  leaves,  and  other  rubbish;  or, 
failing  that,  a  strong  basket  will  take 
its  place. 

The  first  work  in  the  garden  plot 
will  be  to  dig  it  as  deeply  as  you 
possibly  can — that  is  one  of  the  reasons 
why  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  spade 
that  really  can  do  some  good  work, 
because  deep  digging  is  of  the  utmost 
importance.  You  can  understand  that 
the  deeper  you  work  the  soil  the  better 
it  is  for  the  roots  of  your  plants,  and  in 
well-worked  soil  these  go  creeping  out 
in  all  directions  to  find  food  and  drink 
wherewith  to  build  up  and  sustain 
healthy  and  sturdy  leaves  and  stems 
and  flowers. 

The  middle  of  April  is  not  too  late 
to  sow  seeds  of  many  plants  that  will 
flower  during  the  summer  and  autumn. 
Plants  that  flower  so  quickly  as  this 
are  called  annuals.  They  do  not  come 
up  year  after  year  in  the  garden,  as 
some  plants  do,  and  live  for  many 
seasons.  No;  annuals  are  the  shortest 
lived  of  all  plants,  and  you  must  sow 
seeds  afresh  each  year.  But  an  annual 
accomplishes  a  great  deal  in  its  little 
life.  You  sow  the  seed;  the  seedling 
appears,  grows  quickly  into  a  little 
plant;  the  buds  appear,  and  open  out 
into  beautiful  flowers.  Then  they 
fade,  and  the  seed-vessels  grow;  and 
when  the  seed  has  fully  ripened  the 
plant  dies.     And  all  within  the  year! 

Among  the  prettiest  and  brightest 
of  annuals  are  larkspurs,  poppies  and 
nasturtiums.  The  sweetest  smelling 
is,  perhaps,  the  mignonette,  and  one 
that  is  interesting  for  its  quaint  seed- 
vessels  is  known  as  love-in-a-mist. 

The  great  point  to  remember  in 
seed  sowing  is  to  sow  as  thinly  as 
possible,  and  however  thinly  we  sow 
we  shall  have  to  draw  out  many  of  the 
seedling  plants  when  they  appear,  but 
we  can  think  about  that  later  on; 
though  any  boy  or  girl  who  already 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


319 


has  a  garden,  and  has  reared  his  seed- 
hngs,  may  at  once  set  about  thinning 
them,  as  it  cannot  well  be  done  too  soon. 
Some  of  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in 
lines,  especially  where  we  need  a  row 
to  serve  as  an  edging;  or,  again,  they 
may  be  sown  in  circles.  These,  when 
they  grow  up,  make  nice  patches. 
There  are  a  few  rules  always  to  be 
borne  in  mind  when  sowing  seeds  in 


HOW      TO      MAKE 

ANY  clever  boy  or  girl  can  make  a  neat 
paper  box  suitable  for  bonbons,  valen- 
tines or  party  favors.  First,  take  a  piece 
of  paper,  which  should  not  be  too  thin  or  too 
soft.  A  piece  the  size  of  this  page  or  a  little 
smaller  will  do  nicely.  Now  make  the  paper  ex- 
actly square.  You  can  do  so  easily  by  folding  it 
over  as  shown  here. 
Cut  off  the  part 
where  the  folded 
upper  piece  does 
not  cover  the  lower 
piece,  and  what  re- 
mains will  be  ex- 
actly square. 

You  have  already 
folded  the  paper 
diagonally — that  is,  from  corner  to  corner.  Make 
a  good  crease  by  pressing  it  with  the  fingers  at 
the  fold,  then  open  it  out  and  hold  it  diagonally 
from  the  other  corners,  and  press  the  fold  well 
down  with  the  fingers.  The  paper  will  now  be 
square  and  creased  as  in 
this  picture. 

Notice  the  letters  on 
the  picture,  so  that  you  can 
understand  easily  what  to 
do.  So  that  we  may  under- 
stand what  follows  more 
easily,  we  shall  call  the 
four  corners  A,  B,  C,  and 
D,  and  the  center  will  be  E. 
Now  fold  all  the  corners  in 
carefully  so  as  to  touch  the 
center,  and  make  the  paper 
as  here  shown. 

The  paper  will  now  be 
in  the  form  of  a  square, 
but  a  much  smaller  square 
than  formerly.  Having 
folded  it  like  this,  press  it 

down  well  at  the  folds  so 
as  to  crease  it  plainly. 

You  will  now  have  four 
more  creases,  and  when  you 
open  out  the  paper  again 
it  will  be  creased  where  the 
dotted  lines  are  in  the  next 
illustration.  The  other 
letters— F,  G,  H,  J— mark 


N 

'■%■■■' 

..•■ 

■■•■£••■ 

' 

I- 

*              * 

..••■"   "• 

•..     .• 

••■■■  \. 

the  open  ground.  The  soil  must  not 
be  so  wet  that  it  is  sticky  and  hangs 
together  in  lumps,  neither  should  it  be 
so  dry  that  it  is  like  powder.  Second, 
the  seed  must  not  be  buried  too  deeply; 
and  third,  it  must  be  sown  thinly. 

If  the  soil  is  too  wet,  it  is  better  to 
wait  for  a  few  days  until  wind  and  sun 
have  partially  dried  it,  and  if  it  is  too 
dry  it  must  be  watered. 


A      PAPER      BOX 

where  the  creases  cross.     Fold  the  comer  A  over 

to  the  spot  J,  as  seen  in  this  illustration. 

That  will  make  another 
crease.  Now  make  another 
crease  by  folding  the  cor- 
ner B  over  to  H;  another 
by  folding  the  corner  C 
over  to  F;  and  another  by 
folding  the  corner  D  over 
to  G. 

We  still  want  four  more 
creases.      Make  them  by 

folding  A  over  to  F,  B  over  to  G,  C  over  to  J, 

and  D  over  to  H.     The  paper  is  now  creased 

as  shown  here. 

Every   one   of   these 

creases  is  necessary  to  make 

the  final  box,  although,  as 

the  paper  is  now,  it  is  not 

easy  to  see  why  all  these 

marks  are  wanted.      But 

we  shall  see  presently  the 

use  of  all  the  creases. 
Now  you  must  use  scis- 
sors. Cut  along  where 
there  are  black  lines  in- 
stead of  dotted  lines  in  the 
next  picture. 

You  now  have  a  paper 
which  does  not  look  very 
like  a  box.  But  you  have 
only  to  fold  it  up  in  the 
proper  way,  and  you 
will  see  that  it  is.  Fold 
D  like  this:  ys/n 
slit  near  B.  r^^ 
at  the  side. 


vwy 

7^  Xy\  AJ 


over  the  corner  at 
and  slip  it  into  the 
Now  fold  in  the  flap 
and  you  have  it  like  this: 


? 


Fold  over  the  corner  at  C,  and 

slip  it  into  the  slit  at  A,  and  the 

box  is  now  finished.     If  you 

have  made  it  properly,  it  will  be 

very  neat  and  perfectly  regular. 


330 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


A    MAGIC     LANTERN     FOR    PICTURE    POSTCARDS 


FOR  winter  evenings  nothing  is 
more  interesting  than  a  good 
magic  lantern.  Unfortunately, 
the  lanterns  that  are  bought  at  the 
shops  have  this  disadvantage:  they 
will  show  only  slides  that  have  been 
painted  or  photographed  on  glass,  and 
these  slides  cost  money;  and  even  if 
the  owner  of  the  magic  lantern  has  a 
good  many  of  them,  he  soon  gets  tired 
of  showing  the  same  pictures  over  and 
over  again. 

Most  boys  have  wished  they  could 
have  a  lantern  that  would  show  any 
sort  of  picture  on  the  screen,  and  so 
we  are  going  to  tell  them  how  they 
can  easily  make  one  for  themselves. 

The  magic  lantern  here  described 
can  be  made  out  of  an  old  biscuit-tin. 
It  does  not  require  glass  slides,  but  it 


1.     Magic  lantern  showing  picture  postcards 

will  throw  on  the  white  sheet  in  natural 
colors  a  big  picture  of  anything  that  is 
put  into  it.  When  we  have  made  it 
we  can  put  picture  postcards  into  it, 
or  funny  drawings  that  we  can  cut 
out  of  magazines,  and  it  will  throw 
them  on  the  screen  iust  as  well  as  an 


ordinary    magic    lantern    with    glass 
slides. 

Picture  1  shows  the  lantern  being 
used;  the  picture  of  an  elephant  in 
the  lantern  is  being  thrown  upon  the 
screen  in  front. 


2.  Tliis  is  the  lantern  complete.  A  is  the  body  of  the 
lantern;  B  is  the  sliding  lens;  C  is  the  chimney;  D  is  the 
gas  bracket;  E  marks  the  feet  on  which  the  lantern  stands. 

We  can  see  the  advantage  of  this 
at  once.  Probably  we  have  hundreds 
of  picture  postcards  or  photographs 
that  would  look  splendid  if  they  were 
thrown  on  the  screen.  Well,  we  can 
use  all  these,  and  never  get  tired  of 
this  sort  of  magic  lantern,  because  we 
shall  always  be  getting  new  pictures 
for  it  of  one  kind  or  another. 

Get  a  large  square  biscuit-box. 
Possibly  we  can  find  one  in  the  house; 
if  not,  any  grocer  will  sell  one.  This 
box  will  form  the  body  of  the  magic 
lantern,  as  seen  in  picture  2. 

Now  we  must  fix  into  it  a  lamp  or  a 
gasjet  that  will  give  a  bright  light. 
Of  course,  the  brighter  the  light,  the 
brighter  the  pictures  will  be  on  the 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


321 


screen.  An  incandescent  gas-mantle 
gives  the  best  possible  light,  and  one 
of  these  can  really  be  fixed  more 
easily  than  a  lamp.  We  can  buy  an 
incandescent  gas-burner  complete,  and 
any  gas-fitter  will  supply  a  short 
bracket  of  the  kind  shown  in  the 
illustration.  We  have  then  only  to 
make  a  small  hole  in  the  bottom  of 
the  biscuit-box,  put  the  burner  inside 
and  the  bracket  underneath,  and  then 
screw  them  together.  When  this  has 
been  done,  the  burner  will  be  fixed  in 
the  reciuired  position  quite  firmly. 

It  will  be  necessary  now  to  make 
four  feet  for  the  lantern  to  stand  upon, 
as  the  gas-bracket  at  the  bottom  makes 
it  uneven.  Little  cubes  of  wood, 
about  two  inches  high,  will  form  the 
feet.  If  we  can  find  any  wooden 
"bricks"  in  an  old  toy-box,  these  will 
do  splendidly.  We  have  only  to  place 
one  at  each  corner  of  the  box,  to  drive 
nails  through  the  tin  from  the  inside, 
and  the  feet  will  be  firmly  fixed  in  a 
few  minutes. 


^^^^^uT^ 


5.    Chimney  made 
from  coffee-tin 


-M-" 


Diagram  of  the  lantern 
looking  from  above 


3.    Opening  for 
the  lens 


Now  we  must  get  a  lens  for  our 
lantern.  These  are  sold  at  the  shops 
where  magic  lanterns  and  cameras  are 
kept.  We  had  better  explain  exactly 
what  we  want  the  lens  for,  and  the 
man  will  understand.  The  lens  should 
be  mounted  in  a  brass  tube  that  slides 
backwards  and  forwards  in  another 
tube,  so  that  we  can  focus  the  picture 
on  the  screen. 


Now  we  must  cut  a  hole  in  our 
biscuit-box,  and  fit  the  lens  in  the 
position  shown  in  the  illustration. 
This  is  quite  easy,  if  we  get  from  a 
tool-shop  a  small  tin-cutter.  With 
one  of  these  we  can  cut  the  tin  in  a 
few  minutes,  and  it  will  also  be  useful 
later  on.  The  tin-cutters  are  merely 
strong  scissors. 

When  the  hole  is  cut,  fit  the  lens 
into  it.  If  the  lens  has  a  "flange," 
that  is  to  say,  a  flat  rim,  with  holes  for 
screws,  this  will  be  very  easy.  All  we 
have  to  do  is  to  bore  holes  through 
the  tin,  and  then  fix  the  lens  with 
strong  brass  "paper  fasteners."  If  it 
has  no  flange,  the  simplest  way  is  to 
cut  eight  slits,  all  meeting  in  a  point, 
as  shown  in  figure  3.  Then  bend  the 
pointed  pieces  of  tin  inwards,  and 
they  will  form  a  support  for  the  lens  tube. 

We  now  have  the  gas-bracket  and 
the  lens  in  position.  The  next  thing 
to  do  is  to  make  a  door  at  the  back  of 
the  lantern,  so  that  we  can  put  the 
pictures  in.  Cut  an  oblong  hole, 
about  the  size  of  a  postcard,  not  in 
the  middle  of  the  box,  but  on  one  side 
opposite  the  lens,  as  shown  by  diagram 
in  picture  4.  \\^hen  we  have  done 
this  make  a  wooden  door  with  hinges, 
as  shown  in  the  picture. 

The  lantern  is  now  complete  except 
for  the  chimney.  This  can  be  made 
out  of  an  old  coffee-tin.  Cut  a  hole 
in  the  lid  of  the  box  exactly  over  the 
gas-bracket.  Then  make  five  or  six 
cuts  round  the  top  of  the  coffee-tin, 
each  about  one  inch  long,  bend  back 
the  pieces  of  tin,  and  then  you  will  be 
able  to  fix  the  chimney  to  the  top  of 
your  lantern  with  brass  paper  fasteners. 
One  glance  at  picture  5  will  make  all 
this  clear.  At  the  bottom  of  the  coffee- 
tin,  which  is  now  the  top,  we  must  cut 
a  hole  about  as  big  as  a  twenty-five 
cent  piece,  and  fix  over  it  a  flat  piece 
of  tin  with  paper  fasteners.  This 
opening    will    allow    the    hot    air    to 


322 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


escape,  but  not  the  light.  A  few 
small  holes  must  also  be  made  in  the 
back  of  the  lantern,  so  that  air  may 
come  in,  otherwise  the  gas  will  not 
burn  properly. 

Now  the  whole  lantern  is  complete, 
and  if  we  have  done  everything  neatly 
it  will  look  quite  nice.  If  we  wish  it 
to  look  particularly  smart,  we  can 
give  it  a  coat  of  Brunswick  black. 
When  we  want  to  try  our  lantern,  we 
fix  a  white  sheet  over  one  wall  of  the 
room.  Then  place  the  lantern  on  a 
table  about  eight  or  nine  feet  away, 
and  connect  the  gas-burner  by  means 
of  a  rubber  tube  with  the  ordinary 
bracket  on  the  wall.     Put  on  the  in- 


candescent mantle,  light  the  gas,  and 
then  put  the  lid  on  the  lantern. 

Now  open  the  door  at  the  back,  and 
fix  a  picture  postcard  to  the  wood 
with  drawing-pins,  and  the  moment 
the  door  is  closed  a  large  picture  of 
the  postcard  will  be  thrown  on  the 
white  screen.  We  must  slide  the  lens 
backwards  or  forwards  until  the  pic- 
ture on  the  screen  is  quite  sharp,  and 
then  we  can  show  just  as  many  more 
postcards  or  other  pictures  as  we 
please.  By  the  way,  whatever  sort 
of  pictures  are  placed  on  the  door, 
remember  to  pin  them  on  upside 
down.  They  will  appear  right  way 
up  on  the  screen. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AND  USE  A  BOOMERANG 


ANY  boy  or  girl  can  make  a  boomerang  of 
cardboard  that  when  flung  out  into  space 
will  travel  for  a  certain  distance  and  then 
return  again. 

Boomerangs  can  be  made  of  various  shapes, 
but  the  simplest  and  most  familiar  is  that 
shown  in  the  first  picture.  We  take  an  ordi- 
nary postcard  of  medium  thickness,  and  first 
draw  the  boomerang  carefully  to  the  pro- 
portions showTi  in  the 
picture,  making  it  as 
large  as  the  postcard 
will  allow. 

Then,  having  drawn 
it,  we  lay  the  card 
on  a  flat  piece  of  wood 
resting  on  an  even 
surface,  and,  with  a 
sharp  penknife,  cut  it 
out  clearly  and  neatly. 
No  jagged  edges  must 
be  left  or  the  boom- 
erang will  not  work. 
We  must  not  cut  it  out 
with  scissors,  for  that 
causes  the  card  to  curl, 
and  a  cardboard  boom- 
erang must  be  perfectly 
flat. 

Another  very  good  shape  for  a  boomerang 
is  that  shown  in  the  second  picture,  and  here 
again  we  first  draw  the  outline  on  a  postcard, 
and  when  we  have  got  the  curve  and  the  pro- 
portions quite  accurate,  we  cut  the  weapon  out 
with  a  sharp  penknife,  proceeding  in  exactly 
the  same  way  as  before. 

A  more  complicated  form  of  boomerang  is 
that  shown  in  the  third  picture.     Here  we  have 


Three  kinds  of  boomerangs,  and  the  way  to  throw  them 


three  arms,  and  this  must  be  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  before.  We  must  be  particularly 
watchful  that  there  are  no  jagged  surfaces  in 
the  angles  where  the  arms  join  one  another. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  case  of  all  three 
shapes  the  ends  are  carefully  rounded.  This 
is  important  or  the  boomerang  will  not  work 
properly.  It  may  sail  through  the  air  swiftly 
and  well,  but  it  will  not  come  back. 

The  method  of  throw- 
ing the  boomerang  is  the 
same  in  all  cases,  and 
the  picture  on  this  page 
showing  how  the  first 
shape  is  driven  into 
space  will  explain  how 
to  act  in  each  case.  The 
boomerang  is  placed  on 
some  flat  surface,  such 
as  a  book,  and  then  it 
is  flicked  off  sharply 
with  a  pencil.  As  it 
sails  off  into  space  it 
will  whirl  round  and 
round,  and,  after  going 
some  distance,  will  de- 
scribe a  curve  and  come 
swiftly  sailing  back 
home  again. 
Any  failure  of  the  boomerang  to  return  to 
its  thrower  will  be  due  to  faulty  shaping  or 
cutting  out,  or  to  too  heavy  cardboard. 

The  reason  for  the  curious  flight  of  the 
boomerang  is  not,  even  now,  properly  under- 
stood by  men  of  science,  but  it  is  known  that, 
owing  to  its  shape,  the  air  resists  one  part 
more  than  another,  which  causes  it  to  fly  in  a 
more  or  less  circular  path. 


KNOTS   IN  GENERAL  USE  BY  SAILORS   AND  BUILDERS 


Timber  Hitch. 

Magnus  Hitcli 

S2S 


Riuuxing  Knot^ 


32Jt 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE        BOY'S        CARPENTER       SHOP 


EVERY  boy  should  have  a  box 
of  tools  and  know  how  to  use 
them.  With  practice  many 
things  useful  and  ornamental  may  be 
made.  The  most  commonly  used  tools 
are  not  difficult  to  manipulate;  and 
although  written  instructions  may 
help,  a  little  practice  should  soon 
overcome  any  difficulties,  especially 
if  the  right  methods  of  holding,  setting, 
and  using  are  followed.  When  the 
tools  are  mastered  it  is  possible  to 
begin  real  work.  The  tools  most 
needed  will  be  a  claw  hammer,  saw, 
chisel,  plane,  screw-driver,  foot-rule, 
set-square,  gimlet  and  possibly  a 
hatchet.  These  should  be  purchased 
of  the  best  quality  one  can  afford. 

Wood  has  what  is  called  a  grain, 
which  is  always  up  the  way  the  tree 
has  grown,  and  it  can  be  split  the 
way    of    the    grain,    but    not    across. 

When  you 
wish  to  cut 
wood  across 
the  grain 
you  must 
use  a  saw. 
When  the 
grain  of  the 
wood  is  very 
regular  you 
can  split  it 
evenly,  but 
if   the  grain 

Using  the  saw  1  S     t  W 1  S  t  e  d 


you  cannot  do  so.  Therefore,  even 
when  you  want  to  have  the  plank 
of  wood  cut  the  way  of  the  grain  it 
may  be  necessary  to  use  the  saw 
instead  of  the  hatchet.  There  are 
many  saws.  The  kind  you  want  is  a 
handsaw,  say  about  fourteen  or  six- 
teen inches  long.  You  can  use  this 
both  for  sawing  the  long  way  of  the 
grain  and  across.  You  must  work 
the  saw  backwards  and  forwards 
regularly,  not  rocking  it  from  side 
to  side,  or  you  will  cut  unevenly; 
and  not  jerking  it  out  and  in, 
or  you  will  blunt  the  saw,  and  tire 
yourself.  Before  beginning  to  saw, 
make  a  pencil  line  on  the  wood  where 
you  want  to  cut  it,  and  make  the  saw 
follow  the  line  very  carefully. 

A  hammer  is  a  tool  you  cannot 
possibly  do  without.  Its  chief  use  is 
for  driving  and  pulling  nails. 

A  chisel  is 
used  to  cut 
the  wood 
where  a 
hatchet  or  a 
saw  would 
not  be  suit- 
able. We 
use  a  chisel, 
for  instance, 
to  cut  away 
the  wood  to 
make    room 

for      a       lock  using  the  hatchet 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


325 


on  a  door,  and  sometimes  before 

putting  on  hinges. 

A    gimlet    is    used    to    make 

holes  chiefly  when  screws  are  to 

be  put  in.     For  ordinary  driving 

nails  it  is  not  necessary  to  make 

holes  with  the  gimlet  unless     / 

the    wood   is  very  hard  and  /^ 

liable  to  slit. 

The  screwdriver  is  for  put 

ting  in  screws. 
It  is  pressed 

against  the 

head  of  the 

screw-nail 

with  its  point 

in  the  slot 

of    the 

head,   and 

i  s    turned 

round  at 

the  same 

time. 
If   you 

look  at  an 

ordinary 

wooden 

fence   and 

then   at  a 

door  in  a 

house   you  will  notice  a  great 

difference  in  the  surface  of  the 

wood.     The  fence  will  probably 
be   rough,   or   almost 
hairy.    The  reason  is 
that  the  door 
has  been  planed 
and  the    fence 


The  square 


Using  the  square 


Straightening  a 
bent  nail 


The  Screwdriver 


The  grimlef 


has  not.      All  wood  to 

which  we  want  to  give 

a  smooth  surface  must 

be   planed.     Another 

reason    for 

planing  is  that 

if  we   paint 

wood  that  has 

not    been 

planed  we  use 

Using  a  gimlet         much    morc 


Using  a  screw- 


driver 


paint  than  we  should  use  if  the 
wood  had  been  planed.  In  using 
the  plane,  push  it  forward  on  the 
wood  steadily,  and  press  upon  it 
evenly  all  the  time.  The  plane 
iron  and  the  chisel  must  be 
kept  sharp,  and  if  you  can 
afford  to  buy  an  oilstone 
you  should  do  so.  The  stone 
is  called  an  oil  stone  because 
it  is  used  with  a  httle  oil  in 
rubbing  the  edge  of  a  tool 
upon   it. 


The  first 

thing  you 

mi   g  h  t 

make  with 

your   tools 

is  a  box  in 

which  to 

keep  them. 

You  can  no 

doubt  find 

somewhere 

a  n    empty 

soap     or 

sugar  box, 

or  you  may 

probably 

buy    one 

from  the  grocer  for  a  few  cents. 

//r-^s'      Having  the  box,  take  the  sides 

l0lr     apart  by  pulling   out  the  nails. 

"^         Now  measure  off  two  pieces 

eighteen  inches  long 

and  six    inches 

wide.  These  are 

for  the  two  sides 

of  the  tool  box.   Then 

measure  off  two  other 

pieces  six  inches 

by   seven   inches 

to  make  the  ends. 

Cut  out  these 

pieces ,  plane 

them   until  they 

are    smooth 

enough,  and  nail 

them  together  so 


chisel 


The  plane 


Using  the  plane 


326 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


that  they  look  like  the 
top  picture,  with  the 
end  pieces  fitted  inside 
the  sides. 

The  total  length  when 
nailed  up  is  eighteen 
inches,   and   the    width 
will  now  be 
more    than 
seven  inches 
— it  will  be 
eight  inches 
if  the  wood 
of  the  sides 
is   half   an 
inch  thick.   Now  nail 
on  pieces  of  wood  to 
make  the  bottom, 
having  cut  them  out 
as  you  did  the  sides. 

To  make  the  lid, 
take  one  or  more 
pieces  of  wood  mak- 
ing the  same  width 
altogether  as  the  bottom. 


The  ends  and  sides  of  the  box 


Box  end,  and  posi- 
tion    of     bottom 


ti 


The  lid  of  the  box 


The  completed  toolbox 


them,  as  in  the  drawing, 
two  pieces  that  do  not 
go   quite   to   the    edge. 
The   lid  is   now   made. 
You  can  use  it  as  a  lift- 
off lid  or  you  can  put 
it  on  with  hinges,  which 
you     can 
buy.     Fix 
these    on 
with  screws, 
screwing 
them  to  the 
edge  of  the 
lid     first. 
Then      chisel   away 
a  little  of  the  wood 
from    the    back   of 
the    box    so    as     to 
make   room   for    the 
hinges.     You    can 
put   a    lock    on    it  if 
you    like,   and  fit  in- 
side a    tray    to    hold 


The  position 
of    a     hinge 


Nail  across      nails  and  other  small  things. 


MAKING    A    SET    OF    BOOKSHELVES 


IN  PROCEEDING  with  our  car- 
pentry work,  we  must  not  go 
too  rapidly.  We  shall  do  better 
work  if  we  make  very  simple  things 
at  first.  Another  point  to  keep  in 
mind  is  the  utility  of  the  articles  we 
set  ourselves  to  make.  Here  we  shall 
see  how  to  make  an  exceedingly  useful 
article — a  set  of  hanging  bookshelves — 
which  may  be  attached  to  the  wall. 

Everyone  can  use  an  article  of  this 
kind,  and  everyone  with  ordinary  in- 
telligence and  the  necessary  tools  can 
make  one.  The  sizes  given  in  the 
sketches  are  good  useful  ones,  but  the 
best  sizes  for  the  article  to  be  made 
depend  upon  the  space  available  for  its 
accommodation.  Thus  everyone  who 
makes  the  bookshelves  from  these 
sketches  must  first  decide  if  these  sizes 


are  the  best  in  his  individual  case,  and 
if  they  are  not  he  must  modify  the  sizes 
given  to  suit  his  own  case. 
Kind  of  wood  to  use 

We  have  first  to  decide  what  kind 
of  wood  we  shall  use.  We  could  use 
oak,  beech  or  birch — perhaps  oak 
looks  better  than  the  other  two  for 
the  purpose — ^but  all  these  are  hard 
woods,  and  it  will  be  much  easier  for 
us  to  use  a  soft  wood,  such  as  pine. 
Hard  woods  are  much  more  difficult 
to  work.  We  can  use  soft  wood,  and 
after  the  shelves  are  made  we  can  stain 
them  to  imitate  any  of  the  harder  and 
more  expensive  woods. 
Size  of  shelves 

In  picture  1  we  show  one  side  of  our 
hanging  bookshelves  with  all  the  sizes 
marked.     We  first  cut  out  two  pieces 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


327 


CJ/iC 


i 7- 


2^4 


I 


I 


un   [zs 


20^ 


3^0 


of  the  wood  we  are  using — pine,  for 
instance — to  this  shape.     They  must 
be  fairly  strong,  and  we  should  make 
the  m    s  o 
that  the 
finished 
thickness 
shall  be  not 
less  than 
one  inch , 
so  we  had 
better    use 
wood    lyi 
inch    thick 
and  reduce 
it  to   one 
inch     by 
planing  it. 
The   holes 
in  the  sides 
we     can 
make  with 
our   chisel, 
and     we 
must    be 
particular- 
ly careful 
that   each 
pair    of 
holes  is  ex- 
actly  in  the  same  horizontal 
that  the  shelves  may  be 
We  must  also  see  that 
the  two  sides  are  ex- 
actly  alike.      Having 
cut    the    two   pieces, 
we  must  finish  them 
carefully  with  the 
plane  so  as   to  have 
them  true  and  smooth, 
afterwards  rubbing 
them  well  with  sand- 
paper. Use  No.  1  sand- 
paper   first,    rubbing 
the  surface  and  edges 
carefully   until   they 
are  as  smooth  as  the 


give  them  the  final  touches.  It  is  more 
important  to  have  the  sides  smooth 
than  it  is  to  have  the  shelves  smooth, 

because 


D 


Z5 


...  7- 


1.  Plan  of  sides 


V 

2 


D 


D 


the  former 
are  more 
exposed  to 
view. 

We  shall 
now  make 
the  three 
shelves 
alike,  and 
thereby 
simplify 
matters . 
Picture  2 
shows  the 
shape  and 
the  sizes  to 
which  we 
s  h  o  u  1  d 
make 
them.  The 
thickness 
of  these 
pieces 
when 
fin  i  s h  e  d 
should  not 
be  less  than  M  inch  and  preferably  "H 
inch,  so  that  the  wood,  when  we  be- 
gin, should  be  at  least 
1  inch.  Having  made 
the  shelves,  we  fit 
them  into  the  sides 
so  that  the  ends  go 
through  the  holes  we 
made.  We  shall  then 
want  twelve  taper 
pins,  or  dowels,  for  the 
holes  in  the  ends  of  the 
shelves  to  hold  them 
in  position.  Now  nail 
on  two  back  pieces, 
as  shown  in  picture 
three,  and  the  shelves 
sand-paper  can  make  them,  and  then  are  complete,  except  the  mirror  plates, 
we  use  No.  0  sand-paper,  which  will      as  shown  in  picture  five. 


Plan  of  shelves 


line,  so 
quite   flat. 


5.  The  completed  bookshelves 


328 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


JOINTS    AND    MORTISES 

The  simplest  forms  of  joints  are  not      tenons  go  right  through  the  uprights. 


too  difficult  for  the  amateur  to  make, 
which  is  fortunate,  since  one  cannot 
go  far  in  wood  work  without  using 
them. 

The  Dovetail  Nailing,  or  sloping 
the  nails  (Fig.  13A).  This  method 
is  necessary  only  when  the  nails  are 
driven  into  the  end  grain  of  the  wood, 
as  in  fixing  the  sides  of  the  box  to  the 
ends,  in  which  case  the  fiber  of  the 
wood  does  not  grip  the  nail.  Figure 
13B  explains  the  hold  which  a  nail  has 
when  it  enters  the  wood  at  right 
angles  to  the  grain. 


or  "stiles,"  of  the  door,  and  are  wedged 
on  the  outside  edge  (Fig.  15,  a).     This 


Fig.   13. — (a)    Dovetail  nailing;   (b)    nail  lorclng  wood 
fibers  apart;   (c)  skew  nailing;   (d)  housing. 

Housing  (Fig.  13)  is  the  name 
given  to  the  joint  when  a  groove  of 
sufficient  size  is  made  in  one  piece  of 
wood  to  admit  the  end  of  the  other 
piece.  Bookshelves  are  fixed  in  this 
way.  Such  joints  may  also  be  nailed 
through  the  ends  but  this  should  not 
be  necessary  if  the  shelf  fits  closely 
into  the  groove  and  there  is  a  back  to 
hold  the  piece  of  furniture  rigid. 

Mortise  and  Tenon  Joints  are 
used  in  the  making  of  doors,  tables, 
and  various  kinds  of  woodwork.  They 
are  applied  to  the  finest  as  well  as  to 
the  heaviest  kinds  of  construction,  and 
vary  in  shape  according  to  the  work 
they  have  to  do.  The  mortise  is  the 
hole,  and  the  tenon  is  the  piece  driven 
into  it,  the  word  tenon  meaning  "that 
which  holds."     In  house  doors  these 


Fig.  15. — Mortise  and  Tenoi  Joints 

"through"  tenon  is  only  necessary 
in  large  work,  where  extra  strength  is 
required.  In  this  tenon  the  wedge 
should  not  be  driven  right  in,  the  final 
position  shown  in  Fig.  15,  a,  being 
about  correct.  "VMien  cutting  mor- 
tises in  stiles  near  the  ends,  always 
leave  a  waste  piece  on  for  strength  in 
working,  as  in  the  case  of  the  frame 
(Fig.  15,  d).  In  Fig.  15,  b  is  seen  a 
"stopped"  tenon,  the  joint  generally 
adopted  by  cabinet-makers  where  any 
great  strain  or  strength  is  not  required, 
while  the  tenon  itself  is  shown  in  Fig. 
15,  c,  with  a  piece  left  on  at  B,  which  is 
called  the  "haunch."  This  haunch 
serves  two  purposes.  It  fills  in  the 
space  made  by  the  groove  when  the 
door  is  paneled  as  in  an  ordinary 
house  door;  and  it  gives  rigidity  and 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


329 


strength  to  a  rail,  as  in  the  frame  of  a 
table.  The  tenon  and  haunch  is 
shown  in  Fig.  15,  h,  as  it  would  be  in  a 
table,  the  haunch  in  this  case  being 
sloped.  A  tenon  should  occupy,  later- 
ally, about  one-third  the  thickness  of 
the  wood.  In  cutting  down  the  tenon 
be  careful  to  keep  the  saw  outside  the 
lines. 

Fig.  15,  d,  is  an  illustration  of  a 
door  frame  suitable  for  a  cabinet  or 
cupboard.  It  is  made  with  a  stopped 
tenon,  and  shows  the  haunch,  which 
would  only  be  used  if  the  panel  is  be  to 
grooved  in.  The  "face"  marks  all 
finish  off  on  the  outside  edges — a  rule 
that  should  always  be  followed — and 
it  will  be  noted  that  the  uprights  or 
stiles  are  longer  than  the  actual 
length  of  the  door  for  the  reason  given 
above,  and  are  left  on  until  the  door 
has  been  glued  up  and  dried,  and  is 
ready  to  be  fitted  intb  its  frame.  A 
tenon  will  enter  the  mortise  easier 
if  the  end  corners  are  cut  off,  as  a  sharp 
square  edge  is  likely  to  catch  on  the 
uneven  sides  of  the  mortise. 

Fig.  15,  e,  shows  a  form  of  tenon 
which  goes  right  through  the  wood 
and  protrudes  sufficiently  to  allow  a 
wedge  to  be  driven  into  a  hole  in  the 
projecting  part.  This  is  generally 
used  in  heavy  work  and  church  furni- 
ture, but  is  also  a  great  advantage  in 
such  a  thing  as  a  standing  bookshelf, 
as  it  allows  for  easy  separation  of 
parts  if  occasion  requires.  It  is  not 
glued,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  further 
in  the  wedge  is  driven  the  tighter  does 
the  joint  become.  At  the  same  time 
there  is  the  danger  of  forcing  out  the 
extension  piece  if  the  wedge  is  driven 
in  too  far. 

The  through  tenon  shown  in  Fig.  15, 
/,  is  used  when  divisions  in  bookcases, 
cabinets,  and  showcases,  etc.,  are 
fixed  into  the  tops  and  bottoms. 

Both  sides  of  the  boards  should  be 
marked    for    the    mortises,    and    the 


cutting  out  will  be  made  easier  if  a 
hole  is  bored  right  through  first;  then 
cut  halfway  through  with  a  chisel, 
and  turn  the  board  over  to  finish  from 
the  other  side.  On  no  account  should 
the  mortise  be  cut  through  from  one 
side  only,  as  there  is  a  danger  of 
breaking  the  wood  away  at  the  back. 
Neither  should  the  tenons  fit  too 
tightly  across  the  width  for  fear  of 
splitting  the  board. 
Mitre  joints 

The  true  mitre  joint  is  made  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  as  in  picture-frames.  In 
the  first  place,  the  mitre  is  sawed  in  a 
mitre  box  and  the  "return"  or  corre- 
sponding mitre  should  follow  the  pre- 
ceding one,  as  1,  1,  and  2,  2,  in  Fig. 
19,  a,  to  ensure  a  correct  intersection. 


(d) 

1 

1 

Fig.  19. — (a-f)  Mitre  joints:  (g-h)  clamping 

It  is  a  fatal  mistake  to  cut  the  molding 
into  lengths  first. 

If  the  angle  is  not  a  true  one,  the 
frame  will  not  be  square.     It  is  quite 


330 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


possible  to  cut  a  true  mitre  at  once 
with  a  fine  saw.  Frame-makers  use 
a  hand-machine  for  the  joint,  but  an 
amateur  is  not  hkely  to  include  this 
in  his  outfit.  The  makers  also  use  a 
vice  to  hold  the  joints  while  they  are 
being  nailed,  but  the  worker  at  home 
must  rely  on  simpler  methods. 

Another  way  of  keying  mitres  in 
thin  work,  such  as  a  tray,  is  to  build 
up  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  tray  on  a 


square  piece  of  wood  with  dimensions 
equal  to  the  inside  measurements  of 
the  tray-to-be.  The  pieces  are  held  in 
position  by  pins  or  a  little  glue.  If  a 
piece  of  paper  is  put  between  the  back 
pieces  and  the  wood,  and  the  three 
are  glued  together,  they  can  be 
separated  subsequently  by  inserting 
the  blade  of  a  thin  knife  between  wood 
and  wood.  The  slightest  touch  of 
glue  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 


STAINING    AND    POLISHING    WOOD 


WOODWORK  is  stained  to 
improve  its  natural  color. 
The  difference  between  stain 
and  paint  is  that  stain  sinks  into  the 
fibers  of  the  wood,  and  dyes  them,  but 
leaves  the  grain  of  the  wood  showing  as 
plainly  as  before.  Paint  forms  an 
opaque  coat  on  the  surface  which 
quite  conceals  the  material  beneath. 
Generally  stain  is  used  to  make  a 
cheap  wood  look  like  an  expen- 
sive one.  The  colors  used  are  chiefly 
imitations  of  walnut,  mahogany,  and 
rosewood.  These  stains  are  used  on 
lighter  colored  common  woods,  such 
as  pine,  and  only  for  good  appearance 
and  not  to  deceive  people,  for  anyone 
with  a  little  experience  can  tell  what 
the  wood  really  is. 
Different  colors  in  stains 

Sometimes,  though  not  often,  colors 
quite  different  from  that  of  any  wood, 
such  as  green,  blue,  or  red,  are  used  as 
stains.  Very  often  fancy  woods  are 
darkened  and  improved  in  appearance 
by  stains  of  the  same  color  as  them- 
selves. Stain  is  used  also  to  darken 
lighter  parts  of  the  wood  to  the  same 
shade  as  the  rest.  Wood  may  be 
darkened  in  colors  slightly  by  rubbing 
oil  into  it.  Oak  and  mahogany  can 
be  darkened  by  ammonia.  The  usual 
way  to  do  this  is  not  to  wet  the  wood 
with  it,  but  to  shut  it  up  in  a  case  or 
small    room    with    saucers    of    liquid 


ammonia.  The  fumes  of  the  ammonia 
darken  the  wood  in  a  few  hours.  In 
all  cases  stained  wood  must  be  darker 
than  the  natural  color,  for  a  dark 
surface  will  show  through  a  lighter 
stain. 

Stains  for  wood  are  sold  ready  for 
use  in  small  bottles.  They  may  be  put 
on  with  a  brush,  or  rubbed  in  with  a 
rag.  The  neater  way  is  to  use  a  brush. 
Generally  two  coats  are  given.  The 
best  result  can  be  obtained  by  using 
weak  stain  and  applying  a  number 
of  coats,  allowing  each  to  dry  before 
putting  on  the  next.  The  surface 
must  be  smoothed  with  sand-paper 
before  the  first  coat  and  after  each 
coat  has  thoroughly  dried.  Other- 
wise it  will  feel  and  look  rough,  for 
anything  which  wets  the  wood  causes 
its  surface  to  roughen  as  it  dries. 
Varnish  stains  are  often  used  instead 
of  simple  stain.  These  are  varnish 
and  stain  combined  and  are  not  so 
good. 
Effect  of  varnish 

Varnish  does  not  conceal  the  char- 
acter of  the  wood  beneath  it,  for  it  is 
almost  transparent  unless  something 
is  added  to  color  it.  It  simply  pro- 
duces, when  dry,  a  hard,  glossy  film 
on  the  surface,  which  protects  the 
wood  from  dampness  and  dirto  Quick- 
drying  varnish  consists  of  shellac 
dissolved  in  methylated  spirit.     The 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


331 


spirit  evaporates  and  leaves  a  thin 
layer  of  shellac  on  the  wood.  Shellac 
varnish  is  used  only  for  indoor  work. 
In  making  varnish  for  work  exposed  to 
the  weather  it  is  necessary  to  use  lin- 
seed oil  instead  of  spirit,  and  copal, 
or  mastic  in  place  of  shellac.  Varnish 
may  be  used  either  on  the  bare  wood 
or  on  paint. 

Varnish  is  applied  with  a  brush. 
Two  or  three  coats  are  put  on,  each 
being  allowed  to  dry  and  then 
smoothed  with  fine  sand-paper  before 
applying  the  next.  For  large  surfaces 
a  large  brush  should  be  used,  so  that 


1.     How  to  varnish  wood 

the  varnish  can  be  spread  quickly. 
For  small  work  a  small  brush  is  better. 
The  varnish  should  be  put  on  uni- 
formly, so  that  some  parts  shall  not 
be  more  thickly  coated  than  others. 
Varnish  should  not  be  allowed  to  run 
over  edges  or  corners  of  the  article 
being  varnished,  and  the  brush  should 
be  used  so  that  it  does  not  leave  marks 
of  its  own  all  over  the  work.  The  best 
way  is  to  take  one  surface  at  a  time 
and  cover  it  with  varnish  as  quickly 
as  possible — that  is,  if  ordinary  shellac 
varnish,  which  dries  quickly,  is  being 
used.  The  brush  should  be  held  as 
shown  in  picture  1,  and  should  move 
in  line  with  the  grain  of  the  wood.     If 


it  is  used  across  the  grain,  marks  of 
the  brush  will  show  more  distinctly. 
To  prevent  varnish  from  getting 
squeezed  out  of  the  brush  and  running 
over  the  edges  of  the  wood,  the  brush 
should  always  move  outwards  to  the 
edges,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in 
picture  1.  In  approaching  the  ends 
of  the  wood  it  goes  directly  to  the 
edges,  but  in  passing  along  the  sides 
its  direction  is  only  very  slightly 
diagonal  towards  the  edges  there,  so 
that  the  movement  shall  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  line  with  the  grain. 
Spirit  varnish  dries  quickly,  but  to 
obtain  the  best  results  each  coat  should 
be  allowed  several  hours  to  harden 
before  sand-papering  it  down  for  the 
next.  After  the  first  coat,  old  sand- 
paper worn  smooth  should  be  used, 
and  the  work  is  not  rubbed  down  at 
all  after  the  final  coat.  Sand-paper 
should  always  be  rubbed  in  line  with 
the  grain  of  the  wood.  If  rubbed 
across,  it  scratches  the  surface  too 
much. 
Polishing  and  varnishing 

The  difference  between  polishing 
and  varnishing  is  chiefly  in  the  method 
of  application,  for  shellac  varnish  and 
polish  are  practically  the  same  thing. 

The  distinction  between  varnishing 
and  polishing  is  that  varnishing  is 
done  with  a  brush,  and  polishing  with 
a  rag.  Polishing  requires  more  skill 
and  time,  but  it  gives  a  smoother  and 
glossier  surface  than  varnishing.  It 
is  important  in  polishing  that  the  pores 
of  the  wood  shall  first  be  thoroughly 
filled,  so  that  the  polish  cannot  sink  in 
and  lose  its  luster.  A  number  of 
applications  of  polish  with  long  inter- 
vals for  drying  will  do  this,  but  it  is 
quicker  and  cheaper  to  fill  the  pores 
with  some  other  substance  before 
beginning  to  polish.  The  filler  is 
generally  whiting  or  plaster  of  Paris 
dissolved  in  water,  turpentine,  or  oil, 
and  colored  to  match  the  wood.     It  is 


332 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


rubbed  in  and  allowed  to  dry,  and  then 
the  surface  is  sand-papered  smoothly. 
The  wood  is  now  ready  to  receive  the 
first  application  of  polish. 

The  rag  used  in  polishing  is  called 
a  rubber.  It  should  be  a  piece  of  soft 
white  linen.  This  is  used  as  an  outer 
covering  to  a  pad  of  cot  ton- wool. 

The  cotton  wool  is  moistened  with 
polish,  and  the  single  thickness  of  rag 
encloses  it  and  is  drawn  up  like  a 
pudding-cloth  at  the  top  and  grasped 
by  the  hand  while  it  is  used.  The 
pressure  on  the  rubber  should  not  be 
heavy,  and  a  few  drops  of  linseed  oil 
are  put  on  the  rag  to  make  it  move 
about  freely  without  tendency  to 
stick.  The  polish  is  put  on  the  cotton- 
wool only,  and  gets  squeezed  through 
the  rag  in  rubbing.  The  method  of 
rubbing  depends  to  some  extent  on  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  work.  First,  it 
is  necessary  to  cover  the  surface  of 
the  wood  with  polish  as  quickly  as 
possible.  This  is  done  by  moving  the 
rubber  in  large  sweeps  either  with  or 
across  the  grain  or  both.  The  direc- 
tion is  not  important  as  long  as  the 
polish  is  rubbed  uniformly  all  over  the 
surface.  On  a  large  flat  surface,  as 
in  picture  2,  the  rubber  may  be  moved 
in  curves  or  spirals,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines.  These  are  only  drawn 
as  lines,  but  the  broad  surface  of  the 
rubber  would,  in  following  them, 
polish  the  entire  area  of  the  wood. 
For  getting  into  the  corners  of  panels 
and  similar  parts  the  rubber  must  be 
squeezed  into  a  pointed  form  which 
will    reach    those    parts.     After    the 


polish  has  been  applied  in  this  manner, 
the  work  must  be  laid  aside  for  at  least 
a  day.  Then  a  second  application 
is  given  in  the  same  way  as  the  first. 


2.     Polishing  a  large  surface 

In  the  best  work  this  process  is  re- 
peated a  third  time  or  even  a  fourth, 
and  long  periods  are  allowed  between 
each  to  allow  the  polish  to  sink  in  as 
much  as  it  will.  In  sinking  in,  and 
hardening,  it  loses  some  of  its  gloss, 
and  as  long  as  this  occurs  the  work  can 
be  improved  by  fresh  applications  of 
polish.  This  is  called  bodying  in. 
The  final  process  in  polishing  is  called 
spiriting  off.  In  spiriting  off,  the 
rubber  is  moistened  with  methylated 
spirit  instead  of  polish,  and  is  rubbed 
lightly  over  the  surface  to  remove 
smears  caused  by  the  rubber  in  body- 
ing in,  and  also  to  take  up  the  oil, 
which,  when  present,  gives  the  surface 
a  dull,  greasy  appearance.  The  last 
movements  of  the  rubber  should  follow 
the  grain  of  the  wood — that  is,  the 
rubber  should  move  in  straight  lines 
with  the  grain. 


THINGS  A  BOY  CAN  MAKE  FOR  A  BAZAR 


Here  are  other  things  that  boys  can  make 
for  a  bazar: 

Toasting-forks  made  of  wire.  The  wire  can 
be  bought  at  any  ironmonger's,  and  should  not 
be  too  thick;  it  can  be  twisted  double  or  treble 
to  give  sufBcient  stiffness  to  the  handle. 

A  set  of  furniture  for  a  doll's  house — -chairs 
and  tables — made  from  firewood,  the  pieces 
being  joined  together  with  glue. 


A  boot-brush  box  with  a  hinged  lid  can  be 
made  from  an  old  egg-box. 

A  flower-pot  case  made  of  wood  and  covered 
outside  with  cork  bark,  or  enameled  in  some 
dainty  color. 

Pictiu-e-frames  of  different  sizes  and  shapes. 

Clock-cases,  handkerchief-boxes,  letter-racks, 
wall-brackets,  and  other  articles  made  from 
cigar-boxes  by  fretwork. 


THINGS        FOR        GIRLS        TO        DO 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  GIRL'S  WORKBOX 


HAVE  you  ever  thought  of  the 
joy  it  brings  to  have  a  real 
workbox  of  your  own?  Let 
us  try  to  learn  to  make  a  box  like  the 
one  in  the  picture. 


The  pattern  of  the  girl's  woikbox 

Take  a  piece  of  cardboard  thick 
enough  to  make  a  firm  foundation, 
and  on  this  draw  a  pattern  similar  to 
the  above,  enlarged  to  the  size  desired 
for  your  box.  Cut  the  cardboard  all 
round  the  outlines  of  the  diagram. 
Bend  the  four  pieces  which  are  intended 
to  form  the  four  sides.  Do  this  w^hile 
following  the  lines  carefully,  so  that 
the  bottom  of  the  box  will  be  quite 
even.  Straighten  the  cardboard 
again,  and  cut  two  pieces  of  cretonne, 
each  one  covering  entirely  the  piece  of 
cardboard  which  includes  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  workbox.  Cut  the 
material  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
larger  all  round  than  the  cardboard, 
to  allow  for  turning  in  the  edges, 
which  otherwise  would  fray  and  look 
untidy;  then  glue  (or  overcast)  the 
cretonne  on  the  cardboard,  back  and 
front.  When  this  is  done,  let  it  dry 
for  one  day. 

Then  bend  your  covered  cardboard 
as  you  did  before.  Join  the  corners 
A  together  by  sewing  the  cretonne  on 
the    two    sides    with    over-and-over 


stitches,  using  a  needle  with  strong 
thread  to  secure  the  corners,  top  and 
bottom,  very  firmly.  The  same  thing 
must  be  repeated  in  the  corners 
marked  B,  C,  D. 

The  workbox  now  stands,  is  covered 
and  lined.  Some  cord  sewn  round  the 
foot  of  the  box  will  make  a  neat  finish 
and  slightly  raise  the  box.  Now  the 
cover  must  be  made.  Cut  a  piece 
of  cardboard  to  fit  exactly  the  top  of 
your  workbox;  then,  before  putting 
on  the  cretonne  as  you  have  done  on 
the  other  part,  put  a  layer  of  cotton  to 
form  padding,  and  cover  it  over  wath 
the  material.  Do  this  on  both  sides 
of  the  cardboard,  taking  great  care 
to  turn  the  edges  in,  as  described  for 
the  other  part  of  the  box,  before 
gluing  the  cretonne  down.  A  strip 
of  material  is  fixed  on  the  inside  of  the 
lid,  and  sewn  at  regular  intervals,  to 
receive  a  thimble,  a  pair  of  scissors, 
crochet  needle,  and  other  things.  The 
cover  is  then  put  on  the  box  part  by 
slipping  two  small  pieces  of  cretonne 
under  both  cover  and  back  of  box,  one 
on  each  side,  to  form  hinges.  These 
are  then  sewn  very  firmly,  so  that  the 
lid  can  be  ooened  and  closed. 


v.^^^K^»V  :.. 


The  workbox  lined  and  ready  for  use 


333 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


HOW    TO    USE    THE     NEEDLE 


NOW  that  we  can  make  a  work- 
box  of  our  own — we  must 
find  out  how  to  use  it.  We 
are  going  to  dress  a  doll.  We  shall 
cut  out  the  clothes  and  make  them  as 
our  own  clothes  are  made.  First  we 
shall  make  the  little  underclothes, 
one  by  one,  and  then  the  frock.  But 
before  we  can  do  anything  at  all  we 
must  know  how  the  different  stitches 
holding  the  pieces  together  are  made. 

We  all  think  that  it  is  the  easiest 
thing  in  the  world  to  thread  a  needle, 
but  the  right  way  to  do  it  is  to  thread 
it  by  the  end  just  cut  off  the  spool, 
making  a  tiny  knot  at  the  other  end. 
If  the  cotton  is  put  through  the  needle 
at  the  opposite  end  all  the  gloss  goes 
out,  knots,  and  breaks  off  very 
easily.  Always  choose  a  needle  that 
is  just  a  little  thicker  than  the  thread. 
This  will  open  the  material  enough 
for  the  thread  to  come  through  with- 
out any  unnecessary  tugging. 

The  left  hand  holds  the  piece  of 
material  between  the  thumb  and 
first  finger,  letting  it  fall  loosely  over 
the  back  of  the  hand,  the  little  finger 
just  holding  it  in  place.  The  right 
hand  holds  the  needle  and  pushes  it 
in  and  out  of  the  material,  a  thimble 
on  the  third  finger  helping  to  push  the 
needle  through.  The  width  of  the 
first  fold  of  a  hem  should  be  about 
one-third  the  width  of  the  hem 
required,  but  in  very  narrow  hems 
the  first  fold  is  the  same  width  as  the 
second.  If,  however,  you  intend  to 
sew  very  fine  material,  such  as  muslin, 
the  fold  must  be  the  same  size  as  the 
hem,  otherwise  the  rough  edge  will 
show  through. 

When  you  have  decided  what  the 
size  of  the  hem  should  be,  turn  the 
double  fold  and  press  it  down  firmly 
with  your  nail,  then  tack  it,  with  long, 
even  stitches.  This  will  save  time, 
for  the  hem  will  keep  pressed  down  in 


position,  and  it  will  help  to  get  the 
work  straight  and  even.  The  needle 
is  then  put  in  the  material,  as  you  can 
plainly  see  in  the  picture  (2),  the 
stitches  being  done  from  right  to  left 
in  a  slanting  position. 


These  sketches  show  you  how  to  make  the  different  kinds 
of  stitches.  2  is  a  hemming  stitch,  3  running,  4  running 
and  felling,  and  5  a  French  seam. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of 
stitches,  but  for  our  present  purpose 
it  is  only  necessary  to  know  a  few  of 
them.  The  running  stitch  (3),  is 
one  of  the  most  useful  to  learn,  for  it 
is  with  this  stitch  that  seams  are 
made  and  materials  gathered. 

If  you  are  anxious  to  learn  how  to  do 
really  beautiful  sewing,  try  first  on 
fine  canvas,  or  on  any  other  very 
coarse  material,  where  the  threads 
can  be  easily  sewn,  taking  two  threads 
on  the  needle  and  going  over  two. 
You  will  be  surprised  to  find  how 
easily  the  hand  and  eyes  will  be  trained 
to  work  evenly  and  regularly,  imtil 
you  can  work  quite  pretty  little 
stitches  on  any  material  without 
counting  the  threads,  which  is  always 
a  slow  and  tedious  method  of  working. 

When  you  can  do  the  hemming  and 
running  stitches  quite  evenly,  you 
have  mastered  the  most  difficult  part 
of  sewing,  for  all  the  other  stitches 
are  more  or  less  made  from  these  two. 

If  you  look  at  picture  4,  for  eicample, 
you  will  see  a  little  pattern  of  running 
and  felling,  which  always  looks  full 
of  difficulties  to  little  girls,  although 
it   is   simply   running   and   hemming. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


335 


Two  pieces  of  material  are  put  close 
together,  the  back  piece  slightly  over- 
lapping at  the  top  to  allow  for  the  fold- 
ing over  of  the  raw  edge,  and  joined 
together,  on  the  wrong  side,  by  running 
stitches.  The  material  is  then  opened 
under  the  seam,  laid  flat,  and  the  two 
edges  folded  over  like  an  ordinary 
hem. 

A  glance  at  the  picture  will  show 
the  work  far  better  than  it  can  be 
explained. 

The  easiest  way  for  little  girls  to  do 
running  and  felling  is  by  French 
seams.  It  will  probably  be  the  most 
popular  way  of  doing  the  seams  in 
dolly's  underclothes.  If  you  look  at 
the  picture  (o)  you  will  see  that  this 
kind  of  seam  is  simply  a  double  row  of 
running  stitches.  The  first  row  is 
done  in  the  ordinary  way,  then  the 
raw  edges  are  cut  as  short  as  possible, 
and  the  seam  turned  inside  out,  a 
second  row  of  stitching  giving  perfect 
neatness  in  the  finished  work.  Re- 
member, however,  when  doing  these 
seams  that  the  first  row  of  running, 
instead  of  being  done  on  the  wrong 
side,  as  for  running  and  felling,  is 
always  done  on  the  right  side,  the  second 
row  putting  the  first  one  out  of  sight. 

Gathering  is  done  with  exactly  the 
same  stitches  as  running,  only  it  must 
be  done  with  strong  thread  so  that  it 
will  not  break.  The  thread  is  pulled 
to  gather  the  fullness.  No  knots  or 
joins  must  be  allowed  in  the  thread, 
or  it  will  not  come  through  the 
material   to   form   gathers.     Measure 


the  piece  of  material  you  want  to 
gather,  and  take  a  long  enough  piece 
of  thread  to  leave  two  or  three  inches 
to  take  hold  of  w  hen  you  w^ant  to  draw 
it.  It  is  always  better  to  do  two  or 
three  rows  of  gathers  in  case  one  should 
break,  besides  giving  more  evenness 
and  regularity  to  the  gathers. 

If  the  gathers  are  done  on  fine 
material  for  underclothes  w'hen  the 
thread  has  been  drawn,  a  coarse 
needle  should  be  used  to  stroke  down 
the  material  between  each  gather. 

Biittonliole  stitches  come  next,  and 
these  are  by  no  means  too   difficult 


6.     Buttonhole  stitches 


to  be  attempted.  They  are  really 
quite  easy  when  you  know  the  way. 
Try  first  on  a  piece  of  canvas  or  coarse 
flannel,  and  make  even  and  regular 
stitches  quite  close  to  each  other. 
The  picture  (6)  shows  just  how  the 
stitches  are  made.  Let  the  thread 
go  under  the  point  of  the  needle  and 
pull  the  needle  down  gently,  letting 
the  thread  cross  over  itself  where  the 
needle  came  out.  If  you  follow  these 
directions,  and  look  at  the  picture,  you 
will  find  the  stitch  so  easy  that  you 
will  really  be  surprised. 


THE    DOLL'S    FIRST 

WE  HAVE  learned  how  to  do 
the  different  stitches  that 
are  needed,  so  now  we  should 
be  able  to  undertake  the  fine  stitching 
for  the  garments  that  we  are  going  to 
make. 

We  will  start  with  the  little  chemise. 


LITTLE    GARMENT 

If  you  look  at  the  picture  (1)  you  will 
see  that  the  pattern  is  quite  simple, 
and  very  easy  to  cut  out  if  you  read 
this  article  carefully. 

Drav/  the  pattern  to  fit  the  size  of 
your  doll  on  a  piece  of  paper,  and 
mark  it  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  like  the 


336 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


sketch.  Nearlj^  all  patterns  are  cut 
out  in  halves — that  means  that  nearly 
all  garments  have,  of  course,  two  sides, 
or  two  parts,  which  are  exactly  alike, 
and  it  is  far  easier  to  get  these  exact  if 
we  double  the  material,  lay  the  pattern 
on  it,  and  cut  them  both  at  once.  This 
is  why  we  always,  or  nearly  always, 
speak  of  a  pattern  as  being  half  the 
back  or  half  the  front,  and  so  on. 
Take  a  piece  of  fine  muslin,  or,  better 
still,  nainsook,  twice  the  length  and 
twice  the  width  that  you  want  the 
little  g  a  r- 
ment  to  be, 
allowing 
enough  over 
for  seams 
and  he  m . 
Now  fold 
the  material 
in  half,  and 
then  fold  it 
in  half  again. 
When  you 
have  done 
this  the 
shape  of  the 
material 
should  be  as 
it  ivas  before, 
only  smaller. 
Before 
going  f  a  r  - 
ther  be  sure 
that  the  two 
single  folds 
of  the  mater- 
ial are  at  the 
top,  and  the  double  fold  at  the 
side.  If  this  is  not  quite  clear  to  you, 
look  at  picture  2  which  shows  the  ma- 
terial folded.  Lay  this  down  on  the 
table  in  the  position  shown  in  the 
picture,  and  lay  the  pattern  on  it. 
Pin  the  pattern  to  the  material  before 
it  can  slip  out  of  place;  then  take  a 
pair  of  scissors  and  cut  all  round  the 
outlines   of   the   pattern,    except   the 


1.  How  to  cut  out  the  pattern 


3.     Buttonhole  scallops 


parts  between  B  and  C  (this  is  the 
shoulders) ,  and  between  A  and  D  (this 
is  the  middle  of  the  chemise,  as  you 
will  see  when  you  open  the  material 
out  after  it  has  been  cut) . 

When  you  are  cutting  remember  to 
leave  half  an  inch  for  the  double  seam 
under  each  arm,  and  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  for  the  hem  at  the  bottom. 

Take  off  the  pattern  and  unfold  the 
material.  The  two  sides  of  the  little 
garment  are  now  shaped  and  held 
together   by   the   uncut   folds   of   the 

shoulder.  If 

■     you  look  at 

your  own 
little  chem- 
ise you  will 
find  that  the 
front  of  the 
neck  is  cut 
lower  than 
the  back. 
Now  turn  to 
the  picture 
(2)  again, 
and  you  will 
see  that 
there  is  a 
dotted  line 
below  the 
one  between 
A  a  n  d  B . 
The  line  be- 
tween A  and 
15  represents 
half  theback 
of  the  neck, 
and  the  dot- 
So  to  get 
scissors  and 
little,   being 


2.  Laying  pattern  on  the  material. 


4.     The  whipping  stitch 


front, 


ted   line  half  the 

the     front,    take    your 

cut   out   the   material   a 

careful  to  slope  out  more  at  the  center 

than   at   the   sides.     Then   slope   out 

each  little  sleeve  (between  C  and  F)  in 

the  same  way. 

Before  starting  the  sewing  we  must 
be  sure  that  our  hands  are  spotlessly 
clean,  for  on  its  neatness  and  cleanli- 


TEE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


337 


ness  depends  the  success  of  our  work. 
To  look  well,  needlework  must  be  kept 
quite  fresh,  or  its  charm  will  be  gone, 
however  neat  the  work  may  be. 

Thread  a  short  needle  and  begin  with 
the  seams  on  each  side,  joining  them 
either  by  running  and  felling  them,  or 
by  a  French  seam. 

The  next  is  the  hem  at  the 
bottom.  Turn  up  the  material  about 
134  inches.  You  will  remember  that 
we  allowed  an  inch  and  a  quarter  when 
we  cut  the  material.  The  quarter 
of  an  inch  is  for  the  first  little  fold,  and 
the  inch  will  be  the  width  of  the  hem. 
Measure  an  inch  and  a  quarter  all 
round,  turn  this  down  and  tack  it  to 
keep  it  in  place.  A  good  way  to  meas- 
ure the  hem  and  to  be  certain  that  it 
is  quite  even  is  to  get  a  piece  of  stiff 
paper — or  a  visiting  card  is  better — 
measure  an  inch  on  it,  snip  it  with 
the  scissors  to  mark  it,  and  use  it  as 
you  would  use  a  tape  measure.  When 
your  hem  is  even  fold  the  rough  edge 
under  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  tack 
it  again,  and  then  hem  it  round  with 
neat  little  stitches. 

If  we  have  been  practicing  all  the 
stitches  which  we  learned,  we  shall  be 
able  to  do  some  small  buttonhole 
scallops  round  the  neck  and  sleeves, 
in  which  case  we  shall  have  the  dain- 
tiest little  ornament  that  one  could 
wish  for.  If  you  look  at  picture  3 
you  will  see  how  the  material  is 
marked  in  scallops  all  round  for  the 
button-hole  stitches  to  be  worked  on. 
The  picture  shows  how  the  stitches 
should  be  narrow  at  the  top  of  each 


scallop,  and  get  wider  in  the  middle. 
If  you  cannot  get  this  quite  even, 
draw  a  faint  line,  like  you  will  see  in 
the  picture,  and  work  over  it. 

But  if  this  is  too  difficult  we  can 
make  a  little  hem  and  sew  on  the  end 
of  it  a  piece  of  pretty  Valenciennes 
lace.  As  the  neck  is  round,  and  not 
straight,  it  will  not  be  very  easy  to 
fold  the  hem  in  the  usual  way;  but  if 
you  will  try  to  roll  the  edges  and  make 
only  a  tiny  hem,  you  will  find  it  will  not 
be  nearly  so  difficult. 


5.    The  finished  garment 

Now  for  the  lace.  This  should  be 
first  gathered  and  pulled  up,  so  that 
it  makes  a  little  frill.  When  the  lace 
is  pulled  up  full  enough — do  not  let 
it  be  too  full — sew  it  on  to  the  edge 
of  the  hem  with  tiny  whipping  stitches. 
In  sewing  the  lace  to  the  chemise,  do 
not  put  the  two  back  to  back  and  then 
sew,  but  draw  them  together  as  you 
would  sew  together  the  two  edges  of  a 
hole  in  a  glove.  This  is  the  only  way 
to  get  the  lace  to  set  quite  flat. 

And  now  your  little  chemise  should 
look  just  like  the  one  shown  in  pic- 
ture 5. 


THE    LITTLE 

THE  next  little  garment  we  will 
make  is  the  flannel  petticoat. 
The  pattern  of  this  is  very 
easy,  as  we  can  see  from  pictures  on 
next  page.  Picture  1  shows  half  the 
pattern.  Cut  your  pattern,  and  lay 
it  on  a  piece  of  soft,  fine  flannel  which 


PETTICOATS 

has  been  folded  in  half,  taking  care 
that  A  B  lies  against  the  fold.  Cut  all 
round,  except  between  A  and  B.  To 
make  the  back  seam,  join  the  two  edges 
as  for  running  and  felling,  but  instead 
of  felling  the  edges,  turn  them  over, 
and  fasten    them   by   herring-boning 


338 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


them  "raw-edged.""  Leave  a  placket- 
hole  at  the  top  and  make  the  edges 
neat  by  two  tiny  hems,  herringboned, 
like  the  seam,  to  keep  them  fiat. 
When  you  liave  gathered  tlie  material, 
regulate  the  gathers,  so  that  the  front 
of  the  petticoat  is  nearly  flat,  and  the 
fullness  is  at  the  back. 


1.  Pattern  of  flannel 
petticoat 


r^y^v-^^ 


2.  Herringbone  stitch 


3    Pattern  of 
bodice 


4.   Fastening  bodice  to  skirt 


The  flannel 
petticoat 


(■).     The  white 
petticoat 


The  next  thing  to  do  is  to  make  the 
little  bodice  which  has  to  be  joined  on 
to  the  petticoat.  Look  at  picture  3, 
and   you    will    see   half   of   the   very 


simple  outline  of  the  pattern  needed 
to  make  this  bodice.  It  is  in  one 
piece,  and  needs  no  seam  except  the 
tiny  ones  on  the  shoulders — that  is, 
between  E  and  C. 

After  you  have  drawn  the  design 
the  right  size  to  fit  your  doll,  fold  the 
piece  of  flannel  in  half  and  put  the 
edge  of  the  pattern  marked  A  B  on 
the  fold  of  the  flannel.  Then  pin  it, 
and  cut  along  the  lines  of  the  pattern, 
except  between  A  and  B,  leaving 
enough  for  the  turnings. 

The  dotted  line  in  picture  3  is  to 
show  where  to  slope  out  the  material 
for  the  front, of  the  armhole. 

After  the  seams  on  the  shoulders 
have  been  done,  either  with  a  French 
seam  or  running  and  felling,  the  little 
bodice  must  be  finished  off  at  the  top 
with  buttonhole  stitch  to  match  the 
bottom  of  the  petticoat.  To  make  the 
material  strong  at  the  back  to  hold  the 
buttons  and  buttonholes,  which  have 
to  be  sewn  next,  a  little  hem,  herring- 
boned,  should  be  made  on  each  side. 
If  we  have  cut  our  pattern  correctly, 
we  shall  find  that  we  have  quite  enough 
material  for  this  without  adding  any 
more.  When  the  bodice  is  finished, 
the  lower  part  of  it  is  run  on  to  the 
gathered  skirt. 

Join  the  bodice  to  skirt,  by  running 
stitches,  as  picture  (4)  shows.  But  it 
would  be  very  imtidy  on  the  wrong 
side  if  we  left  the  raw  edges  like  this, 
so  to  make  it  neat  and  dainty,  a 
strip  of  nainsook  is  run  along  the 
gathers,  and  tlien  turned  over  and 
neatly  hemmed  down  just  above. 
But  the  stitches  must  be  very  tiny 
ones,  because  they  will  show  on  the 
right  side. 

Trim  the  raw  edge  of  the  skirt  part 
with  buttonhole  stitches,  put  on 
another  button  and  buttonhole  to 
fasten  the  waist-band,  and  your  little 
flannel  petticoat  is  finished,  and  will 
look  like  picture  5. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


339 


The  white  petticoat,  which  goes 
over  the  flannel  one,  is  cut  and  made 
in  very  much  the  same  way.  The 
only  difference  lies  in  cutting  out  the 
skirt  part  of  the  trimming.  The 
bottom  should  have  two  little  tucks  and 
a  narrow  hem,  edged  with  tiny  Valen- 
cienrues  lace.  These  tucks  and  the 
hem  will  take  up  about  one  and  a  half 
inches  of  material,  so  when  we  cut  out 
the  skirt  part  of  the  white  petticoat 
it  must  be  longer  than  the  flannel  one. 
No  pattern  is  needed.  It  is  simply  a 
straight  piece  cut  about  one  and  a  half 
inches  longer  than  the  flannel  one. 


But  the  important  thing  to  remem- 
ber is  to  cut  it  "on  the  straight,"  not 
"on  the  bias,"  like  the  flannel  one  is  cut. 
Material  cut  on  the  bias  pulls  very 
easily,  and  is  difficult  to  tuck.  Mate- 
rial that  is  cut  on  the  straight — that  is, 
in  a  straight  line  with  the  selvedge — 
is  firmer  and  keeps  its  shape  much 
better.  The  reason  why  we  cut  a 
flannel  petticoat  on  the  bias  is, 
because  it  sets  better  and  is  less  clumsy 
round  the  hips,  for  flannel  is  a  clumsy 
material.  The  seams  of  the  white 
petticoat  should  be  run  and  felled, 
not  herringboned. 


ARRANGING  FLOWERS  FOR  THE  HOUSE 


THE  world  has  paid  every 
woman  a  charming  compli- 
ment. It  has  credited  all  of 
us  with  the  ability  to  make  our  sur- 
roundings beautiful.  Have  you  not 
read  in  many  books  that  the  heroine 
possessed  a  magic  touch?  When  she 
had  been  there  the  room  seemed  to 


This  shows  the  right  and  the  wrong  way  to  arrange 
violets  and  flowers  lilse  them.  They  should  be  loosely 
arranged  In  a  low  vase,  and  not  cramped  up  in  a  high  vase 
where  they  can  hardly  be  seen. 

show  an  extra  daintiness,  the  place 
wore  an  added  charm,  an  air  of  com- 
fort and  coziness  that  it  did  not 
possess  before.  But,  unfortunately, 
the  novel  gave  no  precise  direction 
as  to  how  she  did  it. 

These  things  are  not  arrived  at  by 
instinct.  The  good  fairy  who  deals 
out  the  birth-gifts  is  not  so  lavish  as 
we  are  led  to  suppose,  and  seldom 
gives  to  anyone  so  big  a  gift  that 


there  is  nothing  left  to  learn.  She 
just  gives  a  little  bit — just  enough  to 
show  it  is  there — and  one  has  to  learn 
the  rest. 

We  shall  not  be  able  to  learn  here 
everything  that  our  favorite  heroines 
are  supposed  to  know,  but  only  a  few 
things  about  one  simple  part  of  the 
subject — how  to  arrange  flowers. 

We  wonder  if  you  have  ever  thought 
that  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  the 
vase  is  a  most  important  point.'' 
For  instance,  daffodils,  which  are 
heavy  flowers,  should  always  stand 
in  strong  china — for  preference,  green 
glazed  ware.  There  is  something  so 
strong  and  sturdy  about  their  growth 
that  they  need  a  good  support  and 
plenty  of  water;  so  don't  put  them  into 
frail  china  vases  that  will  topple  over 
with  a  breath  of  wind  because  they 
are  top  heavy. 

Also  remember  how  the  daffodil 
grows.  How  many  leaves  go  to 
one  daffodil?  Hundreds!  Well,  you 
cannot  get  hundreds  into  a  vase,  but 
you  can  get  a  good  many,  and  you 
will  find  the  flowers  look  far  finer  with 
a  plentiful  supply  of  leaves,  because — 
and  this  point  applies  to  every  kind  of 
blossom — they  grow  like  that. 


sw 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE   DOLL'S   LITTLE   FROCK 


G  U 


THE  little  frock 
illustrated  is  a 
simple  one.  It 
is  made  entirely  in  one 
piece  with  only  two 
tiny  seams  on  the 
shoulder  and  one  in  the 
center  of  the  back. 
The  two  armholes  are 
for  the  little  puff  sleeves 
which  are  also  made  in 
one  piece  with  a  little 
seam  under  the  arm. 
The  first  thing  to  do 
after  cutting  is  to  make 
the  seam  at  the  back.  This 
is  marked  C  D  in  the 
picture.  A  little  French 
seam  such  as  we  have  al- 
ready done  for  the  under- 
linen  will  do  very  well  for 
this  frock,  especially  if  you 
have  been  able  to  coax  mother 
to  give  you  a  piece  of  Japanese 
gilk,  or  some  other  thin  ma- 
terial. 

Do  not  make  a  seam  at  the 
back  right  up  to  the  top  of  the 
neck,  but  leave  a  placket-hole 
rather  more  than  half-way  up, 
just  about  where  the  star  is 
marked  on  picture  (1).  Three 
or  four  little  buttons  and 
buttonholes  are  needed  to 
close  the  frock.  The  hem 
should  be  about  two  inches 
wide  all  around  with  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  turned  inside.  The 
neck  part  is  simply  gathered 
into  a  little  straight  band 
which  is  first  run  edge  to  edge 
with  the  main  part  of  the 
frock  and  then  hemmed  over 
the  gathers.  If  this  little 
band  is  made  broad  enough  it 
can  be  doubled  over  to  form  a 
little  turn-down  collar,  which 
may     be     ornamented     with 


2.    Sleeve  pattern 


H 


3.  Back  of  the  frock 


feather  stitching,  while 
a  lace  frill  may  be  added 
to  make  it  daintier.     A 
wide  tape  sewn  inside 
at  the  waistline  rather 
low  down,  will,  if  sewn 
top     and     bottom     all 
round,  act  as  a  slot  in 
which  a  fine  silk  tape 
may  be  put  through  to 
gather  the  little  frock  as 
picture  3  shows. 
The  pattern  of  the  little 
sleeve  is  plainly  shown 
in  picture  2.    The  part 
between  E  and  F  in  the  pic- 
ture is  the   top   and  when 
gathered,    and   the    thread 
pulled    up,    will   form    the 
little  puff. 

Join  the  line  E  G  to  F  H 
by  a  French  seam  and  you 
will  begin  to  see  the  shape 
of  the  sleeve.  The  top  part  as 
we  have  said,  is  gathered 
drawn  up,  and  made  to  fit  the 
hole  left  for  it  in  the  frock. 
The  side  marked  F  H  to  put 
under  the  arm  and  the  sleeve 
seam  is  joined  to  the  notch 
seen  in  the  pattern.  Arrange 
the  fullness  to  come  at  the  top 
of  the  sleeve  on  the  shoulder. 
The  bottom  of  the  sleeve — 
that  is,  the  part  between  G  H 
in  the  picture,  is  also  gathered 
and  then  put  into  a  straight 
band  of  material  which  is  made 
large  enough  to  turn  over  just 
like  the  little  collar.  This  too  is 
trimmed  with  a  row  of  feather 
stitching. 

The  little  frock  shown  in  the 
picture  has  what  is  called  a 
long  waist — that  is,  the  waist 
trimming  is  arranged  to  come 
much  lower  than  the  doll's  real 
waist. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


341 


HOW    TO    MAKE    OUR    OWN    ZOO 


A  LITTLE  while  ago  most  of 
the  creatures  in  our  Home 
Zoo  were  lying  together  all  in 
a  heap  at  the  bottom  of  somebody's 
piece-bag.  They  did  not  look  much 
like  animals  then,  but  that  was  before 
they  were  touched  and  brought  into 


wheels — such  as  any  boy  can  make — 
little  children  will  be  delighted  to 
draw  them  about.  If  they  are  very 
nicely  made  they  are  quite  pretty 
models,  and  will  readily  sell  at  a 
bazar. 

But  before  we  start  to  make  them, 


Animals  to  make  at  home 


shape  by  the  won 

derful     fairies 

Needle       and 

Thread.        Our 

kitten  was  just  a 

bit  of  black  plush 

left  over    from  the 

trimming  of   a  coat;   our 

fierce  lion  was  a  corner  of  fawn- 

jolored,     smooth  -  faced     cloth 


Some  members  of  the  zoo 

there  are  a  few 
things  which  we 
must  always  re- 
member if  we 
want  really  to  suc- 
ceed. If  we  number 
them  it  will  help  us 
to  remember. 
1.  The  best  materials  are 
from  tightly  woven  stuffs  that  are  plain  on  one 
a  tailor-made  suit;  our  fat  pig  and  side  and  fluffy  or  shaggy  on  the  other, 
dear  little  white  bunny  were  odds  Thin  and  loose  cloths  that  easily  fray 
and    ends    of    eider-down;    and    our      are    troublesome.     Beaver    cloth,    all 


curly  dog  was  a  scrap 
of  imitation  astrachan 
from  somebody's 
winter  jacket.  But  we 
just  cut  them  out,  and 
sewed  them  together, 
and  fed  them  well  on 
wadding,  and  here 
they  are — all  that  you 
see  in  the  picture,  and 
many  more.     Making 


imitation  furs — if  they 
are  not  too  thick — 
eider-down,  canton 
flannel,  plush,  and 
velveteen,  all  make  up 
splendidly. 

2.  In  cutting  out, 
first  note  which  way 
the  pile,  or  "nap, "  goes, 
and  take  care  to  place 
the  pattern  so  that  it 


How  the  cat  looks  when  made 

one's  own  Zoo  is  great  fun.     It  is  so  will  stroke  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  as 

nice  to  have  the  animals  to  play  with,  in  nature. 

They  will  all  stand  up;  and  if  their  feet  3.     All  the  patterns  are  cut  out  in 

are    glued    to    a    small    stand,    with  halves,  so  that  you  will  have  to  double 


3J^S 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the   material.     We   shall    understand  holes  where  the  legs  are  fastened  in, 

this  better  later.     But  be  very  careful  and  sometimes  the  legs  themselves — 

to  see  that  the  two  halves  face  each  may  be  sewn  raw-edged  on  the  right 

other,  and  cut  out  with  neatness  and  side,  and  the  nap  at  the  margin  pulled 

exactness,    making   the   pieces   all   fit  over     the     stitches     to     hide     them. 


one  another  precisely. 
4.       Stitch    up    as 
closely  and  neatly  as 
you    can,     with     the 
sewing-ma- 
chine   if  pos- 
sible, but  re 
member 


Thinner  cloth  must  be  turned  in 
where  necessary  to  sew  or  hem 
over  on  the  right  side. 

6.      Stuff    always    with      un- 
bleached wadding.     A  yard  will 
fill    three   or   four  animals  of  7 
inches   or  8  inches  long    and    4 
inches  or  5  inches  in  height.  Never 
use  cut-up  flannel  or  any  other 
odds  and  ends  if  you  want  to  get 
a  good  effect.     Put  the  wadding 
in  a   little  at  a  time, 
pushing  it  well  home 
with  your  finger  or  the 
point  of  a  pair  of  scis- 
sors,   and    pack   as 
tightly  as  ever 
vou  can. 


Plans    for    making    the    cat 
sbown  on  the  previous  page 


that  very  firm,  close  seams  are  most 
important. 

5.  All  animals  have  their  principal 
seams  sewn  on  the  wrong  side;  but 
if  the  cloth  is  thick  and  firm,  with  a 
good   nap,   some   parts — such   as   the 


Now  we  may  start  on  our  first 
animal — the  cat.  Gray  velveteen  or 
plush  makes  the  prettiest  cat,  but 
black  will  do.  The  cat,  when  cut 
out,  is  in  eleven  pieces — namely, 
two  upper  halves,  two  under  halves. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


34s 


two  pieces,  upper  and  under,  for  each 
of  the  ears,  the  upper  and  under 
halves  of  the  tail,  and  a  lemon-shaped 
piece  on  the  top  of  the  head.  We  cut 
out  the  pieces  to  the  shapes  shown  in 
the  plans,  which  we  can  trace  on  thin 
paper.  Let  us  begin  with  the  side 
half  of  body  which  is  marked  1.  We 
cut  out  two  pieces  this  shape,  making 
them  exactly  alike.  We  cut  out  two 
pieces  of  the  under  half  of  body 
marked  2  in  the  picture,  then  one 
piece  for  the  top  of  head,  marked  3, 
one  tail  piece  marked  4,  and  another 
tail  piece  marked  5,  and,  finally,  two 
ears  to  the  shape  given  in  the  picture. 
We  must  remember  to  make  every 
piece  the  size  given  in  the  pictures. 

Now  we  are  ready  to  sew  the  pieces 
together.  The  pictures  are  marked 
with  V's  and  X's,  and  these  show 
what  pieces  are  to  be  sewn  together. 
The  piece  marked  VV  is  to  be  sewn  to 
the  other  piece  marked  VV,  and  so 
on.  We  begin  by  stitching  the  under 
halves  on  to  the  upper  ones,  being 
careful  to  stitch  very  closely  round  the 
toes.  Next  stitch  up  the  tail,  turn 
it,  and  stuff  it.  Stitch  on  the  lemon- 
shaped  piece  to  the  top  of  the  head  in 
the  position  shown  in  the  pattern. 
Sew  up  the  upper  animal,  beginning 
at  the  throat  and  going  over  head  and 
back,    and    ending    at    the    tail.     Be 


careful  to  keep  the  halves  in  proper 
position. 

Now  turn  the  cat  and  her  four  paws, 
and  begin  to  stuff  her — first  the  head, 
then  the  paws,  then  the  body.  When 
she  seems  nearly  fat  enough,  begin  to 
sew  up  at  the  tail,  and  work  along, 
poking  in  more  stuffing  as  you  see  it 
is  needed,  until  you  finish  up  under 
the  chin.  The  two  front  legs  will 
probably  have  to  be  caught  together 
with  strong  thread  to  make  pussy  sit 
up  properly,  and  her  tail,  hemmed  at 
the  base,  should  be  curled  round  her 
toes,  so  as  to  give  a  natural  position. 

The  ears  must  be  made  and  turned, 
after  being  fastened  neatly  in  the  right 
position,  and  the  two  outer  edges 
folded  over  to  meet  in  the  middle. 
Then  you  will  have  a  pretty  little  ear 
to  sew  on  in  position.  Beads  or 
sequins  make  bright  eyes;  but,  if  the 
cat  is  to  be  a  toy  for  a  young  baby, 
black  worsted  eyes,  just  stitched,  are 
safer.  A  nose  and  mouth  may 
be  also  marked  in  worsted,  as 
here  shown,  and  bunches  of 
white  thread  can  be  sewn 
on  for  eyebrows  and  whiskers. 
If  you  finish  up  by  marking  the 
"tabby"  pattern  in  ink,  copying 
from  a  real  cat,  and  brush  the  stiffness 
out  when  dry,  you  will  find  you  have 
made  a  very  charming  cat. 


H 


COLLECTING  FERNS  FOR  A  ROCK  GARDEN 


NO  GARDEN  is  complete  with- 
out its  ferny  nook,  and  any 
ugly  old  corner  can  be  made 
beautiful  in  a  short  time  by  planting 
ferns,  the  graceful  fronds  of  which 
will,  when  they  unfold,  hide  every 
trace  of  ugliness. 

Almost  any  time  of  the  year  we  can 
go  on  a  fern-hunting  expedition,  and 
very  enjoyable  such  an  excursion  is, 
especially   in  the  autumn,   when  the 


ferns  appear  in  all  their  verdant  glory 
and  rich  plumage. 

No  matter  where  we  may  live,  in  or 
out  of  a  big  city,  east  or  west,  north  or 
south,  inland  or  by  the  sea,  we  are 
sure  to  find,  within  an  accessible  dis- 
tance, some  spot  that  is  given  over  to 
the  fern  family,  and  if  we  are  careful 
we  can  get  new  plants  for  our  rockery 
or  shady  corner  without  injuring  the 
countryside  in  any  way. 


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m. 


Hart's-tongue 


Maidenhair  spleenwort 


Common  polypody 


Lady  fern 


Among  the  rocks  by  the  seashore, 
in  the  green  lanes,  by  the  side  of  the 
meadow,  on  the  moorland,  by  the 
banks  of  the  brook  or  stream,  in  the 
ditches  by  the  road,  and  among  the 
shadows  of  the  wood — all  these  are 
places  where  ferns  may  be  found  free 
and  flourishing. 

As  equipment  for  a  fern-hunt  we 
need  some  pieces  of  brown  packing- 
paper  or  newspaper  to  wrap  the  roots 
of  our  specimens  in,  a  small  garden 
fork  and  trowel,  and,  if  we  are  intend- 
ing to  bring  home  very  many  plants, 
a  bag  or  wicker  basket. 

In  selecting  plants,  it  is  wise  to  take 
the  smaller  specimens;  they  can  be 
removed  more  safely  and  easily  than 
larger  plants  and  they  are  easier  to  carry 
home.  The  earth  roimd  the  plant 
selected  should  be  loosened  with  the 
fork,  and  then  the  fern  taken  up  with 
the  trowel  with  as  little  disturbance 
to  the  roots  as  possible.  Of  course, 
it  is  essential  that  the  whole  of  the 
roots  should  be  taken,  and  so  we  must 
dig  at  some  distance  round  and  under 
the  plant.  The  earth  adhering  to  the 
roots  should  not  be  removed.     Injury 


to  the  root  will  result  in  a  dwarfed  and 
sickly  plant,  when  the  fern  is  trans- 
planted   and    made    to    grow    in    the 


garden. 
Having 


freed  our  specimen,  we 
should  place  a  little  damp  moss  round 
the  roots,  wrap  the  specimen  up  in 
paper,  and  place  it  carefully  in  the 
bag.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  plant 
them  out  on  arriving  home,  we  can 
keep  them  healthy  and  fresh  for  several 
days  by  laying  them  in  a  shady  place 
and  occasionally  sprinkling  the  en- 
wrapping moss  with  water.  This 
plan  enables  us  to  bring  home  safely 
specimens  gathered  on  a  summer  holi- 
day. 

Of  course,  if  we  want  to  get  the  best 
value  out  of  our  specimens,  we  should 
carefully  note  the  situation  and  sur- 
roundings of  each,  and  try  to  reproduce 
these  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the 
garden. 

Rock  ferns  are  more  difficult  to 
gather,  and,  in  order  not  to  disturb 
the  roots,  it  is  often  necessary  to  bring 
home  with  us  a  piece  of  the  rock  in 
and  round  which  are  the  delicate 
roots. 


STORIES      AND    PLAYS 
MASTER    SELF 


THERE  was  once  a  lit-tle  boy," 
said  Mam-ma,  "and  he  loved 
Some-bod-y  ver-y  much.  It 
is  n't  a  ver-y  large  Some-bod-y,  but 
it  has  bright  blue  eyes  and  curl-y 
hair." "Why,  it  's  me!"  said  Char- 
lie.    "It  's  me,  my-self." 

"So  it  is,"  said  Mam-ma,  laugh-ing. 
"And  it  's  'Mas-ter  Self  whom  Char- 
lie loves  best.  He  even  does  n't  love 
Sis-ter  so  much  as  'Mas-ter  Self.'  So 
he  keeps  all  his  pret-ty  toys  and  does 
n't  give  them  up.  He  loves  'Mas-ter 
Self  bet-ter  than  Mam-ma,  for  when 
Mam-ma  says  'Go  to  bed,'  and  'Mas- 
ter Self  says  'No,' — Char-lie  likes  best 
to  please  that  naught-y  'Mas-ter  Self.' " 

"I  wont  please  'Mas-ter  Self,'  said 
Char-lie,  and  he  kissed  Mam-ma,  and 
said  "Good-night."  Next  day.  Mam- 
ma gave  Char-lie  a  bright,  new  ten- 
cent  piece,  and  said  he  might  go  with 
Nurse  to  buy  some  can-dy. 

When  Nurse  and  Sis-ter  were  read-y, 
and  Char-lie  had  taken  his  lit-tle  stick, 
they  set  out.  Char-lie  was  think-ing. 
He  was  think-ing  ver-y  much,  and  he 
was  say-ing  to  him-self :  "I  don't  love 
'Mas-ter  Self.'" 

He  walked  qui-et-ly  by  Nurse's 
side.  Now  and  then  he  looked  at  the 
mon-ey  in  his  hand;  it  was  ver-y  bright 


and  ver-y  white.     It  seemed  a  long 

way  to  the  can-dy   store. "What 

will  you  buy,  Char-lie?"  asked  Nurse. 

"Some  can-dy  for  my-self,"  said 
Char-lie,  as  they  reached  the  Park. 

"Keep  close  to  me  while  we  cross 
the  road,"  said  Nurse;  but  just  then 
Char-lie  pulled  her  dress  and  whis- 
pered: "Look,  Nurse!  Look  there!" 
and  Nurse  saw  a  lit-tle  girl  stand-ing 
near  a  tree,  a-lone  and  cry-ing. 

"What's  the  mat-ter  with  her, 
Nurse?"  asked  Char-lie. 

"I'll  ask  her,"  said  Nurse.  "What 
are  you  cry-ing  for,  dear?" 

But  the  lit-tle  girl  on-ly  cried  the 
more,  and  Char-lie  went  close  to  her  and 
said:  "What's  the  mat-ter,  lit-tle  girl?" 

The  lit-tle  girl  could  not  speak,  she 
was  sob-bing  so  much.  "Don't  cry," 
said  Char-lie,  in  great  dis-tress.  "It 
makes  me  want  to  cry  too." 

"Oh,  dear!  Oh,  dear!"  said  the 
lit-tle  girl.  "I  have  lost  my  mon-ey! 
All  my  mon-ey."  But  soon  she  be-gan 
to  tell  Nurse  how  it  was.  She  was 
go-ing  to  get  some  bread,  and  she  had 
the  mon-ey  in  her  hand, — "and,"  said 
she,  "a  boy  pushed  me,  and  I  fell,  and 
lost  my  ten-cent  piece,  and  I  can't 
buy  the  bread,  and  Moth-er  will  be  so 
an-gry." 

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"I'm  glad  I  did  n't  lose  my  piece," 
said  Char-lie,  squeezing  it  hard. 

"I  am  ver-y  sor-ry  for  you,"  said 
Nurse.  "If  I  were  you,  I  'd  run  home 
and  tell  Moth-er." 

"I  can't!  I  can't!"  cried  the  lit-tle 
girl.  "It  was  all  Moth-er  had,  and 
we  're  so  hun-gry!" 

Char-lie  held  his  mon-ey  tight-ly. 
What  was  he  think-ing  of,  all  the  time.^ 
He  was  say-ing  to  him-self:  "I  don't 
love  'Mas-ter  Self.'  "  He  pulled 
Nurse's  dress,  and  said:  "Nurse,  can't 
you  give  the  lit-tle  girl  some  mon-ey?" 

"I  have  n't  my  purse,  dear,"  said 
Nurse. 

The  lit-tle  girl  moved  a-way,  cry- 
ing. Char-lie  walked  be-side  Nurse. 
They  were  near  the  can-dy  store.  He 
could  see  the  sweets  in  the  win-dow, 
— sticks  and  balls  and  creams!  Char- 
lie turned  his  head.  He  saw  the  lit-tle 
girl  look-ing  back  too.  She  was  still 
cry-ing.  Char-lie  pulled  Nurse's  dress. 
"Nurse,"  he  said,  "I  want  to  turn 
back." 

"What  do  you  want  to  turn  back 


for?"  asked  Nurse.  "Here  is  the  store." 

Char-lie  raised  him-self  on  tip-toe  to 
get  near-er  to  Nurse's  ear,  and  whis- 
pered : 

"I  want  to  please  the  lit-tle  girl  and 
not  'Mas-ter  Self!" 

Nurse  knew  what  he  meant.  She 
turned  back.  Char-lie  looked  once 
more  at  the  can-dy  store,  then  he  ran 
a-cross  the  street.  When  he  came 
close  to  the  lit-tle  girl,  he  held  out  his 
bright  ten-cent  piece  and  said:  "It 
is  for  3'ou,  and  not  for  'Mas-ter  Self!" 

The  lit-tle  girl  stopped  cry-ing  and 
be-gan  to  smile;  then  she  tried  to  say 
"Thank  you,"  to  Char-lie;  but  Nurse 
said:  "Run,  now,  and  buy  your 
bread,"  and  she  ran  off,  aft-er  look-ing 
back  to  nod  and  smile  at  Char-lie. 

But  Char-lie  was  even  hap-pi-er 
than  she.  He  walked  brisk-ly  home 
and  sat  on  Mam-ma's  lap,  and  told 
her  all  a-bout  it.  Mam-ma  kissed 
him,  and  said:  "Is  n't  Char-He  hap-py 
now."* 

And  Char-lie  said:  "Yes;  be-cause 
I  did  n't  please  'Mas-ter  Self.'  " 


GOLDILOCKS  TOOK  UP  THE  SPOON  AND  ATE  UP  ALL  THE  BABY  BEARS  DINNER 


THREE  bears  lived  in  a  house  in 
a  wood.  There  was  the  father 
bear,  the  mother  bear,  and  the 
baby  bear.  The  first  was  a  great 
big  bear,  the  second  was  a  middle- 
sized  bear,  and  the  third  was  a  tiny 
wee  bear.    In  the  kitchen  was  a  table, 


and  beside  the  table  there  were  three 
chairs.  The  first  was  a  great  big 
chair,  the  second  was  a  middle-sized 
chair,  and  the  third  was  a  tiny  wee 
chair. 

One  day  the  three  bears  went  out 
for     a     walk.     Before     thej-     started 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


347 


mother  bear  prepared  the  dinner,  and 
poured  it  into  three  basins.  The  first 
of  these  was  a  great  big  basin,  the 
second  one  was  a  middle-sized  basin, 
and  the  third  one  was  a  tiny  wee  basin. 

While  they  were  out  a  little  girl 
named  Goldilocks  passed  by  that  way, 
and  looked  in  at  the  window.  She 
was  very  cold  and  hungry,  and  the 
bread  and  honey  in  the  basins  looked 
very  tempting.  So  she  pushed  open 
the  door  and  walked  in. 

"How  good  it  smells!"  she  said. 
And  she  sat  down  in  the  great  big 
chair.  But  it  was  much  too  large  for 
her.  So  she  tried  the  middle-sized 
chair,  but  that  was  not  high  enough; 
so  she  sat  down  in  the  tiny  wee  chair, 
which  just  fitted  her. 

She  took  up  the  spoon  and  soon 
ate  up  all  the  little  baby  bear's  din- 
ner. 

When  she  had  finished  she  began 
to  feel  very  tired,  and  thought  she 
would  like  to  lie  down.  So  she  went 
upstairs  into  the  bedroom,  where  she 


found  three  beds.  The  first  was  a 
great  big  bed,  the  second  was  a  middle- 
sized  bed,  and  the  third  was  a  tiny 
wee  bed.  First  she  tried  the  big  bed, 
but  it  was  much  too  big.  So  she  got 
out  again  and  tried  the  middle-sized 
bed.  But  that  was  too  big,  so  she 
jumped  into  the  tiny  wee  bed  and  fell 
fast  asleep. 

Soon  the  bears  came  back,  and  as 
their  walk  had  made  them  very  hun- 
gry they  went  straight  up  to  the 
table. 

"Someone's  been  sitting  in  my 
chair,"  cried  the  great  big  bear  in  a 
great  big  voice. 

"Someone's  been  sitting  in  my 
chair,"  cried  the  middle-sized  bear  in 
a  middle-sized  voice. 

"And  someone's  been  sitting  in  my 
chair,"  cried  the  tiny  wee  bear  in  a 
tiny  wee  voice. 

Then  they  looked  into  their  basins. 

"Someone's  been  tasting  my  din- 
ner," cried  the  great  big  bear  in  a 
great  big  voice. 


GOLDILOCKS  RAN  DOWN  THE  STAIRS  AS  FAST  AS  SHE  COULD  AND  ESCAPED  INTO  THE  WOODS 


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"Somebody's  been  tasting  my  din- 
ner," cried  the  middle-sized  bear  in  a 
middle-sized  voice. 

"And  somebody's  been  tasting  my 
dinner  and  eaten  it  all  up,"  cried  the 
tiny  wee  bear  in  a  tiny  wee  voice. 

"Who  is  it?"  cried  all  the  bears 
together.     And  they  all  ran  upstairs. 

The  great  big  bear  ran  to  the  great 
big  bed. 

"Somebody's  been  lying  in  my  bed," 
he  cried. 

The  middle-sized  bear  ran  to  the 
middle-sized  bed. 


"Somebody's  been  lying  in  my  bed," 
she  cried. 

And  the  tiny  wee  bear  called  out  in 
a  tiny  wee  voice: 

"And  somebody's  been  lying  in  my 
bed — and,  oh,  here  she  is!" 

Just  at  that  moment  Goldilocks 
woke  up  and  saw  the  three  bears 
looking  angrily  at  her.  She  was  so 
frightened  that  she  jumped  up  and 
ran  down  the  stairs  as  fast  as  ever  she 
could,  and  out  of  the  house  into 
the  wood,  and  they  never  saw  her 
again. 


BRER  RABBIT  AND  TAR-BABY 


BRER  FOX  was  always  trying 
to  catch  Brer  Rabbit;  but  Brer 
Rabbit  was  mighty  pert  and 
spry,  and  he  never  let  Brer  Fox  catch 
him.  So  Brer  Fox  pretended  to  be 
friendly,  and  asked  Brer  Rabbit  to 
come  to  dinner  with  him.  But  Brer 
Rabbit  did  not  come;  he  knew  what 
was  going  to  be  eaten  at  that  dinner. 
Brer  Fox  then  thought  of  something 
else.  He  went  to  work  and  got  some 
tar  and  some  turpentine,  and  fixed 
up  a  thing  which  he  called  a  Tar-Baby. 
He  set  up  this  Tar-Baby  by  the  road 
near  Brer  Rabbit's  house,  and  laid  low 
beneath  the  bramble-bushes  near  by 
to  watch  what  would  happen. 

By  and  by  Brer  Rabbit  came 
prancing  along,  li])pity-clippity,  olip- 
pity-lippity,  as  saucy  as  a  jay-bird. 
When  he  saw  Tar-Baby  he  sat  up  on 
his  hind  legs  in  astonishment. 

"Good-morning,"  says  Brer  Rabbit, 
very  politely  and  nicely.  "Fine 
weather  this  morning,"  says  he. 

Tar-Baby  said  nothing,  and  Brer 
Fox  he  laid  low. 

"Are  you  deaf?"  said  Brer  Rabbit. 
"I  can  shout  if  you  are." 

And  he  shouted.  But  Tar-Baby 
kept  on  saying  nothing;  and  Brer  Fox 
he  winked  his  eye  slowly,  and  laid  low. 


At  last  Brer  Rabbit  raised  his  fist 
and  hit  Tar-Baby  on  the  side  of  her 
head.  And  there  his  fist  stuck  in  the 
tar,  and  he  couldn't  pull  it  away. 


"Howdydo?"  says  Brer  Fox,  coming  out  of  the  bushes. 
"You  seem  rather  stuck  up.  Brer  Rabbit,  this  morning." 


"Let  me  go,  or  I'll  strike  you  again!" 
says  Brer  Rabbit.  And  he  hit  out 
with  his  other  hand,  and  that  stuck  on 
Tar-Baby. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


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Brer  Rabbit  kicked  out  angrily 
with  his  feet,  and  they  got  stuck  on 
Tar-Baby.  Then  he  butted  her  with 
his  head,  and  his  head  also  got 
fixed. 

"Howdydo.''"  says  Brer  Fox,  coming 
out  of  the  bushes,  and  looking  as 
innocent  as  a  dicky-bird.  "You  seem 
rather  stuck  up.  Brer  Rabbit,  this 
morning." 

And  then  Brer  Fox  rolled  about  the 
ground  and  laughed. 

'T  expect  you'll  come  to  dinner  with 
me  now,  Brer  Rabbit,"  says  he. 
"We're  going  to  have  some  nice  roast 
rabbit.  You  won't  play  any  more 
tricks  on  me.  You're  too  saucy  by 
far. 

Who  asked  you  to  strike  up  an 
acquaintance  with  this  Tar-Baby? 
Now  you're  going  to  have  a  warm 
time,  as  soon  as  I  can  get  some  fire- 
wood together." 

Then  Brer  Rabbit  began  to  talk 
mighty  humble. 

"I  don't  care  what  you  do  with  me, 
Brer  Fox,"  says  he,  "so  long  as  you 


don't  fling  me  on  those  prickly  bram- 
ble-bushes." 

"It's  too  much  trouble  to  light  a 
fire,"  says  Brer  Fox.  "I'll  have  to 
hang  you." 

"Hang  me,  or  drown  me!"  says 
Brer  Rabbit.  "I  don't  mind.  But 
for  pity's  sake  don't  fling  me  on  those 
prickly  bramble-bushes." 

But  Brer  Fox  wanted  to  hurt  Brer 
Rabbit  as  much  as  he  could,  so  he 
took  him  by  the  hind  legs  and  pulled 
him  off  Tar-Baby,  and  flung  him  right 
into  the  middle  of  the  prickly  bramble- 
bushes.  There  was  a  considerable 
flutter  where  Brer  Rabbit  struck  the 
bushes,  and  Brer  Fox  wanted  to  see 
what  was  going  to  happen.  By  and 
by  he  heard  someone  calling  up  the 
hill,  and  there  he  saw  Brer  Rabbit 
sitting  on  a  log,  combing  the  tar  out 
of  his  hair  with  a  chip  of  wood. 

"I  was  bred  and  born  in  a  bramble- 
bush,  Brer  Fox — bred  and  born  in  it," 
says  Brer  Rabbit,  with  a  laugh.  And 
with  that  he  skipped  off  home  as 
lively  as  a  cricket. 


THE    THREE    LITTLE    PIGS 


ONCE  upon  a  time,  three  little 
pigs  went  out  into,  the  world 
to  seek  their  fortunes.  The 
first  little  pig  had  not  gone  far  before 
he  met  a  man  who  was  carrying  a 
bundle  of  straw. 


"If  you  please,"  said  the  little  pig, 
"will  you  give  me  some  of  that  straw 
to  make  me  a  house?" 

"W'ith  pleasure,"  replied  the  man. 

Away  went  the  little  pig  with  the 
straw,  and  built  his  house. 


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Now,  an  artful  old  wolf  who  lived 
close  by  determined  to  have  the  little 
pig  for  supper.  So  when  it  became 
dusk  he  went  up  to  the  little  straw 
house  and  called  out : 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,  may  I  come  in?" 

But  the  little  pig  knew  his  voice, 
and  said: 

"No,  no;  by  the  hair  on  my  chinny, 
chin,  chin!" 

"Ho,  ho!"  cried  the  wolf.  "Then 
I'll  puff  and  I'll  blow  till  I  blow  your 
house  in." 

And  he  puffed  and  he  blew,  and  he 
puffed  and  he  blew  till  the  house  fell 
down.  Then  he  sprang  inside,  pounced 
on  the  little  pig,  and  gobbled  him  all 
up. 

The  second  little  })ig  met  a  man 
carrying  some  sticks. 

"If  you  please,"  said  the  little  pig, 
"will  you  give  me  some  of  those 
sticks  to  make  me  a  house?" 

"With  pleasure,"  replied  the  man. 

Away  went  the  little  pig  with  the 
sticks,  and  built  himself  a  cozy  house. 

That  night  the  wolf  came  to  the 
door. 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,"  cried  the 
wolf,  may  I  come  in?" 

"No,  no,"  replied  this  little  pig,  as 
the  other  one  had  done;  "by  the  hair 
on  my  chinny,  chin,  chin!" 

"Ho,  ho!"  cried  the  wolf  in  a  rage. 
"Then  I'll  puff  and  I'll  blow  till  I 
blow  your  house  in." 

And  he  puffed  and  he  blew,  and 
he  puffed  and  he  blew  till  the  house 
fell  down.  Then  he  sprang  inside, 
pounced  on  the  poor  little  pig,  and 
gobbled  him  all  up. 

But  the  third  little  pig  was  ex- 
ceedingly wide  awake  the  morning  he 
set  out  on  his  travels.  This  little 
pig  went  on  till  he  saw  a  man  carrying 
bricks. 

"If  you  please,"  said  the  little  pig, 
"will  you  give  me  some  of  those 
bricks  to  make  me  a  house?" 


"With  pleasure,"  replied  the  man. 

Away  went  the  little  pig  with  the 
bricks,  and  built  his  house. 

Soon  the  old  wolf  came  along  that 
way,  and  knocked  at  the  door. 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,  may  I  come 
in?"  cried  he. 

"No,  no;  by  the  hair  on  my  chinny, 
chin,  chin!" 

"Then  I'll  puff  and 'I'll  blow  till  I 
blow  your  house  in!" 

But  the  house  was  made  of  bricks, 
and  the  old  wolf  he  puffed  and  he 
blew,  and  he  puffed  and  he  blew% 
and  still  the  house  stood  firm.  At 
last  he  went  away  in  a  rage;  but 
presently  he  came  back  again. 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,  I  know  a  field 
just  down  the  lane  where  there  are 
such  fine  turnips.  I'll  call  for  you 
in  the  morning  and  show  you  the 
w^av." 

The  next  morning  when  the  wolf 
called  out:  "Are  you  ready,  little 
pig?"  the  little  pig  replied:  "Dear  me, 
how  late  you  are!  I've  been  back  an 
hour  or  more.  I'm  sure  I'm  much 
obliged  to  you;  they  were  fine  tur- 
nips ! 

The  wolf  was  furious;  but,  pretend- 
ing he  did  not  mind,  he  said,  quite 
pleasantly : 

"Do  you  like  apples?  I  know  an 
orchard  down  the  lane  where  the  trees 
are  covered  with  fruit.  I'll  call  for 
you  in  the  morning,  and  show  you  the 
way." 

The  next  morning  the  wolf  got  up 
very  early,  and  walked  round  to  the 
little  pig's  house.  But  the  little  pig 
must  have  got  up  earlier  still,  for  when 
the  wolf  arrived  he  found  him  out. 

The  wolf  hurried  off  to  the  orchard; 
but  the  little  pig  saw  him  coming,  and 
climbed  up  into  a  tree. 

"These  are  indeed  fine  apples,"  he 
called  out,  as  the  wolf  came  up  to  it. 
"Just  try  this  one."  And  he  threw 
the  apple  as  far  away  as  he  could  into 


THE  WOLF  CAME  BACK  AGAIN  TO  THE  HOUSE 


"Dear  me,  how  late  you  are!"  said  the  little  pig  when  he  saw  the  wolf.     "I've  been  back  an  hour  or  more. 
I'm  much  obliged  to  you;  they  were  fine  turnips!"     The  wolf  was  furious,  but  pretended  he  did  not  mind. 

351 


I'm  sure 


352  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

some    long    grass.     Then,    while    the  braver,    he   went    to    the    little    pig's 

wolf  was  hunting  for  it,  the  little  pig  house. 

scrambled    down    the    tree,    and    ran  "I  was  just  on  my  way  to  call  for 

home.  you  this  afternoon,"  he  shouted  out, 

The  wolf  did  not  like  being  beaten,  "when  I   met  the  most  awful   thing 

so  the  next  morning  he  went  again  to  rolling  down  the  hill  all  by  itself.     It 

the  little  pig's  house,  and  said:  gave   me   a   horrible   fright,    I   assure 

"Little  pig,  little  pig,  there's  going  you.     There  must  have  been  a  witch 

to  be  a  fair  on  the  village  green  this  inside." 

afternoon.     You  come  along  with  me.  The  little  pig  burst  out  laughing, 

and  we'll  both  have  a  fine  time.     I'll  and  he  laughed  so  loud  and  he  laughed 

call  for  you  at  exactly  three  o'clock."  so  long  that  the  old  wolf  got  annoyed. 

The  little  pig  said  nothing,  but  at  "I  was  the  old  witch,"  said  the  little 

half  past  two  he  started  off  for  the  pig,  as  soon  as  he  could  speak.     "I 

fair.     He   bought   a  churn,   and  was  spied  you  a  long  way  off,  and  I  jumped 

rolling  it  home,  when  he  saw  the  wolf  inside  to  save  my  skin." 

in  the  distance.     Quick  as  lightning  This  so  enraged  the  wolf  that  he 

the  little  pig  jumped  into  the  churn  to  jumped  up  on  to  the  roof  and  began 

hide,  and  set  it  rolling  down  the  hill,  sliding  down  the  chimney.     But  it  was 

The  hill  was  steep,  and  the  churn  came  baking  day,  and  the  little  pig  had  made 

flying  along  at  such  a  speed  that  the  a  huge  fire.     Down,  down,  down  slid 

wolf  became  frightened,  so  he  turned  the  wolf;    there  was  nothing  to  save 

back  and  ran    home    as    fast    as  he  him.     He  sank  right  down  into  the 

could.  fire,  and  was  burned  to  cinders.     And 

Some    hours    later,    when    he    felt  that  was  the  end  of  the  old  wolf. 


THE    STORY    OF    THE    DAYS 

Sunday.  Monday,  Tuesday,  wednes-  selves.     But  they  are  only  separated 

DAY,  THURSDAY,  FRIDAY.  SATURDAY  f^^^^^  ^^^^  OtJ^^j.  ^y  ,,,^1]^  ^^  g^^^p^  ^j^^J 

HAVE  you  ever  met  Mr.  and  they  talk  to  each  other  through  the 

Mrs.    Day?     A   more   useful  telephone  of  Dreams, 
family  you  will  never  meet  Now,  this  is  the  first  room,  occupied 

from    one   year's    end    to    the    other,  by  Mr.  Day,  who  does  less  work  than 

They  are,  in  fact,  the  best  servants  of  the   rest   of   the   family,   but   who   is 

the  human  race,  and  do  as  much  work  very  far  from  being  idle.     He  puts  on 

in  their  time  as  anything  or  anybody  a  surplice  and  holds  Church  services, 

on  the  face  of  the  earth.     We  must  and  he  also  has  to  provide  the  whole 

make  their  acquaintance.  of  the  human  race  with  amusements 

The  seven-roomed  house  in  which  and  recreations.     He  is  the  father  of 

they  live  is  called  "The  Week,"  and  the  family,  and  he  is  known  by  the 

it  stands  in  Month  Street,  which  is  one  name  of  Sun  Day. 
of  the  twelve  roads  running  through  "Hullo,    Mr.   Sun   Day!     How   are 

Year  Town  in  the  wonderful  country  you?     Glad  to  see  you.     But  every- 

of  Time.     We  will  enter  this   house  body's  that,  eh?     There  is  no  member 

and  go  through  the  seven  rooms  to-  of  j^our  family  quite  so  popular  as  you 

gether.     Mr.  Day  lives  in  one  room,  are!     Come,  I  hope  you  are  glad  to  see 

Mrs.  Day  in  another,  and  their  five  me,  too.     I've  brought  a  little  friend 

^children  have  each  a  room  to  them-  with  me,  who  w^ants  to  know  how  you 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


353 


AGES  AGO  MEN  WORSHIPED  THE  SUN  AND  CALLED  THE  FIRST  DAY  OF  THE  WEEK  AFTER  IT 


got  your  name,  and  to  hear  something 
of  your  history.  Do  you  feel  Hke 
talking  for  a  few  moments?" 

"How  I  got  my  name?  Well,  that's 
an  old  story,  that  is.  How  I  got  my 
bad  name  isn't  nearlj^  so  old;  and  how 
I  am  getting  my  good  name  is  quite  a 
new  story.  Nevertheless,  just  to 
oblige  your  young  friend,  I'll  run  the 
whole  three  stories  into  one,  and  begin 
with  the  old  one.  Far  back  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  young  friend, 
people  could  see  nothing  so  wonderful, 
nothing  so  beautiful,  and  nothing  so 
useful  as  the  sun.  They  had  in  them 
what  is  called  the  instinct  of  worship — 
that  is  to  say,  they  had  a  feeling  that 
there  was  Something  greater,  stronger, 
and  more  glorious  than  themselves — 
Something  that  they  ought  to  fear, 
reverence,  and  worship.  The  sun 
seemed  to  these  first  people  the  token 
or  sign  of  that  Something,  and  they 
worshiped  it.  The  sun,  in  fact,  be- 
came the  visible  expression  of   God. 


Now,  when  the  world  got  wiser,  and 
men  and  women  knew  more  about 
the  true  God,  they  still  kept  the  old 
idea  of  the  heathen  in  their  heads,  and 
called  the  Christian  Sabbath — which 
means  the  day  of  rest — Sunday. 
They  no  longer  worshiped  the  sun, 
but  they  called  the  first  day  of  the 
week  after  it,  and  that  is  how  I  got 
my  name. 

"People  loved  me  then,  and  I  gave 
rest,  and  pleasure,  and  festivity  to 
hundreds  of  generations.  Well,  as 
time  passed  on,  people  began  to  make 
me  anything  but  a  sun-day;  they  made 
me  a  black  day.  Children  were  not 
allow^ed  to  play ;  books  and  games  were 
put  away  and  locked  up  in  cupboards 
as  something  wicked;  and  all  my 
precious  hours  were  spent  in  gloom  and 
solemnity. 

"Then  it  was  that  I  got  a  thoroughly 
bad  name.  People  said  Sunday  was  the 
gloomiest  day  in  the  week;  they  ate  too 
much,    and    sat    about   yawning   and 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


grumbling.  Just  lately  I've  reminded 
them  that  the  Founder  of  Religion  once 
said :  The  Sabbath  was  made  for  man, 
not  man  for  the  Sabbath.  They  don't 
quite  understand  just  yet  what  that 
means.  Some  of  them  are  noisy  and 
wild  and  foolish  on  the  Sabbath;  they 
have  gone  to  the  other  extreme.  But 
it  will  come  right  soon.  People  will 
use  me  for  rest  of  body  and  mind  in  a 
proper  w^ay,  and  my  good  name  will  be 
restored. 


for  Moon.  She  is  really  Moon  Day, 
the  day  sacred  to  the  wife  of  the  Sun. 
In  ancient  times  people  called  the 
goddess  of  the  moon  Diana,  and 
temples  were  built  for  her  in  nearly 
every  quarter  of  the  world.  They 
used  to  think  that  Phoebus  Apollo,  the 
Sun  God,  drove  his  flaming  chariot 
across  the  sky  by  day,  and  that  Diana 
drove  her  silver  chariot  through  the  sky 
by  night.  They  loved  Diana  because 
she  was  gentle  and  beautiful.     Woods 


MONDAY  WAS  SACRED  TO  THE  MOON,  THE  WIFE  OF  THE  SUN,  WHO  WALKED  IN  THE  WOODS 


"Well,  let  us  pass  to  the  next  room 
and  see  what  Mrs.  Day  will  tell  us." 

"I've  no  time  to  stay  to  gossip.  I'm 
a  busy  woman.  Everybody  knows 
that  I'm  the  busiest  day  in  the  week. 
It's  coming  after  Sunday  that  does  it. 
Ah,  he's  a  lazy  fellow,  my  husband  is . 
The  mess  I  have  to  clear  up  after  him! 
I  don't  believe  in  holidays— except 
Easter  Mondays.  Let  everyone  do 
his  work." 

"We  mustn't  interrupt  her,"  said 
Mr.  Day.     "Her  name  of  Mon  is  short 


were  sacred  to  her  because  she  could 
be  seen  walking  through  them. 
Roiuid  cakes  were  made  on  her  feast 
day,  with  candles  stuck  round  them. 

And  now  we  must  peep  into  the 
room  of  INIr.  and  Mrs.  Day's  eldest 
son.  Master  Tues  Da,y.  You  observe 
that  he  has  only  got  one  hand,  and  the 
story  of  how  he  lost  his  other  hand  is 
the  story  of  how  he  came  by  his  name. 

The  Norsemen  had  a  god  of  w^ar 
named  Tyr,  and  w^hen  a  terrible  wolf- 
spirit,  named  Fenris,  had  to  be  cap- 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


355 


TYR,  THE  GOD  OF  WAR,  CAPTURED  THE  WOLF-SPIRIT,  AND  TUESDAY  IS  NAMED  AFTER  HIM 


tured,  because  he  was  troubling  the 
whole  earth,  it  was  Tyr  who  undertook 
the  dangerous  venture.  The  spirits 
of  the  mountains  had  made  a  chain 
out  of  the  hardest  things  in  the  world 
to  find — the  footsteps  of  a  cat,  the 
beards  of  women,  the  roots  of  stones, 
the  breath  of  fishes,  the  nerves  of 
bears,  and  the  spittle  of  birds.  This 
strange  chain  could  not  be  broken,  and 
with  it  Fenris  was  to  be  bound. 

But  Fenris  would  not  allow  even 
this  soft-looking  chain  to  be  put  round 
his  neck,  and  said  he  would  only  suffer 


it  if  the  gods  would  promise  to  take  it 
off  again,  and  would  send  a  god  to  put 
his  hand  in  the  wolf's  mouth.  Tyr 
was  the  only  god  brave  enough  to 
volunteer.  He  put  his  hand  in  the 
mouth  of  Fenris,  and  Fenris  was 
bound;  then,  in  his  rage  at  being  cap- 
tured, he  bit  off  the  hand  of  the  god. 
It  is  curious  that  the  French  name  for 
Tuesday  is  Mardi — that  is,  the  day  of 
Mars,  who  was  also  a  god  of  war  like 
the  Norseman's  Tyr,  who  gives  us  Tyr's 
Day,  or  Tuesday.  The  second  son 
of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Dav  is  named  after 


WEDNESDAY  IS  CALLED  AFTER  WODEN,  WHO  SENT  RAVENS  ROUND  THE  WORLD  FOR  NEWS 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE  MORE  THAT  THOR.  THE  GOD  OF  THURSDAY,  TRIED  TO  DRAIiN  THE  HORN,  THE  MORE  IT  FILLED 


Woden,  or  Odin,  the  greatest  god  of  the 
Scandinavians.  Woden  hved  in  a 
palace  built  entirely  of  gold  and  silver, 
which  was  called  Valhalla.  Two 
ravens  stood  on  his  shoulders,  and 
when  he  wanted  news  of  the  world  he 
sent  these  ravens  to  fly  round  the 
earth  and  bring  him  intelligence  of 
everything  they  saw  and  heard. 

Round  about  him  stood  maidens 
with  helmets,  and  spears,  and  shields, 
and  these  maidens,  named  Valkyries, 
were  sent  down  to  earth  to  bring  the 
souls  of  heroes  slain  in  battle  to  feast 


with  Woden  in  Valhalla.  While  they 
feasted,  Woden  listened  to  their  stories 
and  drank  mead.  He  never  ate  any- 
thing himself.  Our  friend  Wednes 
Day  is  rather  odd  and  capricious  in  his 
habits.  He  sends  his  Valkyries  to 
bring  boys  and  girls  into  Valhalla  for 
a  half-holidav,  but  leaves  the  rest  of 
the  world  hard  at  work.  But  he  is 
a  good  fellow,  and  everybody  likes  him. 
He  lives  in  the  middle  of  the  house 
and  seems  to  be  saying  all  day  long : 

"Work  away;  work  away!  Sunday 
will  soon  be  here  again." 


FRIDAY  WAS  NAMED  AFTER  FREY'A,  THE  Wll  L  Ol    WODEN,  SO  THAT  SHE  MIGHT  NOT  BE  JEALOUS 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


357 


And  now  here  we  are  at  the  fifth 
room,  occupied  by  Master  Thurs  Day. 
Isn't  he  a  big  strong,  vigorous  fellow? 
If  ever  you  have  a  hard  bit  of  work  to 
do,  start  at  it  on  Thursday — the  day 
of  strength  and  power.  Thurs  Day 
gets  his  name  from  Thor,  the  strongest 
of  all  the  Scandinavian  gods.  Thor  had 
a  hammer  which  no  man  could  lift,  a 
pair  of  iron  gloves,  and  a  belt  which, 
when  it  was  fastened  round  him, 
doubled  his  great  strength.  But  once 
the  mighty  hammer  was  lost,  and  a 
giant  named  Thrym  hid  it.  He  said 
he  would  only  give  it  up  if  the  goddess 
Freya  would  marry  him.  Thor  dis- 
guised himself  in  Freva's  dress  and 
went  to  visit  the  giant.  He  received 
the  hammer,  and  slew  Thrym  and  all 
the  other  giants. 

The  sixth  room  belongs  to  Mr.  and 


Mrs.  Day's  only  daughter,  Fri  Day, 
named  after  the  goddess  Freya,  who 
refused  to  marry  Thrym.  How  this 
female  Day  got  her  name  is  rather  sad. 
Woden  was  Freya's  husband,  Thor  her 
son;  and  it  was  only  because  she  might 
be  jealous  that  our  ancestors  named  a 
day  after  her  when  they  had  given  one 
to  Woden  and  one  to  Thor.  However, 
Friday  is  a  very  sacred  day,  although 
some  superstitious  people  think  it  is  a 
day  of  ill-luck. 

And  now  here  is  another  half- 
holiday  room,  Satur  Day,  who  gets  his 
name  from  the  Roman  god  Saturn, 
a  god  who  ate  his  own  children.  For 
us  Saturday  is  one  of  the  pleasantest 
days  in  the  week,  although  some  of  the 
games  and  feastings  of  our  Saturday 
crowds  remind  us  of  those  terrible 
Saturnalia  which  disgraced  Rome. 


SATURDAY  IS  THE  DAY  OF  SATURN,  IN  WHOSE  HONOR  THE  ROMANS  USED  TO  FEAST  AND  DRINK 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


AURORA 


THE   STORY   OF  APOLLO   AND   LETO 


In  very  early  days  people,  as  we 
now  know,  had  very  little  true  knowl- 
edge of  the  sun  and  moon  and  stars; 
of  the  sea  and  the  winds  and  the 
storms.  Indeed,  they  knew  as  little 
of  these  as  they  did  of  the  Crea- 
tion. 

To  them  it  was  all  very,  very  won- 
derful, and  they  thought  out  wonder- 
ful stories  to  account  for  what  they 
saw  on  the  earth  and  in  the  skies 
above  them. 

They  knew  that  when  the  sun  shone, 
the  green  grass  sprang  up;  the  flowers 
came;  the  trees  were  loaded  with 
fruit,  and  food  was  plentiful. 

So  they  began  to  say  to  each  other, 
"The  sun  is  our  Good  Spirit,  the  Lov- 
ing One  who  watches  over  us  and  takes 
care  of  us." 

And  so  it  came  about  that,  by  and 
by,  these  early  people  became  sun 
worshippers;  they  prayed  and  offered 
sacrifices  to  the  sun;  and  after  a  long 
time  there  grew  up  many  stories  of 
the  sun. 

Here  is  a  story  of  the  Sun  God  as 
the  early  Greek  people  used  to  tell  it 
to  their  little  boys  and  girls: 

Once  there  was  only  darkness  upon 
the  earth.     Then  a  beautiful  woman. 


Leto,  came  wandering  up  and  down 
the  dark  earth,  carrying  in  her  arms  a 
beautiful,   sunny-haired   baby  boy. 

"Let  us  dwell  here  in  your  land," 
said  Leto  to  the  people.  "Let  me  rest 
here  upon  your  hillsides.  Behold,  I 
bring  the  light  of  day  to  you,"  she 
pleaded.  "I  will  bring  you  power  and 
wealth  and  rich  harvests  and  beautiful 
flowers,  for  the  Sun  God  shall  abide  in 
the  land  which  gives  me  shelter." 

"We  know,"  said  the  king  of  Crete, 
"that  all  these  things  are  promised 
wherever  the  Sun  God  shall  dwell; 
but  we  are  afraid  of  you;  we  fear  your 
dark  and  terrible  beauty." 

"We  know  that  such  a  god  is 
promised,"  said  also  the  king  of 
Athens;  "and  gladly  would  our  people 
welcome  him.  But  how  are  we  to 
know  that  you  are  the  mother  of  this 
radiant  god?  No,  Leto,  we  dare  not 
open  our  gates  to  you.  Go  hence;  we 
await  the  coming  of  Apollo." 

And  so  from  land  to  land  Leto 
wandered,  till  at  last  she  came  to  the 
island  of  Delos.  It  was  but  a  barren 
little  island  in  the  midst  of  a  great 
blue  sea.  Its  shores  were  rocky; 
its  fields  were  bare;  its  mountains 
black  and  grim  and  wild. 


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359 


And  in  the  island  dwelt  a  king  whose 
people  were  poor  and  ignorant.  He 
had  neither  wealth  nor  power;  and 
scarcely  was  the  name  of  this  king 
known  among  the  people  of  the  lands 
that  bound  the  sea. 

"Delos,  Delos,"  cried  Leto,  when 
she  came  to  this  rocky  shore,  "listen 
to  the  voice  of  Leto.  Give  me  welcome 
and  I  will  bring  glory  and  great  wealth 
and  power  to  your  people.  The  island 
of  Delos  shall  be  a  temple;  and  to  its 
altars  people  from  all  nations  shall 
come,  bringing  their  offerings.  Wel- 
come me,  and  my  child,  the  Sun  God, 
Apollo,  will  love  you  and  will  abide 
forever  in  your  land." 

Then  said  the  king  of  Delos,  "Leto, 
it  cannot  be  that  the  Apollo  would 
care  to  dwell  upon  our  barren  island. 
Little  have  we  to  offer  this  glorious 
child  of  thine;  for  we  have  but  a 
rocky  soil.  The  mountains  are  black 
and  rough.  Our  people  are  fierce. 
They  know  little  of  the  wealth  and 
glory  of  other  lands.  A  weary  home 
would  this  be  for  a  child  like  the  fair 
Apollo." 

"O  king  of  Delos!  can  you  not  be- 
lieve that  the  promise  I  make  shall  be 
fulfilled.?"  said  Leto. 

Then  the  good  king  said,  "Even 
though  the  child  shall  not  remain  in 
this  land  of  Delos;    and  even  though 


this  island  has  little  to  offer  either  to 
gods  or  men,  let  it  not  be  said  that  we 
failed  to  welcome  any  stranger  who 
came  to  our  shores.  Enter,  Leto,  and 
rest  in  Delos." 

Then  Leto  entered.  The  darkness 
grew  deeper  and  deeper  upon  the 
island  and  there  was  stillness  even 
upon  the  seas.  The  king  and  all  his 
people  slept,  but  happy  dreams,  how- 
ever, came  to  them;  dreams  of  glory 
and  power;  dreams  of  beauty  and 
greatness;  dreams  of  light  and  of  a 
splendor  which  the  earth  had  never 
known. 

By  and  by  the  king  awoke.  Upon 
the  mountain  tops  he  saw  a  new, 
strange  light  and  brightness  shining 
behind  the  great,  dark  pillars  of  rock. 
Gradually  the  light  grew  brighter. 
And  behold,  there  upon  the  mountain 
top  stood  Apollo,  the  Sun  God,  his 
hair  shining  like  gold  in  the  fresh  new 
light  of  day. 

He  smiled  down  upon  the  plain,  and 
the  plain  blossomed  into  color.  Grains 
grew  and  waved  their  happy  blossoms 
in  the  wind;  flowers  sprang  forth — 
flowers  of  richest  color  and  sweetest 
odors. 

For  Apollo,  the  Sun  God,  had  come ! 
He  had  made  his  home  in  Delos;  and 
there  was  joy  in  the  island  from  shore 
to  shore. 


JINGLES,  VERSES  AND  POEMS  FOR  LITTLE  PEOPLE 


Under  a  toadstool 
Crept  a  wee  Elf, 

Out  of  the  rain. 
To  shelter  himself. 

Under  the  toadstool, 
Sound  asleep. 

Sat  a  big  Dormouse 
All  in  a  heap. 


/". 


Trembled  the  wee  Elf, 
Frightened,  and  yet 

Fearing  to  fly  away 
Lest  he  got  wet. 

To  the  next  shelter^ 
Maybe  a  mile! 

Sudden  the  wee  Elf 
Smiled  a  wee  smile. 


Tugged  till  the  toadstool 

Toppled  in  two. 
Holding  it  over  him, 

Gaily  he  flew. 

Soon  he  was  safe  home. 

Dry  as  could  be. 
Soon  woke  the  Dormouse 

"Good  gracious  me!" 


"Where  is  my  toadstool?" 
Loud  he  lamented — 

And  that's  how  umbrellas 
First  were  invented. 


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CiMPLE  Simon  met  a  pieman 
^     Going  to  the  fair  ; 
Says  Simple 

Simon   to    the 

pieman  : 
"  Let    me    taste 

your  ware." 
Says  the  pieman 

unto  Simon  • 
"  First  give   me 

your  penny  !  " 
Says  Simple   Si- 
mon   to      the 

pieman  *. 


not 


catch   a 


"  Indeed,    I    have 

any." 
He   went    to 

dicky  bird, 
And  thought  he  would 

not  fail, 
Because  he  had  a  little 

salt 
To      put     upon      his 

tail 
He    went    to    ride    a 

spotted  cow 
That  had  a  little  calf ; 

She  threw 
him  down  up- 
on the  ground. 

Which  made 
the  people 
laugh. 


Then  Simple  Simon 

went  a-hunting 
For  to  catch  a  hare ; 
He    rode    a    goat 

about  the  street, 
But      could       not 

find  one  there. 
Simple    Simon 

went  to  town 
To    buy    a    piece 

of  meat ; 

He  tied  it  to  his  horse's  tail 
To  keep  it  clean  and  sweet. 

Simple  Simon  went  a-iish- 
ing 
For  to  catch 

a  whale. 
And    all    the 
water    he 
had  got 
Was  in  his  mother's  pail. 


Simon 


He  went  to  take  a  bird's  nest— 

'Twas   built  upon  a 

bough  , 
A  branch  gave  way. 

and  Simon  fell 
Into  a  dirty  slough. 
He  went  to  shoot  a 

wild  duck, 
But    the  wild  duck 
L       flew  away  , 
Says 
can't  hit  him 
Because  he  will 

not  stay  " 
Once        Simon 
made  a  great 
snowball, 
And  brought  it 

in  to  roast  , 
He  laid  it  down 
upon  the  fire, 
And    soon  the   ball  was  lost 
He  went  to  slide  upon  the  ice, 
Before       the       ice 
would  bear 


Then  he  plunged  in  — ^  ^^iZSL-  ^ 

above  his  knees, 
Which      made       poor 

Simon  stare. 

Simple  Simon  went  to 

look 
If    plums    grew   on   a 

thistle  ; 
He  pricked    his  finger 

very  much. 
Which      made       poor 

Simon      whistle. 

He  washed  himself  with 
blacking  ball. 

Because  he  had  no  soap  ; 

And  then  said  to  his 
mother  : 

"I'm  a  beauty  now,  I 
hope." 


He  went  for  water 

in    a  sieve. 
But  soon  it  all  ran 

through. 
And       now       poor 

Simple        Simon 
Bids  you  all  adieu. 


-c*^^ 


-5s.< 


HE  comes  in  the  night !     He  comes  in  tlie 
night! 
He  softly,  silently  comes; 
While  the  little  brown  heads  on  the  pillows  so 
white 
Are  dreaming  of  bugles  and  drums. 
He  cuts  through  the  snow  like  a  ship  through 
the  foam, 
While  the  white  flakes  around  him  whirl; 
Who  tells  him  I  know  not,  but  he  findeth  the  home 
Of  each  good  little  boy  and  girl. 

His  sleigh  it  is  long,  and  deep,  and  wide; 

It  will  carry  a  host  of  things. 
While  dozens  of  drums  hang  over  the  side. 

With  the  sticks  sticking  under  the  strings. 


And  yet  not  the  sound  of  a  drum  is  heard. 

Not  a  bugle  blast  is  blown. 
As  he  mounts  to  the  chimney-top  like  a  bird. 

And  drops  to  the  hearth  like  a  stone. 

The  little  red  stockings  he  silently  fills 

Till  the  stockings  will  hold  no  more; 
The  bright  little  sleds  for  the  great  snow  hills 

Are  quickly  set  down  on  the  floor. 
Then  Santa  Claus  mounts  to  the  roof  like  a  bird. 

And  glides  to  his  seat  in  the  sleigh; 
Not  the  sound  of  a  bugle  or  drum  is  heard 

As  he  noiselessly  gallops  away. 

He  rides  to  the  East,  and  he  rides  to  the  West, 

Of  his  goodies  he  touches  not  one; 
He  eateth  the  crumbs  of  the  Christmas  feast 

When  the  dear  little  folks  are  done. 
Old  Santa  Claus  doeth  all  he  can. 

This  beautiful  mission  is  his; 
Then,  children,  be  good  to  the  little  old  man, 

When  you  find  who  the  little  man  is. 


tr.^ij-!- ---J 


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363 


THE  BATTLE  OF  BLENHEIM 

The  great  battle  of  Blenheim,  a  town  on  the  River 
Danube,  was  fought  on  August  13th,  1704,  Marl- 
borough commanding  the  English  army  allied  with 
the  Germans  against  the  French  and  Bavarians.  It 
was  "a  famous  victory,"  but  37,000  lives  were  lost. 
The  poem  was  written  by  Robert  Southey,  who  was 
made  Poet  Laureate  of  England  in  1813,  though  we 
cannot  call  him  a  great  poet.  By  means  of  a  very 
simple  talk  between  an  old  man  and  a  little  boy  and 
girl,  who  had  found  the  skull  of  one  of  the  slain 
soldiers  a  hundred  years  after  the  battle,  the  poet 
shows  us  what  a  terrible  curse  is  war. 

It  was  a  summer  evening, 

Old  Kaspar's  work  was  done. 
And  he  before  his  cottage  door 

Was  sitting  in  the  sim; 
And  by  him  sported  on  the  green 
His  httle  grandchild,  Wilhelmine. 

She  saw  her  brother  Peterkin 

Roll  something  large  and  round, 
Which  he  beside  the  rivulet 

In  playing  there  had  found; 
He  came  to  ask  what  he  had  found. 
That  was  so  large  and  smooth,  and  round. 
Old  Kaspar  took  it  from  the  boy. 

Who  stood  expectant  by; 
And  then  the  old  man  shook  his  head, 

And  with  a  natural  sigh — 
*"Tis  some  poor  fellows  skull,"  said  he, 
"AMio  fell  in  the  great  victory. 

"I  find  them  in  my  garden,  for 
There's  many  here  about; 
And  often  when  I  go  to  plough 

The  ploughshare  turns  them  out; 
For  many  thousand  men,"  said  he, 
"Were  slain  in  that  great  victory." 


'Now  tell  us  what  "twas  all  about," 

Young  Peterkin  he  cries. 
And  little  Wilhelmine  looks  up 

With  wonder-waiting  eyes. 
'Now  tell  us  all  about  the  war. 
And  what  they  fought  each  other  for." 

'It  was  the  English,"  Kaspar  cried, 

"Who  \)\\t  the  French  to  rout; 
But  what  they  fought  each  other  for 

I  could  not  well  make  out. 
But  everybody  said,"  quoth  he, 

"That  'twas  a  famous  victorv. 


"They  say  it  was  a  shocking  sight 

After  the  field  was  won; 
For  many  thousand  bodies  here 

Lay  rotting  in  the  sun: 
But  things  like  that,  you  know,  must  be. 
After  a  famous  victory. 

"Great  praise  the  Duke  of  Marlbro'  won. 
And  our  good  Prince  Eugene." 

"Why.  'twas  a  very  wicked  thing!" 
Said  little  Wilhelmine. 

"Nay,  nay,  my  little  girl,"  quoth  he, 

"It  was  a  famous  victory! 

"And  everybody  praised  the  Duke 
Who  this  great  fight  did  wan." 

"But  what  good  came  of  it  at  last?" 
Quoth  little  Peterkin. 

"WTiy,  that  I  cannot  tell,"  said  he, 

"But  'twas  a  famous  victorv." 


TIS  SOME  POOR  FELLOW 'S  SKULL,"  SAID  HE,   "WHO  FELL  IN  TH.\T  GREAT  VICTORY." 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


HOW  PETER  PAN  FOUND  HIS  SHADOW 


T 


HERE  was  once  upon   a  time 
little    girl    named    Wendy 


a 


Moira  Angela  Darling.  She 
lived  in  a  house  with  her  brothers, 
John  Napoleon  Darling  and  Michael 
Nicholas  Darling.  This  house  was 
an  ordinary  house  of  brick  and  slates, 
but  one  thing  about  it  was  quite  ex- 
traordinary. It  contained  a  Newfound- 
land dog  whose  name  was  Nana,  and 
this  dog  acted  as  nurse  to  the  three 
children. 


ing  this  brave  and  powerful  dog  as 
the  children's  nurse.  One  night,  on 
visiting  the  nursery,  she  had  seen  a 
strange  flitting  shape  moving  quickly 
to  and  fro  in  the  dim  glow  of  the 
nightlight.  At  sight  of  Mrs.  Darling 
this  shape  rushed  to  the  window.  Mrs. 
Darling  darted  towards  it.  Just  as  it 
sprang  into  the  night  ISIrs.  Darling 
pulled  down  the  window  with  a  bang. 
The  shape  escaped ;  but  something  fell 
on  the  floor  at  Mrs.  Darling's  feet.     It 


Peter  Pan  saves  the  children  Irom  the  pirates 


Nana  was  so  clever  that  he  never 
allowed  the  children  to  put  on  a 
flannel  night  dress  before  it  was  aired 
at  the  fire;  and  he  knew  how  to  turn 
on  the  hot  water  when  it  was  bath- 
time;  and  however  the  children  might 
cry  that  they  would  not  be  bathed,  or 
that  they  would  not  go  to  bed.  Nana 
always  insisted  that  they  should. 

Now  Mrs.  Darling  loved  Nana,  and 
she  had  a  particular  reason  for  keep- 


was  the  shadow  of  this  strange,  flitting 
creature.  Mrs.  Darling  put  the  shadow 
in  a  drawer;  but  she  felt  very  nervous 
for  the  safety  of  the  children.  She 
feared  that  the  shape  might  come 
back  and  do  them  some  dreadful  harm. 
The  only  comfort  she  had  was  the 
presence  of  Nana  in  the  nursery.  The 
big  dog,  she  thought,  would  protect 
her  children  from  all  danger.  But  one 
night   Mr.   Darling  was  rather  cross. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


365 


and  he  said  it  was  ridiculous  to  liave  a 
dog  for  a  nurse;  and  he  got  so  cross  at 
last  that  he  said  Nana  should  sleep  in  a 
kennel  in  the  yard.  Mrs.  Darling 
pleaded;  the  children  cried;  Nana 
barked.  Mr.  Darling,  however,  was 
extremely  cross,  and  Nana  was  led 
away  to  the  yard,  moaning  and  growl- 
ing. 

That  night  the  window  was  thrust 
open,  and  into  the  room  glided  and 
skipped  the  mysterious  shape. 

"Where  is  my  shadow.''"  it  cried; 
while  Nana  barked  furiously  outside. 

"I  can't  be  happy  without  my 
shadow.  Tinker  Bell,  Tinker  Bell, 
where  is  my  dear  little  shadow?" 

Instantly  a  spot  of  light  flicked 
into  the  room,  and  sprang  round  the 
walls,  and  over  the  ceiling,  and  down 
the  beds,  and  across  the  carpet,  mak- 
ing a  tinkling  sound  wherever  it  flitted 
and  whenever  it  settled  for  a  moment. 
This  was  the  fairy  Tinker  Bell,  a  little 
female  fairy.  She  told  the  shape 
where  the  shadow  lay,  and  soon  the 
drawer  was  open,  the  shadow  pulled 
forth,  and  the  shape  skipped  round 
the  room  with  delight,  singing,  danc- 
ing, laughing  in  its  joy,  while  Tinker 
Bell  flashed  round  the  room  like  a 
luminous  butterfly.  But,  alas!  when 
the  shape  tried  to  make  the  shadow 
stick  on,  it  refused,  and  so  all  the  de- 
light went,  and  the  shape  burst  into 
passionate  tears. 

Just  at  this  moment  Wendy  awoke. 
She  was  not  frightened,  and  asked  the 
little  shape  why  it  was  crying.  Then 
she  asked  it  its  name,  and  the  shape 
told  her  that  it  was  Peter  Pan.  Wendy 
got  needle  and  thread  and  stitched  the 
shadow  on  to  Peter  Pan,  and  then 
Peter  Pan  danced  with  joy,  for  wher- 
ever he  went  the  shadow  followed  him 
on  the  floor. 

Peter  Pan  then  told  Wendy  his 
story.  He  said  that  he  lived  in  a 
place  called  Never-Never-Land,  with  a 


lot  of  little  boys  who  had  all  been 
dropped  out  of  their  perambulators  by 
careless  nurses;  and  that  they  lived 
with  fairies  and  v/ould  never  grow  up, 
but  for  always  and  always  would  re- 
main happy  boys  in  this  enchanting 
Never-Never-Land. 

He  told  her  that  when  the  first  baby 
laughed,  the  laughter  broke  into  little 
pieces,  and  each  little  piece  became  a 
fairy,  and  went  dancing  about  the 
world.     But    whenever    a    child    says 


SlaLuc  ul  I'elur  I'un  in  Kini^myLuu  Gardi;us.  Loudon 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


that  it  does  not  believe  in  fairies,  then 
one  of  the  fairies  dies.  Peter  Pan  said 
it  was  dreadful  for  a  child  to  say  it  did 
not  believe  in  fairies.  There  was  only 
one  other  thing  that  made  them  sad, 
he  said,  and  this  was  the  want  of  a 
mother;  all  the  boys  in  Never-Never- 
Land  wanted  to  have  a  mother  very 
much  indeed.  Wendy  asked  if  there 
was  not  a  little  girl  among  them  who 
could  pretend  to  be  their  mother;  but 
Peter  Pan  shook  his  head  and  answered 
that  girls  never  dropped  out  of  their 
perambulators,  they  were  far  too 
clever.  This  pleased  Wendy,  and  she 
loved  Peter  Pan. 

"Oh,  Wendy,"  cried  Peter,  "come 
and  live  with  us  and  be  our  mother!" 

The  two  boys  woke  up.  Peter  Pan 
said  he  would  teach  them  all  to  fly  if 
Wendy  would  only  come  and  be  their 
mother.  All  this  time  Tinker  Bell 
was  tinkling  angrily,  and  telling  Peter 
Pan  to  come  away  at  once.  Tinker 
Bell  loved  Peter  Pan,  and  was  jealous 
of  Wendy. 

When  the  children  heard  that  they 
could  learn  to  fly,  they  were  quite 
excited,  and  immediately  began  to 
spring  in  the  air.  But  every  time, 
they  fell  and  sprawled  on  the  ground, 
or  bumped  flat  on  the  beds. 

"You  must  think  beautiful 
thoughts,"  cried  Peter  Pan;  and,  so 
saying,  soared  up  gracefully  into  the 
air,  and  sailed  noiselessly  round  the 
room. 

Soon  the  children  learned,  and  all 
began  to  fly  round  the  room  with  cries 
of  delight.  Then  the  windows  opened 
wide,  and  Peter  Pan  led  the  way  into 
the  night;  and  while  Tinker  Bell 
tinkled  loudly  and  Nana  barked  w  arn- 
ingly,  the  children  soared  towards  the 
stars. 

The  boys  in  Never-Never-Land  were 
beginning  to  get  anxious  about  Peter 
Pan,  who  was  their  captain.  He 
seemed  to  be  a  long  time  away,  and 


they  were  frightened  of  wolves  and 
pirates.  While  they  were  wondering 
what  had  happened  to  Peter,  they  saw 
what  looked  to  them  like  a  large  white 
bird  in  the  sky. 

As  they  gazed  at  it.  Tinker  Bell  sud- 
denly shone  on  the  trees,  and,  tinkling 
very  loudly,  told  them  that  Peter  Pan 
wanted  them  to  shoot  this  bird  at  once. 
So  they  ran  and  got  bows  and  arrows, 
and  shot  them  into  the  air.  Suddenly 
down  fell — what  do  you  think? — poor 
Wendy  with  an  arrow  in  her  breast. 
Jealous  little  Tinker  Bell  was  responsi- 
ble for  this  awful  deed. 

But  she  was  not  killed.  Soon  she 
revived,  and  then  with  her  brothers 
round  her,  and  Peter  Pan  holding  her 
hand,  she  promised  all  the  boys  to  be 
their  mother.  Then  they  set  to,  and 
built  Wendy  a  funny  little  house,  with 
the  silk  hat  of  John  Napoleon  Darling 
for  its  chimney-pot;  and  everybody 
was  wonderfully  happy,  except  Tinker 
Bell,  who  was  more  and  more  jealous 
of  Wendy. 

Now,  while  they  were  so  happy  in 
their  house,  through  the  wood  came 
the  terrible  pirates.  The  captain  of 
this  frightful  gang  was  named  Captain 
James  Hook,  and  a  more  horrible 
villain  never  froze  the  blood  in  a 
child's  veins.  All  his  crew  feared 
him  and  cowered  before  him.  His 
long  black  hair  was  enough  to  make 
you  shiver;  his  yellow  skin  made  you 
go  white;  his  coal-black  eyes  struck 
daggers  of  fear  into  your  heart;  but, 
far  worse  than  all  these,  more  awful 
even  than  his  cackling  laugh  and  his 
way  of  rolling  his  "r's"  so  that  they 
sounded  like  pistols,  was  his  right 
hand.  His  right  hand  wasn't  a  hand 
at  all,  it  was  an  iron  hook.  How  he 
came  to  have  that  hook  is  part  of  the 
story. 

Peter  Pan  had  tripped  the  terrible 
pirate  into  the  sea,  and  a  crocodile, 
a    tremendous    c-r-r-r-r-rocodile,    had 


THE    BOY    WHO    WOULD    NOT    GROW    UP 


The  Darling  family  at  home,  showing  Mirlmcl  on  his  failicr  s  Imrk 


The  little  house  tbat  the  lost  boys  built  iu  the  woods  for  Weudy 
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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


snapped  off  his  hand  and  part  of  his 
wrist.  Nor  was  this  all.  The  croco- 
dile enjoyed  the  captain's  hand  and 
wrist  so  much  that  it  wanted  more, 
and  so  it  haunted  the  captain  wherever 
he  went,  longing  to  eat  another  bit 
of  him,  and  dreaming  of  the  happy 
day  when  it  would  gobble  him  all  up. 
The  captain  always  knew  when  his 
ferocious  enemy  was  near,  because 
on  one  occasion  it  had  swallowed  an 
alarm  clock,  and  the  ticking  of  this 
clock  could  plainly  be  heard  through 
its  skin.  But  the  captain  feared, 
because  he  knew  the  clock  would  one 
day  run  down,  and  then  the  crocodile 
would  be  able  to  steal  upon  him  un- 
awares. 

You  can  imagine  Jiow  this  pirate 
hated  Peter,  the  cause  of  all  his 
troubles,  and  how  he  longed  to  slay  him. 

One  day,  when  some  friendly 
Indians  were  guarding  the  boys,  up 
came  the  pirates  and  made  a  great 
slaughter  of  the  poor  redskins.  The 
boys  did  not  hear  the  battle,  for  they 
were  very  interested  in  something  that 
Wendy  was  telling  them  underground. 

Wendy,  you  must  know,  had  become 
the  mother  of  these  boys,  and  they  all 
did  exactly  what  she  told  them,  and  all 
adored  her,  because  it  was  so  delightful 
to  have  a  mother  after  having  lived  so 
long  without  one.  After  she  had  seen 
mermaids  and  a  bird  that  gave  up  its 
nest  for  Peter  Pan  to  use  as  a  boat, 
she  settled  down  to  be  a  real  practical 
mother,  giving  the  boys  their  medicine, 
teaching  them  how  to  behave  nicely, 
and  tucking  them  all  up  nice  and  comfy 
in  their  beds.  Considering  that  she 
was  only  nine  years  of  age,  Wendy 
made  a  splendid  mother. 

Well,  on  this  night,  Wendy  was 
telling  them  a  story  about  her  own 
father  and  mother — a  beautiful  story 
which  showed  how  that  mother  and 
father  must  be  weeping  for  their  lost 
children.     As  she  was  finishing,  John 


Napoleon  and  Michael  Nicholas  sprang 
up  in  their  beds,  and  said : 

"Wendy,  we  must  go  back!" 

"Yes,"  answered  Wendy,  "we  must 
go  back." 

You  can  imagine  how  dreadfully 
sad  all  the  motherless  boys  were  when 
they  heard  that  Wend}^  was  going 
home.  They  cried  so  much  that  at 
last  she  told  them  they  might  come 
back  with  her  and  her  brothers,  and 
live  in  their  house,  and  have  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Darling  for  their  father  and 
mother.  All  the  boys  accepted  this 
offer  with  delight  except  Peter  Pan. 
Peter  Pan  said  he  did  not  want  to 
grow  up.  He  did  not  want  to  live  in 
a  real  house  and  go  to  school.  He 
wanted  to  live  always  in  Never-Never- 
Land,  with  the  fairies  and  birds  and 
mermaids.  In  his  heart  he  was  ter- 
ri])ly  sad  at  losing  Wendy,  whom  he 
loved  very  much  indeed;  but  he  refused 
to  go  away  and  grow  up  like  an  ordi- 
nary boy. 

So  they  all  said  good-by  to  Peter 
Pan,  and  one  by  one  went  up  the 
narrow  tunnel  which  led  from  their 
underground  home  to  the  forest  and 
the  night.  Wendy  was  the  last  to 
go,  and  before  she  went  she  poured 
out  some  medicine  for  Peter  and  made 
him  promise  her  that  he  would  take 
it  when  he  woke  up  in  the  morning. 

But  instead  of  kind  redskins  keeping 
guard,  the  pirates  were  there.  The 
boys  were  seized  one  by  one  as  they 
stepped  on  ground;  a  rough  hand  was 
clasped  over  their  mouths  to  prevent 
them  from  crying  out,  and  they  were 
carried  away  prisoners  to  the  pirate 
ship  with  Wendy. 

Peter  Pan  lay  asleep  in  his  bed. 
The  rest  of  the  boys  were  on  board  the 
pirate  ship.  Peter  Pan  was  alone, 
and  asleep. 

Captain  Hook  was  creeping  to  the 
hole  above.  Now  was  his  chance  to 
slay  his  enemy. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


369 


Noiselessly  the  pirate  chief  crept 
down  the  hole.  He  arrived  at  the 
door,  and  peeped  over  the  top.  Peter 
Pan  was  fast  asleep.  He  tried  to  open 
the  door,  and  failed.  Again  and 
again  his  hook  fumbled  at  the  latch, 
but  failed.  Peter  Pan  was  safe.  But 
no!  The  terrible  captain  espied  the 
glass  of  medicine  left  by  Wendy  on  a 
shelf;  he  reached  towards  it,  and  then, 
taking  a  bottle  of  poison  from  his 
pocket,  poured  the  contents  into  the 
glass. 

Peter  Pan  woke  up.  He  remem- 
bered his  promise  to  Wendy,  and  went 
to  drink  the  poison.  At  that  moment 
Tinker  Bell  rushed  in  crying : 

"Don't  drink!     Don't  drink!" 

But  her  w^arning  was  useless. 

"I  have  promised  Wendy,"  an- 
swered Peter,  and  walked  towards  the 
glass  with  his  hand  outstretched. 

In  vain  did  Tinker  Bell  warn  him; 
but,  just  as  Peter  was  about  to  drink, 
the  little  Shining  Light  popped  into 
the  glass  and  drained  all  its  deadly 
contents.  Then  it  flickered  and  paled 
and  drooped  tow^ards  its  bed,  dying. 

Peter  knew  there  was  only  one  way 
in  which  he  could  possibly  save  it. 

"Do  you  believe  in  fairies?  Oh, 
please  say  you  believe  in  fairies!"  he 
cried  to  all  the  world.  And  back  from 
the  world,  which  was  so  sorry  for  poor 
little  Tinker  Bell,  came  the  answer: 

"We  believe  in  fairies." 

So  Tinker  Bell  revived  and  was 
saved,  and  she  told  Peter  Pan  how  the 
pirates  had  carried  off  the  lost  boys, 
with  Wendy  and  her  brothers,  to  their 
ship,  and  of  the  danger  in  which  they 
stood. 

Peter  immediately  started  out.  He 
arrived  at  the  ship  just  as  the  captain 
was  going  to  flog  his  prisoners  before 
making  them  walk  the  plank.  Peter 
Pan  had  an  alarm  clock  in  his  pocket; 
he  took  it  out,  and  at  the  first  sound 
of  that  ticJc-tick  the  captain  gave  a 


great  cry  of  horror,  thinking  that  the 
cr-r-r-rocodile  was  near. 

During  the  panic,  Peter  stole  on 
board  ship  and  hid  himself  in  the 
cabin  where  the  cat-o'-nine-tails  was 
hidden. 

The  clock  ran  down.  The  captain 
grew  brave  again. 

"Go  and  get  the  cat-o'-nine-tails!" 
he  ordered. 

One  of  the  ruffians  went  to  obey. 
As  he  entered  the  cabin  a  terrible 
shriek  resounded  all  over  the  ship. 
Another  pirate  was  ordered  to  go  and 
see  what  had  happened.  He,  too, 
uttered  a  ghastly  shriek,  and  did  not 
come  out. 

The  rest  of  the  crew  were  now  in  a 
state  of  panic.  They  refused  to  enter 
the  cabin ;  one  threw  himself  into  the  sea. 

Suddenly  Peter  Pan  rushed  out, 
sword  in  hand,  and  a  terrible  fight 
followed.  Captain  Hook  was  flung 
overboard,  where  the  crocodile  was 
waiting  for  him ;  and  all  the  rest  of  the 
wicked  pirates  were  killed. 

Then  Wendy  and  all  the  boys  went 
home,  and  you  can  imagine  how  glad 
Mrs.  Darling  and  Mr.  Darling  and 
Nana  were  to  see  their  lost  children. 
Mr.  Darling,  we  must  tell  you,  had 
been  so  repentant  for  his  crossness 
that  he  had  made  Nana  live  indoors 
and  dine  at  the  table  and  occupy  his 
own  chair;  while  he  himself  slept  in  a 
kennel  outside,  and  ate  all  his  meals 
out  of  a  dog's  trough.  Mrs.  Darling 
had  always  kept  the  window  open, 
hoping  that  the  children  would  return; 
and  used  to  play  and  sing  "Home, 
Sweet  Home,"  thinking  that  they 
might  hear  her  and  come  back. 

But  Peter  Pan,  all  alone  in  Never- 
Never-Land,  longed  for  little  Wendy; 
and  Mrs.  Darling  allowed  Wendy  to  go 
every  now  and  then  to  visit  Peter,  and 
see  that  his  house  was  nice  and  tidy. 
Peter  Pan  always  refused  to  grow  up, 
and  Wendy  never  forgot  the  fairies. 


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x 


■  .-sssi^ti^sSi^S^^ 


^^^~"'' 


LITTLE    TINY    THUMBELINE 


ONCE  upon  a  time  there  lived 
a  young  wife  who  longed  to 
possess  a  little  child,  so  she 
went  to  a  fairy  and  said  to  her:  "I 
wish  very  much  to  have  a  child,  a 
little  tiny  child.  Will  you  give  me 
one,  dear  fairy?" 

"With  all  my  heart,"  replied  the 
fairy.  "Sow  this  barleycorn  in  a 
flowerpot,  and  then  see  what  will 
happen." 

"Thank  you,  thank  you!"  cried  the 
woman,  giving  the  fairy  a  silver  coin. 
Then  home  she  went,  and  planted  the 
barleycorn,  and  immediately  there 
shot  up  a  large  flower  like  a  tulip,  but 
with  the  petals  tightly  closed  like  a 
bud. 

"What  a  lovely  flower!"  said  she, 
and  kissed  it.  The  bud  opened  at 
once  with  a  loud  voice,  and  there,  in 
the  center  of  the  flower,  sat  a  little 
tiny  girl  about  an  inch  high,  scarcely 
bigger  than  her  thumb.  So  she  called 
her  Thumbeline,  and  put  her  to  bed 
in  a  walnut  shell,  with  violet  leaves 
for  her  mattress  and  a  rose  leaf  for 
a  quilt.  During  the  day  she  told 
Thumbeline  stories,  and  taught  her 
to  sing,  as  she  played  on  the  table 
beside  her. 

But  one  night  a  great,  wet,  ugly 
toad  came  and  stole  away  the  cradle 


with  little  Thumbeline  asleep  in  it, 
and  carried  it  off  to  her  home  in  the 
muddy  bank  of  the  brook  that  flowed 
past  the  end  of  the  garden. 

"This  is  just  the  wife  for  my  son," 
thought  she.  But  when  her  ugly 
son  saw  her,  all  he  could  say  was 
"Croak,  croak,  croak!" 

"Don't  make  so  much  noise,  or 
you'll  wake  her,"  said  the  old  Mother 
Toad.  "She  may  easily  escape,  for 
she  is  as  light  as  a  feather.  We  must 
take  her  out  and  place  her  on  one  of 
the  large  water-lily  leaves  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  brook,  while  I  prepare  our 
house  for  you  both." 

This  they  did,  and  when  poor  little 
Thumbeline  awoke  and  found  herself 
in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  she  cried 
most  bitterly. 

As  soon  as  old  Mother  Toad  had 
decorated  her  home  with  bulrushes 
and  yellow  buttercups,  she  and  her 
hideous  son  swam  out  to  the  leaf  to 
fetch  the  cradle  so  as  to  place  it  in 
their  new  home  before  taking  the 
little  maid  herself  there. 

Old  Mother  Toad  bowed  low  in  the 
water,  and  said:  "Here  is  my  son, 
who  is  going  to  be  your  husband.  I 
will  come  and  fetch  you  soon,  and  you 
will  be  very  happy  together." 

Then  they  swam  off  with  the  cradle, 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


371 


and  poor,  terrified  Thumbeline  wept 
bitterly.  Now,  some  little  fishes  had 
overheard  old  Mother  Toad,  and  when 
they  saw  the  little  maid  so  sad  they 
gnawed  away  the  stem  of  the  leaf,  and 
away  it  floated  down  the  stream,  so 
fast  that  the  toad  could  not  catch  it. 
Thumbeline  became  happy  again, 
for  everything  she  passed  was  so 
lovely  in  the  sunshine,  and  the  birds 
on  the  branches  sang  to  her  as  she 
floated  by.     A  pretty  little  butterfly 


her  beauty;  but  when  the  henchafers 
saw  her,  they  said  that  she  was  just 
like  a  human  being. 

"How  very,  very  ugly  she  is!"  they 
all  cried;  and  at  last  the  cockchafer 
disowned  her,  and  they  all  flew  down 
with  her  and  set  her  on  a  dais}'.  Then 
she  wept  because  she  was  so  ugly  that 
the  henchafers  would  have  nothing  to 
do  with  her. 

All  the  summer  Thumbeline  lived 
alone  in  a  wood,  dining  off  the  honey 


The  fairies  came  out  from  their  flowers  and  brought  Tluiiiilicline  presents 


hovered  round  her,  and  at  last  settled 
for  a  moment  on  the  leaf,  for  he  loved 
her  very  much.  She  was  pleased,  too, 
and  tied  him  to  the  leaf  with  her  sash. 
But  presently  a  great  ugly  cock- 
chafer came  buzzing  past.  He  caught 
sight  of  her,  and  snatching  her  off  the 
leaf,  flew  up  with  her  into  a  tree;  but 
the  poor  butterfly  could  not  free  him- 
self, and  went  floating  along  down- 
stream. The  cockchafer  gave  Thum- 
beline some  honey  to  eat,  and  praised 


from  the  flowers,  and  drinking  the 
dew  that  every  morning  spangled  the 
leaves  around  her.  But  then  came 
the  cold,  long  winter;  the  flowers  all 
died,  the  birds  flew  away,  and  the 
snow  began  to  fall.  Poor  hungry 
Thumbeline  wandered  through  the 
stubble  of  a  cornfield  hard  by  until 
she  came  to  the  hole  of  a  field-mouse, 
who  dwelt  snugly  down  in  the  ground, 
having  a  room  full  of  corn,  and  a 
neat  kitchen  and  store-room. 


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Thumbeline  stood  at  the  door  and 
begged  for  food. 

"Poor  little  thing!"  said  the  good- 
natured  field-mouse.  "Come  into  my 
warm  room  and  dine  with  me."  And 
she  soon  became  so  fond  of  the  tiny 
maid  that  she  said:  "You  may  dwell 
with  me  all  the  winter,  if  you  will  only 
keep  my  room  clean  and  neat,  and  tell 
me  stories,  for  I  love  stories  dearly." 
And  Thumbeline  agreed,  and  was  very 
happy  in  her  new  home. 

In  a  few  days'  time  the  field-mouse 
said:  "We  shall  have  my  next-door 
neighbor,  the  mole,  in  to  visit  us  to- 
morrow; he  comes  to  see  me  once  a 
week.  He  is  richer  than  I  am,  has 
large  rooms  in  his  house,  and  wears  a 
beautiful  black  velvet  coat.  It  would 
be  capital  if  you  married  him;  but 
he  is  blind,  and  cannot  see  you,  so  you 
must  tell  him  your  prettiest  stories." 

When  he  came,  Thumbeline  sang  to 
him,  and  he  soon  fell  in  love  with  her. 
He  invited  them  to  walk  down  a 
long,  dark  passage  that  he  had  just 
burrowed  from  their  house  to  his, 
lighting  them  with  a  piece  of  tinder. 

But  when  they  had  gone  a  short 
distance  they  found  a  swallow  lying 
stretched  on  the  floor;  the  poor  bird 
had  evidently  died  of  cold.  Thumbe- 
line felt  very  sorry,  as  she  loved  all  the 
birds,  but  the  mole  kicked  it  with  his 
short  legs,  saying: 

"Here's  a  fine  end  to  all  its  whis- 
tling !  What  a  miserable  thing  it  must 
be  to  be  born  a  bird!  None  of  my 
children  will  be  birds,  thank  goodness !" 

But  Thuml^eline  could  not  sleep 
that  night,  so  she  got  up,  and  wove  a 
carpet  out  of  hay  and  then  went  and 
spread  it  round  the  bird;  she  also 
covered  it  with  some  warm,  soft  cotton. 

"Farewell,  dear  bird,"  said  she; 
"farewell,  and  thank  you  for  your 
beautiful  song  in  the  summer,  when 
all  the  trees  were  green  and  the  sun 
shone  so  warmly  upon  us."    And  she 


pressed  her  head  against  his  big  body. 
To  her  great  surprise  she  felt  some- 
thing beating  within  it.  It  was  the 
bird's  heart,  and  he  was  not  really 
dead.  She  quickly  laid  the  cotton 
more  closely  round  him,  and  he 
gradually  revived. 

He  remained  underground  all  the 
winter,  and  Thumbeline  was  kind  to 
him  and  brought  him  water  and  food; 
but  she  never  said  a  word  either  to  the 
mole  or  the  field-mouse. 

As  soon  as  the  spring  came  the 
swallow  said  farewell  to  Thumbeline, 
who  would  not  go  with  him,  because 
she  knew  it  would  vex  the  old  field- 
mouse  if  she  left  her. 

Thumbeline  was  now  sad  indeed, 
for  she  was  not  allowed  to  go  into  the 
warm  sunshine. 

"This  summer  you  must  work  and 
make  your  wedding  clothes,"  said  the 
field-mouse,  for  the  blind,  dull  mole 
had  decided  to  marry  Thumbeline. 

So  the  tiny  maid  was  obliged  to 
work  hard  at  the  distaff,  and  the  field- 
mouse  hired  four  spiders  to  spin  and 
weave. 

Every  evening  the  mole  came  and 
talked  about  how  the  summer  was 
coming  to  an  end,  and  he  abused  the 
sun  and  pretty  flowers  so  much  that 
Thumbeline  disliked  him  more  and 
more,  and  said  she  would  not  marry 
him. 

"Fiddlestick!"  cried  the  field-mouse. 
"Don't  be  obstinate,  child,  or  I  will 
bite  you  with  my  white  teeth." 

At  last  the  day  fixed  had  arrived, 
and  Thumbeline  went  to  bid  a  last 
farewell  to  the  beautiful  sun  before 
going  to  dwell  with  the  mole  deep  down 
in  the  earth. 

"Farewell,  thou  glorious  sun!"  she 
cried,  as  she  walked  a  little  way. 

"Tweet,  tweet!"  And  she  heard  a 
fluttering  of  wings,  and  there  was  the 
little  swallow.  She  told  him  her  sad 
fate  and  how  she  longed  to  be  free. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


373 


"The  cold  winter  will  soon  be  here," 
said  the  swallow;  "I  shall  fly  far 
away  to  the  warm  countries.  Come 
with  me,  sweet  little  Thumbeline,  who 
didst  save  my  life  when  I  lay  frozen 
in  the  dark  earth." 

"Yes,  I  will  go  with  thee,"  said 
she;  and  she  seated  herself  on  the 
bird's  back,  and  then  the  swallow 
soared  high  into  the  air  and  flew  away 
over  forest,  lake,  and  mountain,  until 
they  reached  the  warm  countries. 
There  the  sky  seemed  twice  as  high 
and  twice  as  blue,  and  there  grew  the 
loveliest  green  and  purple  grapes,  and 
citrons,  and  melons. 

Near  a  calm,  blue  lake  stood  a  half- 
ruined  palace  of  white  marble,  and 
here  the  swallow  had  built  his  nest. 

"This  is  my  house,"  said  the  swal- 
low, "but  I  will  take  you  to  one  of  the 
splendid  flowers  growing  beneath  us, 
and  you  shall  dwell  in  one  of  them." 

But  what  was  her  surprise  when  she 


saw  sitting  on  the  flower  a  little  mani- 
kin wearing  a  gold  crown  on  his  head 
and  the  brightest,  most  delicate  wings 
on  his  shoulders,  scarcely  any  bigger 
than  herself.'  He  was  the  spirit  of 
the  flower,  and  in  every  flower  there 
dwelt  one  such  fairy,  and  he  was 
their  king. 

When  he  saw  Thumbeline  he  was 
delighted,  for  he  had  never  seen  so 
lovely  a  maiden.  So  he  put  his  gold 
crown  on  her  head  and  asked  her  to 
be  his  queen.  And  Thumbeline  said 
"Yes,"  and  then  all  the  fairies  came 
out  from  their  flowers  and  brought  her 
presents,  and  the  best  of  all  was  a 
pair  of  transparent  wings,  which 
enabled  her  to  fly  from  flower  to 
flower. 

"You  shall  no  longer  be  called 
Thumbeline,"  said  the  king  to  her, 
"for  it  is  not  a  pretty  name,  and  you 
are  so  lovely.     We  will  call  you  Maia." 

And  she  dwelt  with  him  ever  after. 


THE    PYGMIES 


THERE  is  an  old  saying  that 
"truth  is  stranger  than  fic- 
tion." This  seems  to  be  just 
as  true  today  when  we  read  the 
stories  of  recent  travelers  and  explorers 
about  the  strange  peoples  and  races 
they  find  in  the  wilds  of  distant 
lands.  One  of  the  most  wonderful 
recent  discoveries  is  that  of  a  new 
race  of  pygmies  that  dwell  on  the 
flanks  of  the  great  Snow  Mountains 
in  Dutch  New  Guinea,  Africa. 

Ancient  writers  were  fond  of  re- 
counting the  adventures  of  these 
little  people,  and  the  folklore  of 
Africa  and  Asia  and  Europe  bases 
many  of  its  strangest  stories  upon 
pygmy  life.  Our  nursery  tales  of 
gnomes  and  fairies,  goblins,  pinkies 
and  brownies  have  undoubtedly  come 
down,  generation  after  generation,  by 
word  of   mouth,   from  the  dim,   pri- 


meval days  when  pygmies  wandered 
dry  shod  across  the  land-bridge  that 
connected  India  with  Africa,  and 
when  the  island  of  Sicily  was  part  of 
the  highway  from  northern  Africa  into 
Southern  Europe.  Although  no  pyg- 
my in  the  wilds  has  ever  seen  pencil  or 
paper,  yet  the  race  is  immortalized  in 
the  company  of  Trojan  and  Greek, 
and  until  modern  times  has  been 
regarded  as  equally  mythical. 

Homer,  who  lived  in  the  ninth 
century  B.  C,  began  the  story,  com- 
paring the  arming  Trojans,  rushing 
to  war,  with  cranes  migrating  to  the 
pygmies'  land: 

"So  when  inclement  winters  vex  the  p'ain 
With  piercing  frosts,  or  thick-descending  rain. 
To  warmer  seas  the  cranes  embodied  fly. 
With  noise,  and  order,  through  the  midway 

sky. 
To  pygmy  nations   wounds   and   death   they 

bring  .  .  .  ." 


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Battling  with  the  storks 

Aristotle,  another  Greek,  knew  full 
well  of  the  existence  of  pygmies; 
Herodotus  describes  them  as  battling 
with  the  storks  which  came  to  raid 
their  crops.  These  and  other  ancient 
writers  got  the  main  fact  correct  as 
to  the  existence  of  the  little  people; 
but,  as  in  other  dealings  with  natural 
history,  they  mingled  the  mar- 
velous with  the  matter-of-fact.  Their 
tales  of  pygmies  with  pygmy  horses 
and  other  tiny,  domesticated  animals, 
of  the  tiny  people  having  to  cut  down 
their  crops  with  axes,  of  their  requiring 
a  ladder  to  mount  into  the  goblet  of 
Hercules,  were,  of  course,  as  fabulous 
as  the  legend  of  their  fashioning  the 
spear  of  Odin  and  the  world-shaking 
hammer  of  Thor.  And  because  of 
this  leaven  of  romance  the  whole  story 
of  pygmies  was  discredited  until  cer- 
tain African  travelers  burst  into  the 
twilight  gloom  of  the  forests  and  first 
discovered  a  kingdom  of  real  midgets. 

There  are  two  groups  of  pygmies 
now  known — Negrillos  and  Negritos — 
consisting  of  many  tribes.  Some  are 
found  in  the  Andaman  Islands,  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal;  half  a  dozen  distinct 
tribes  are  in  the  Congo;  there  are  the 
tiny  Bushmen  of  South  Africa,  the 
Aetas  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the 
Samange  of  Malacca,  the  pygmy 
tribes  in  Formosa,  and  now,  also,  these 
little  people  in  Dutch  New  Guinea. 

Herodotus,  the  ancient  Greek  writer, 
was  then  not  wholly  mistaken  in 
describing  his  pygmies  as  defending 
their  crops  against  great  birds. 

The  latest  discoveries  in  Dutch 
New  Guinea  are  on  the  side  of  the 
ancients.  The  Tapiros,  as  the  newly 
known  midgets  are  called,  do  cultivate 
crops.  They  cultivate  sweet  potatoes, 
tobacco,  and  sugar-cane.  African 
pygmies  of  today  have  no  crops,  but 
they  wage  war  upon  the  giant  cranes 
which  haunt  the  head  waters  of  the  Nile. 


They  knew  the  use  of  fire  and,  in  a 
primitive  way,  iron-smelting  and  work- 
ing. Their  spear-heads  are  of  iron, 
smelted  and  worked  by  themselves, 
and  the  tips  are  poisoned  with  a  virus 
of  terrible  potency.  They  live  in  tiny 
huts  in  the  forest — huts  only  4  feet  in 
height,  bare  of  any  suggestion  of 
furniture,  and  entered  by  a  low  open- 
ing through  which  the  tenant  crawls 
on  all  fours.  Spears  are  their  only 
assets.  These  constitute  the  pur- 
chase price  of  a  bride,  and  upon  the 
product  of  the  weapon  they  live. 
They  attack  and  kill  the  mighty 
elephant;  they  hunt  the  okapi.  It  is 
a  strange  fact  that  the  discovery  of 
the  Congo  pygmies  gave  this  extraor- 
dinary animal  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  world.  No  white  man  had  ever 
seen  an  okapi  ten  years  ago,  and  only 
rumors  of  its  existence  had  been  heard. 

At  home  the  pygmies  are  feared 
and  avoided  by  other  natives.  They 
inhabit  the  reeking,  steaming  forest, 
impenetrable  to  all  save  themselves, 
and  pass  their  lives  in  a  perpetual 
twilight,  amid  mighty  trees  laced  and 
bound  together  with  vast  creepers,  in 
and  out  of  which  little  men  run  like 
rabbits. 

The  same  habits  and  method  of 
living  distinguish  the  majority  of 
pygmy  tribes.  For  the  most  part  all 
have  like  features:  the  dark  skin,  the 
ape-like  mouth;  the  broad,  flattened 
nose;  the  woolly,  "pepper-corn"  hair. 

Like  the  tiny  Shetland  ponies  and 
the  diminutive  Shetland  sheep  dogs, 
the  pygmies  make  up  in  intelligence 
what  they  lack  in  inches. 

But  the  pygmies  most  recently  dis- 
covered— those  of  Dutch  New  Guinea 
— appear  to  be  in  advance  of  their 
fellows.  They  are  husbandmen,  grow- 
ing their  own  crops.  They  make  bows 
and  arrows,  and  use  them  with  astonish- 
ing skill,  employing  them  against  birds, 
rats,  mice,  and  other  small  animals. 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


375 


THE   ARTFUL   MOLE   AND    THE    INNOCENT   BLACKBIRD 


"Tell  us  about  the  most  wonderful 
escape  you  ever  had  from  an  enemy, 
will  you,  daddy?"  said  an  excitement- 
loving  little  Blackbird,  sitting  along- 
side one  of  his  brothers  on  a  twig 
overhanging  a  cattle  pond. 

"Oh,  let  me  see,  let  me  see,"  mused 
the  sable  old  bird  with  the  orange  bill. 
"I  think  the  most  curious  adventure 
I  ever  had,  and  certainly  the  narrowest 
escape,  happened  to  me  when  I  was  a 
young  fellow,  just  learning  to  sing. 

"Blackbirds  are  all  early  risers,  and 
I  used  to  leave  my  cozy  roosting  perch 
under  a  tuft  of  ivy  at  the  first  peep  of 
day  regularly  every  morning,  in  order 
to  listen  to  my  father,  who  was  a 
capital  singer,  and  such  a  cunning  old 
bird,  too! 

"One  day  he  said  to  me,  'Jack,  do 
you  know  an  easy  way  to  catch 
worms?' 

"  'No,  father,'  I  answered. 

"  'Well,  I'll  tell  you,  then,  lad.  If 
eve^  you  see  a  mole  at  work  throwing 
up  a  hillock  of  earth,  just  hop  quietly 
along  to  the  place,  and  ninety-nine  fat 
caterpillars  to  a  lean  daddy  longlegs, 
you'll  observe  a  terrified  worm  or  two 
hurrying  to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
in  order  to  escape  from  their  enemy 
below.  Once  they  have  left  their  holes 
you  can  pick  them  up  and  swallow 
them  as  easil;^"  as  ever  you  please,  for 


it's  what  men  call  a  case  of  "out  of  the 
frying  pan  into  the  fire"  so  far  as  the 
worms  are  concerned.' 

"  'Thank  you  very  much  indeed. 
That  is  a  pretty  wrinkle,  and  no  mis- 
take, dad,'  said  I  with  glee. 

"  'Yes,  Jack,'  replied  my  father, 
'but  it's  just  like  all  pretty  things — it 
needs  to  be  approached  with  care,  as 
the  puppy  dog  said  when  he  tried  to 
play  with  the  wasp.  You  must  be 
very  careful  the  mole  does  not  catch 
hold  of  you,  for  he  is  an  awful  cannibal, 
and  the  monster  that  will  eat  his  own 
grandmother  would  not  hesitate  to 
breakfast  off  j'^ou.' 

"Being  dragged  underground  alive 
and  devoured  in  a  mole's  dark  tunnel 
struck  me  at  the  time  as  being  rather 
an  unpleasant  way  of  ending  one's 
career;  but  warnings  have  a  trick  of 
slipping  from  the  minds  of  over- 
confident young  people,  and  I  had 
forgotten  the  dangerous  side  of  my 
father's  information  in  less  than  a 
week. 

"I  was  standing  on  the  topmost 
branch  of  a  dead  tree  early  one  morn- 
ing, listening  intently  to  my  worthy 
parent's  top  notes,  when  I  observed  a 
tiny  clod  of  earth  roll  off  the  top  of  a 
newly  made  mole  hill.  Now's  my 
chance,  thought  I,  never  dreaming  of 
the   great   surprise   in   store   for   me. 


376 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Keeping  my  eye  steadily  fixed  on  the 
spot,  I  saw  the  mole  give  another 
heave,  and  out  came  a  great  red  worm, 
helter-skelter.  I  was  on  him  like  a 
shot,  and  thought  I  had  never  in  all 
my  life  tasted  such  a  delicious  morsel. 

"I  waited  about  for  some  time,  feel- 
ing sure  that  other  worms  would  come 
to  the  surface;  but  in  vain,  the  mole 
had  ceased  to  work. 

"By-and-by,  a  monster  just  showed 
his  great  pink  head  on  the  crown  of  the 
newly-made  hillock,  and  I  grew  so 
excited  I  could  hardly  stand  still. 

"I  waited  and  waited,  and  as  the 
mole  did  not  burrow  any  more  the 
worm  also  waited  and  waited.  I 
naturally  supposed  that  as  there  was 
no  enemy  at  work  beneath  him  he  did 
not  see  the  fun  of  coming  out  to  make 
a  meal  for  me,  so  I  decided  to  pounce 
upon  him  and  drag  as  much  of  his 
body  out  as  I  could. 

"I  made  a  wild  dash  at  him,  and 
never  got  such  a  fright  in  all  my  life." 

"Whatever      happened,       daddy?" 


asked  both  the  young  Blackbirds  ex- 
citedly. 

"Well,  what  I  supposed  to  be  the 
head  of  a  worm  proved  to  be  the  nose 
of  the  artful  old  mole.  Whether  he 
had  stuck  it  out  in  order  to  get  a 
breath  of  fresh  air,  or  as  a  deliberate 
bait  for  me,  will  never  be  known;  but 
directly  I  seized  it  he  seized  me,  and 
it  is  a  wonder  I'm  alive  to  tell  the  tale. 

"The  brute  instantly  tried  to  drag 
me  underground,  but  being  a  strong 
young  bird  and  my  bill  hard  and 
slippery  he  lost  his  hold,  and  I  made 
my  wings  go  faster  than  they  ever 
flapped  before  or  since. 

"It  was  a  full  week  before  I  dared 
look  at  a  worm  again. 

"Take  my  advice,  children,  and 
examine  early  worms  well,  especially 
when  they  thrust  their  heads  out  of 
mole  hills.  Man-made  proverbs  need 
applying  with  caution,  and  I  should 
tie  on  behind  'It  is  the  early  bird  that 
catches  the  worm,'  but  'All  is  not  gold 
that  ghtters.'  " 


THE    ARCHER    FISH  — A    FINNY    SPORTSMAN 


MANY  tall  stories  have  been 
discredited  since  scientists 
began  sternly  to  demand 
proof  of  alleged  facts,  but  nevertheless 
it  has  been  recently  established  that 
there  are  fish  that  share  with  man  the 
sporting  instinct.  Of  these  finny 
sportsmen  the  Archer  is  king. 

"We  have,"  said  Sir  Charles  Bell, 
"a  curious  instance  of  the  precision 
of  the  eye  and  of  the  adaptation  of 
muscular  action,  in  the  beaked  chseto- 
don,  a  fish  which  inhabits  the  Indian 
rivers  and  lives  on  the  smaller  aquatic 
flies.  When  it  observes  a  fly  alighted 
on  a  twig,  or  flying  over  it — for  it  can 
shoot  them  on  the  wing — it  darts  a 
drop  of  water  with  so  steady  an  aim 
as  to  bring  the  fly  down  into  the  water, 
when  it  falls  an  easy  prey.     It  will 


hit  a  fly  at  the  distance  of  from  three 
to  six  feet.  Another  fish,  of  the  same 
order,  the  Zeus,  has  the  power  of 
forming  its  mouth  into  a  tube  and 
squirting  at  flies,  so  as  to  encumber 
their  wings  and  bring  them  to  the 
surface  of  the  water.  In  these  in- 
stances a  difficulty  will  readily  occur 
to  the  reader.  How  does  the  fish 
judge  of  position,  since  the  rays  of 
light  are  refracted  at  the  surface  of 
the  water?  Does  instinct  enable  it  to 
do  this,  or  is  it  by  experience?" 

Nearly  a  century  ago  travelers  re- 
ported having  seen  specimens  of  the 
Jaculator  fish  in  Java.  They  were 
exhibited  by  a  native  chief,  who  kept 
them  in  a  pond,  in  the  middle  of  which 
was  placed  a  short  branch.  For  the 
amusement   of   his   visitors   the  chief 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK  377 

instructed  attendants  to  place  living  as  well  as  forwards,  says  Zolotnitsky, 

beetles  on  it.  a    Russian    savant.     This    habit    of 

Expert  gunners  swimming  backwards  is  very  curious 

"When  the  slaves  had  placed  the  and   quite   customary;     indeed,    they 

beetles,    the   fish   came   out   of   their  often  swim  in  this  manner  for  several 

holes    and    swam  around  the    pond,"  minutes  at  a  time.     They  reconnoiter 

says  one  account.     "One  of  them  came  a  possible  prey,  and  back  from  it  until 

to  the  surface  of  the  water,   resting  they  secure  a  good  position  for  ob- 

there,    and,    after    steadily    fixing    its  servation  and  attack, 

eyes  for  some  time  on  a  beetle,  it  dis-  The    action    of    the    eyes    deserves 

charged  from  its  mouth  a  small  quan-  special  notice.     They  can  be  moved  in 

tity  of  water  with  such  force  and  pre-  almost   every   direction — to   the   left, 

cision  of  aim  as  to  strike  it  off  the  to  the  right,  upwards,  and  backwards 

twig  into  the  water,  and  in  an  instant  — backwards  so  that  the  fish  can  see 

swallowed  it.     After  this  another  fish  everything  that  goes  on  behind.   Their 

came  and  performed  a  similar  feat,  vision  is  also  very  penetrating;    they 

and  so  the  sport  continued  until  they  can  see  small  objects  at  a  great  dis- 

had    secured    all    the    beetles.     If    a  tance,  and  drench  them  with  astonish- 

fish  failed  in  bringing  down  its  prey  ing  correctness  of  aim.     But  the  eyes 

at  the  first  shot,  it  swam  around  the  cannot   be    turned    downwards,    and, 

pond  till  it  came  opposite  the  same  consequently,  when  the  fish  would  see 

object,  and  fired  again.     In  one  in-  what   is   below,    it   plunges   forward, 

stance  a  fish  returned  three  times  to  head  foremost.     It  rarely  sees  what  is 

the  attack  before  it  secured  its  prey,  at  the  bottom,  and  although  worms 

but  in  general  the  fish  seemed  very  may  be  there  in  abundance,  it  finds 

expert    gunners,    bringing    down    the  them  only  when  hunger  impels  it  to 

beetle  at  the  first  shot."  search  for  them  there.     And  it  is  not 

When  the  Jaculator  fish  intends  to  alone  the  movement  of  the  eyes  which 
catch  a  fly  or  any  other  insect  which  engages  attention;  instead  of  the  ex- 
it sees  at  a  distance,  it  approaches  pressionless  stare  which  is  characteris- 
very  slowly  and  cautiously,  and  goes  tic  of  fishes  generally,  the  Archer's 
as  much  as  possible  perpendicularly  eyes  sparkle  with  intelligence.  Es- 
under  the  object;  then,  the  body  being  pecially  when  the  fish  becomes  sick 
put  in  an  oblique  position,  and  the  or  dying  is  the  expression  manifested; 
mouth  and  eyes  being  near  the  surface  then  it  looks  at  you  as  if  it  would  im- 
of  the  water,  the  Jaculator  stays  a  plore  your  attention  and  would  like  to 
moment  quite  immovable,  having  its  speak.  Apparently  there  are  few  lim- 
eyes  directly  fixed  on  the  insect,  and  its  to  the  ingenuity  of  the  Archer  fish. 
then  begins  to  shoot,  without  ever  This  finny  tribe  certainly  does  not 
showing  its  mouth  above  the  surface  seem  to  be  less  greedy  than  its  fellows, 
of  the  water,  out  of  which  the  single  It  appears  that  the  less  expert  gun- 
drop,  shot  at  the  object,  seems  to  ners,  finding  that  their  clumsy  efforts 
rise.  With  the  closest  attention,  one  merely  resulted  in  driving  insects 
can  never  see  any  part  of  the  mouth  away  from  the  aquarium,  desisted  in 
out  of  the  water,  though  the  Jaculator  favor  of  the  adepts  of  the  family, 
fish  shoots  a  great  many  drops  one  When  the  latter  exercised  their  skill, 
after  another  without  leaving  its  the  other  fish  waited  in  readiness  to 
place  and  fixed  situation.  snap  up  the  spoil  before  the  success - 

They    frequently    swim    backwards  ful  sportsman  could  secure  it. 


LITTLE    PLAYS    AT    HOME 

HINTS:  1.  Stage  Properties  are  those  articles  which  are  used  in  a  play  either 
for  scenery  or  for  dress.  One  child  should  be  appointed  to  look  after  these  properties. 
He  must  see  that  they  are  in  their  proper  places  before  the  curtain  rises  and  at  hand 
as  the  scene  goes  on. 

2.  Each  child  is  responsible  for  his  own  personal  properties,  that  is  to  say,  the 
articles  of  dress,  swords,  armor,  etc.,  belonging  to  his  part. 

3.  In  setting  or  arranging  the  scenery,  the  Right  is  on  the  right  hand  and  the 
Left  on  the  left  hand  as  you  stand  facing  the  stage,  with  your  back  to  the  audience. 

4.  The  Prompter  should  stand,  out  of  sight  of  the  audience,  at  the  side  of  the  stage, 
book  in  hand,  ready  to  give  the  missing  word  or  sentence,  should  any  one  forget  his 
part. 

SCENE      FROM      ROBIN      HOOD 


CHARACTERS:  King  Richard  Cceur  de 
Lion;  Three  Nobles,  attendants  on  him; 
Robin  Hood;  Little  John;  Much;  Allan- 
a-dale;  Friar  Tuck;  Robin  Hood's  Merry 
Men;     Maid   Marian;     Lady   Christabel. 

STAGE  PROPERTIES:  Green  cloth  for  aoor, 
bank,  bushes,  mugs,  platters,  jug  for  wine, 
dishes,  dinner  things,  silver  and  crystal  bowl. 
For  the  bank,  a  biggish  box  banked  up  with 
cushions.  Cover  it  with  cloth  and  ivy.  Bowl 
in  bright  new  tin  basin,  and  crystal  fruit  dish . 
For  dinner  dishes,  have  as  many  covered  dishes 
as  possible,  plates  of  fruit,  bread,  etc.  Sham 
fowls,  meat,  etc.,  can  be  bought,  but  these  are 
not  necessary  with  covered  dishes.  A  big 
soup  tureen  looks  well.  This  scene  can  be 
acted  out  of  doors. 

SCENE:  An  open  space  in  Sherwood  Forest. 
To  the  Right  and  Left,  trees  or  greenery;  at 
the  back  a  bank.  When  the  curtain  rises 
King  Richard  is  discovered  standing  in 
center;  near  him  the  three  Nobles.  They  are 
all  dressed  in  monks'  cloaks,  with  hoods  well 
drawn  over  their  faces. 

The  King  [looking  round  him] :  Well! 
I  hope  we  shall  see  the  fellow  this  time. 

First  Noble:    There  is  not  much 


fear  of  that:  Robin  Hood  finds  out 
monks  as  quickly  as  bees  do  honey. 
We  shall  not  have  long  to  wait,  your 
Majesty. 

The  King  [softly,  puffing  finger  on 
lip] :  Hush !  He  may  be  listening  now, 
and  if  he  guesses  who  I  am  our  game 
is  spoilt.  Remember  I  am  only  an 
abbot  for  today,  [louder]  The  fellow 
is  well  off  here:  sunshine  and  green 
trees,  flowers  and  the  song  of  the  birds 
for  company — who  could  want  more? 

Second  Noble  [speaking  quickly]: 
I  saw  something  moving  down  there 
.  .  .  through  the  trees  .  .  .  take 
care,  my  Lord! 

The  King  [still  loudly]:  For  my 
part,  I  have  no  fear  of  the  map  H^ 
would  not  dare  rob  me. 

RoBii;  Hood  [stepping  from  behind 
a  tree,  all  in  green,  with  botv  and  arrow. 


378 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


379 


and  horn]:  You  speak  too  soon,  my 
lord  abbot — for  an  abbot  I  take  you 
to  be  by  your  dress  and  manner.  Robin 
Hood  dare  rob  whom  he  will,  when  he 
has  need  of  money,  so  you  had  better 
come  with  me  peacefully.  I  have  a 
hundred  men  within  call,  and  I  am 
not  over  fond  of  monks. 

The  King:  If  we  are  monks,  we 
are  also  messengers  from  the  King.  If 
you  are  the  famous  Robin  Hood   .    .    . 

Robin  Hood  :     I  am  Robin  Hood. 

The  King:  Then  his  Majesty  sent 
us  to  say  that  he  would  see  you.  As  a 
sign  he  sends  you  this  ring  [showing 
ring  on  his  hand]. 

Robin  Hood  [after  looking  at  it, 
taking  off  his  hat]:  It  is  truly  the 
King's  ring.  God  bless  him:  God 
bless  all  those  that  love  him:  cursed 
be  all  those  who  hate  him  and  rebel 
against  him. 

The  King:  Then  you  curse  your- 
self, for  you  are  a  traitor  and  an  out- 
law. 

Robin  Hood  [fiercely] :  I  am  an  out- 
law may  be,  through  no  fault  of  mine, 
but  I  am  no  traitor,  and  if  you  were 
not  the  messenger  of  the  King  you 
would  pay  dearly  for  that  lie.  I  have 
never  yet  hurt  any  true  and  honest 
man:  I  have  robbed  only  from  the 
tyrant  rich,  never  from  the  poor:  I 
fight  against  monks  and  abbots,  and 
take  their  money  from  them  when  I 
can,  because  they  steal  from  the  poor. 
They  ought  to  live  good  lives  and 
show  others  a  good  example,  but  they 
do  not.  They  live  wickedly,  and 
should  be  punished.  If  they  had 
ruled  England  well  when  King  Richard 
was  away,  we  should  not  have  to  live 
in  the  woods  as  we  do  now.  [Kindly.] 
But  do  not  fear,  you  are  the  King's 
messengers,  and  therefore  welcome  to 
all  that  we  have.  Stay  here,  and  sup 
with  us;  we  will  make  you  couifortable 
as  we  know  how. 


Third  Noble:  They  wait  for  us 
at  Nottingham,  my  lord. 

The  King:  Let  them  wait:  the 
King  wishes  to  know  as  much  as 
possible  about  this  man.  If  we  do 
not  fare  well,  it  will  matter  not  for 
once. 

Robin  Hood:  You  shall  eat  of  our 
best.  Sir  Abbot,  though  if  you  came 
not  from  the  King  I  doubt  if  you 
would  be  so  well  treated. 

[Bloivs  his  horn.  Enter  quickly 
Little  John,  Much,  Allan-a-dale, 
and  others:  they  are  all  dressed  in  green.] 

Little  John:     What  newf,  master? 

Robin  Hood:  None  that  will  fill 
our  pockets,  my  little  John.  These 
good  monks  are  messengers  from  the 
King,  and  therefore  safe  from  us. 
Much! 

Much:     Yes,  master! 

Robin  Hood:  .  .  .  Tell  the  cook 
that  we  shall  dine  here,  and  that  we 
must  have  as  fine  a  feast  as  if  the  King 
himself  were  among  us. 

Much:  Yes,  master!  [Goes  out  by 
Left  quickly.] 

Robin  Hood:  Allan  -  a  -  dale,  go 
bring  me  here  Maid  Marian,  and  your 
sweet  Christabel;  tell  them  we  have 
need  of  their  help  to  entertain  our 
noble  company. 

Allan-a-dale:  I  go  right  gladly, 
master.  [Exit  by  Left.] 

Robin  Hood  [to  the  others]:  Now, 
men,  help  bring  the  things  and  do  your 
parts  with  a  right  good  will.  Let  us 
show  these  gentlemen  what  we  poor 
foresters  can  do. 

All:     Ay,  that  we  will,  master! 

[Exit  all  foresters,  save  Little  John. 
They  all  drop  on  one  knee  before  Robin 
as  they  pass  out.] 

The  King:  Upon  my  word,  Sir 
Outlaw,  you  are  master  of  a  gallant 
company.  It  is  a  pity  that  you  should 
live  as  you  do — shooting  down  the 
King's  deer,  robbing  his  faithful 
bishops  and  knights. 


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Robin  Hood:  I  cannot  starve  my 
men,  Sir  Abbot,  and  were  Richard  him- 
self here  I  think  he  would  scarcely 
grudge  these  fine  men  their  food. 

The  King:  Perchance  not,  but  it 
is  against  the  law. 

Robin  Hood:  I  know  that  well, 
Sir  Abbot,  but  what  else  can  we  do.'* 
Our  homes  have  been  burned  down  by 
the  Norman  nobles,  our  lands  have 
been  stolen,  our  money  taken,  and 
they  would  have  made  us  their  slaves. 
Rather  than  that,  we  have  chosen  to 
live  here  in  the  merry  greenwood.  We 
are  Englishmen,  Sir  Monk,  and  we 
would  be  free. 

The  King:  Well  spoken!  Well  de- 
fended, Robin! 

[Enter  by  Left  Allan- a-d ale,  with 
Maid  Marian,  Lady  Christabel,  a?id 
Friar  Tuck.] 

Maid  Marian  [curtsying]:  Wel- 
come to  Sherwood  Forest,  Sir  Abbot! 

The  King:     Who  is  this  fair  lady? 

Friar  Tuck  [pushing  forward] :  Have 
you  never  heard  of  Maid  Marian, 
Robin  Hood's  sweet  bride,  and  Queen 
of  our  merry  greenwood?  She  comes 
of  noble  blood,  but  rather  than  be 
parted  from  her  Robin  she  fled  to  the 
forest  all  in  knightly  array.  There 
she  again  met  our  master,  and  the  two 
young  things  fell  to  fighting  together, 
neither  knowing  the  other;  presently 
Robin  spoke  and  the  lady  discovered 
herself,  and  the  end  of  it  all  was  that  I 
married  them  myself.  Ah,  it  was  a 
merry  wedding! 

The  King:  Who  is  this  jolly 
monk? 

Friar  Tuck:  Friar  Tuck,  at  your 
service,  my  lord  abbot,  and  a  very 
busy  man.  Look  at  these  two  [point- 
ing to  Allan-a-dale  and  the  Lady 
Christabel].  I  married  them  under 
the  old  bishop's  nose:  I  cried  them 
seven  times  in  the  church  lest  there 
should  be  some  mistake.  They  are  a 
couple  to  be  proud  of.     They     . 


Robin  Hood:  Friar  Tuck,  Friar 
Tuck,  your  tongue  clacks  too  loudly. 

P'riar  Tuck:  Not  so,  master,  not 
so;  you  would  be  badly  off  without  its 
clacking,  I'll  warrant.  Who  would 
marry  you?  Who  would  bless  you? 
Who  would  say  grace  at  meat  in  the 
Latin  tongue?     Who  would     .     .     . 

[Little  John  takes  him  by  the  arm 
arid  leads  him  away.] 

Robin  Hood  [laughing]:  He  is  a 
merry  soul! 

[Enter  a  Page  {or  Pages)  ivith  silver 
or  crystal  bowl  and  towel.  He  kneels 
before  the  King,  holding  the  bowl  while 
he  washes  his  hands,  then  goes  to  the 
Nobles.  Men  in  green  come  hurrying 
in  icith  mugs,  platters,  dishes,  food,  etc., 
irhich  they  set  on  the  grass.  Little 
John  orders  them  here  and  there:  the 
King  and  Nobles  talk  to  Maid  Marian 
and  Christabel.  Presently  Robin 
Hood  blows  his  horn:  all  the  men  stand 
round.] 

Robin  Hood:  Fill  up  the  mugs, 
men,  to  the  very  brim:  before  we  eat 
we  will  drink  the  King's  health. 

[They  fill  up  mugs,  giving  them  also 
to  the  King  and  Nobles.] 

All  drinking  [led  by  Robin  Hood]: 
God  save  the  King ! 

The  King:  If  I  could  get  you  par- 
don from  the  King,  Roliin,  would 
you  be  willing  to  leave  this  wild  life 
in  the  woods  and  serve  him  forever? 
He  has  need  of  loyal  and  true  men  like 
you. 

Robin  Hood:     With  all  my  heart! 

The  King  [to  the  men]:  Men,  would 
you  be  willing  to  serve  the  King  of 
England,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion? 

All  [flinging  their  caps  into  the  air]: 
With  all  our  hearts!  .  .  .  God  save 
the  King! 

Robin  Hood:  You  see.  Sir  xVbbot, 
we  are  all  loyal  people  here. 

The  King  [huskily]:    So  I  see! 

Robin  Hood  :  If  you  would  but  ask 
the   King   to   forgive   me,    I   think   I 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


SSI 


could  once  more  respect  monks.  A 
bishop  was  the  first  cause  of  all  our 
misfortunes,  and  because  of  that  I 
have  hated  them  all,  but  from  this 
day  I  shall  respect  them. 

The  King  [flinging  back  the  monk's 
hood]:  There  is  no  need  to  ask  the 
King  for  pardon.  I  am  the  King,  your 
sovereign,  and  I  forgive  you  gladly, 
Robin. 

Robin  Hood  [falling  on  his  knees]: 

0  Sire! 

The  King:  Stand  up,  stand  up, 
my  friend:   I  doubt  if  in  all  England, 

1  have  more  faithful  followers  than 
you  and  your  men. 

Little  John:  The  King!  God  save 
us!   .   .   .  The  King!  ! 


Much  and  Others:  The  King !  The 
King!     [They  all  kneel.] 

The  King:  Rise,  all!  I  am  King 
Richard  of  England:  are  you  ready  to 
follow  me  as  your  master,  and  be  my 
men? 

All:     We  are,  we  are! 

The  King  [gaily]:  Then  let  us  sup, 
and  after  we  will  to  Nottingham,  and 
surprise  them. 

All:  Long  live  the  King!  Three 
cheers  for  Coeur  de  Lion !  And  three 
for  Robin  Hood! 

[The  King  gives  his  hand  to  Maid 
Marian,  Robin  Hood  to  Christabel. 
As  they  all  seat  themselves  round  the 
feast  the  Curtain  falls.] 


SCENE  FROM  UNCLE  TOM'S  CABIN 


CHARACTERS:     Miss  Ophelia,  Eva,  Topsy. 

STAGE  PROPERTIES :     Bed  or  sofa  arranged 
as   bed,   and  any   other   bedroom   furniture. 
Ribbon,  gloves,  dressing  table,  etc. 
NOTE. — In  this  scene  there  is  no  need  to 

keep   strictly   to   stage   directions.     Set   it   as 

seems  most  convenient. 

SCENE:  Miss  Ophelia's  bedroom:  Door  to 
the  Left;  at  the  back  in  center  a  bed,  or  couch 
arranged  as  bed,  standing  out  from  the  wall; 
to  the  Right  side  of  the  bed,  a  dressing-table: 
on  it,  besides  the  usual  looking-glass,  etc.,  a 
bright  red  ribbon  and  a  pair  of  white  gloves. 
Chair  to  Right  near  front  of  stage.  Book- 
case, pictures,  and  other  furniture,  according 
to  convenience.  When  the  curtain  rises,  Miss 
Ophelia  is  discovered  sitting  on  chair  to 
Right;  opposite  to  her  stands  Topsy,  hands 
folded,  eyes  fixed  on  the  ground. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Now,  Topsy,  you 
are  clean  and  tidy  at  last,  I  hope.'' 

Topsy:  Laws,  yes.  Miss  Feely! 
There's  not  a  speck  o'  dirt  left  on  me. 

Miss  Ophelia:  That  is  better:  I 
hope  you  will  always  keep  clean  and 
tidy  in  the  future.  There  is  nothing 
I  dislike  so  much  as  dirt. 

Topsy  [rolling  her  eyes  and  making  a 
face]:     Yes,  missis. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Now  I  have  a  few 
questions  to  ask  you  before  we  set  to 
work.     How  old   are  you,   Topsy? 

Topsy  [grinning]:     Dunno,  missis. 


Miss  Ophelia:  Don't  know  how 
old  you  are!  Did  nobody  ever  tell 
vou?  Who  was  your  mother  then, 
child? 

Topsy  [with  another  grin]:  Never 
had  none. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Never  had  any 
mother!  What  do  you  mean?  Where 
were  you  born? 

Topsy:     Never  was  born. 

Miss  Ophelia  [sternly] :  You  must- 
n't answer  me  like  that,  child.  I 
am  not  playing  with  you.  Tell  me 
where  you  were  born  and  who  were 
your  father  and  mother. 

Topsy  [emphatically]:  Never  was 
born,  never  had  no  father,  nor  mother, 
nor  nothin'! 

Miss  Ophelia:  Topsy,  how  can 
you  say  such  things!  How  long  have 
you  lived  with  your  master  and 
mistress? 

Topsy:     Dunno,  missis. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Is  it  a  year,  or 
more,  or  less?  Try  to  answer  properly 
this  time. 

Topsy:     Dunno,  missis. 

Miss  Ophelia:     Worse  and  worse! 


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Do  you  know  anything  at  all,  I  won- 
der! Have  you  ever  heard  of  God, 
Topsy?  [TopsY  shakes  her  head.]  Do 
you  know  who  made  you? 

Topsy  [laughing]:  Nobody  as  I 
knows  on:  'spect  I  grow'd.  Don't 
think  nobody  ever  made  me. 

Miss  Ophelia  [shocked]:  Terrible! 
whatever  shall  I  do  with  a  child  like 
this !  Do  you  know  how  to  sew,  Topsy  ? 

Topsy:     No,  missis. 

Miss  Ophelia:  What  can  you  do? 
What  did  you  do  for  your  master  and 
mistress? 

Topsy:  Fetch  water,  wash  dishes, 
and  clean  knives  and  wait  on  folks. 

Miss  Ophelia  [going  to  left  side  of 
bed]:  Well  now,  Topsy,  I'm  going 
to  show  you  just  how  my  bed  is  to  be 
made.  I  am  very  particular  about  my 
bed.  You  must  learn  exactly  how  to 
do  it.  Come  to  the  other  side  and 
watch  me  well. 

Topsy  [going  to  right  side]:  Yes, 
ma'am. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Now,  Topsy,  look 
here.  This  is  the  hem  of  the  sheet, 
This  is  the  right  side  of  the  sheet. 
This  the  wrong.     Will  you  remember? 

Topsy  [with  a  big  sigh]:  Yes,  ma'am. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Well  now,  the 
undersheet  you  must  bring  over — like 
this — and  tuck  it  right  down  imder  the 
mattress,  nice  and  smooth — like  this. 
Do  you  see? 

TopsY[with  a  bigger  sigh] :  Yes,  ma'am. 

Miss  Ophelia:  But  the  upper 
sheet  must  be  brought  down  and 
tucked  under,  firm  and  smooth  at  the 
foot — like  this — the  narrow  hem  at 
the  foot. 

Topsy  [snatching  the  gloves  and  the 
ribbon  off  the  dressing-table,  as  Miss 
Ophelia  bends  over  the  bed]:  Yes, 
ma'am.     [Slips  them  into  her  sleeve.] 

Miss  Ophelia  [pulling  off  the  clothes 
again]:  Now,  Topsy,  let  me  see  if 
you  can  do  it.  [Topsy  quickly  and 
neatly  makes  the  bed  again.] 


Miss  Ophelia  [watching  her]:  Very 
good  .  .  .  very  good  indeed,  Topsy! 
We  shall  make  something  of  you  yet. 

Topsy  [tucking  in  the  sheet]:  Yes, 
missis.  [As  she  does  so  the  ribbon  falls 
from  her  sleeve.] 

Miss  Ophelia  [picking  it  7ip] :  What 
is  this?  You  naughty  wicked  child, 
you  have  been  stealing! 

Topsy  [very  surprised]:  Why!  That's 
Miss  Feely's  ribbon,  an't  it?  How 
could  it  a'  got  into  my  sleeve? 

Miss  Ophelia:  Topsy,  you  naughty 
girl,  don't  tell  me  a  lie.  You  stole 
that  ribbon. 

Topsy:  Missis,  I  declare  I  didn't. 
Never  seed  it  till  dis  blessed  minnit. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Topsy,  don't  you 
know  it  is  wicked  to  tell  lies? 

Topsy:  I  never  tell  no  lies.  Miss 
Feely.  It's  jist  the  truth  I've  been 
tellin'  now.     It  an't  no  thin'  else. 

Miss  Ophelia  :  Topsy,  I  shall  have 
to  whip  you,  if  you  tell  lies  so. 

Topsy  [beginning  to  cry]:  Laws, 
missis,  if  you  whips  all  day  couldn't 
say  no  other  way.  I  never  seed  that 
ribbon.  It  must  a'  caught  in  my 
sleeve.  Miss  Feely  must  a'  left  it  on 
the  bed,  and  it  got  caught  in  the 
clothes,  and  so  got  in  my  sleeve. 

Miss  Ophelia  [angrily  shaking  her]: 
Topsy,  how  dare  you !  Don't  you  tell 
me  that  again.  [The  gloves  fall  to  the 
floor.] 

Miss  Ophelia  [holding  them  np]: 
There!  Will  you  tell  me  you  didn't 
steal  the  ribbon? 

Topsy  [still  crying  loudly] :  O  missis, 
missis,  I'se  so  sorry!  I  won't  never 
do  it  again,  I  won't. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Stop  crying  then, 
and  tell  me  if  you  have  taken  anything 
else  since  you  have  been  in  the  house. 
If  you  tell  me  truthfully,  I  won't  whip 
you. 

Topsy:  Laws,  missis,  I  took  Miss 
Eva's  red  thing  she  wears  on  her  neck. 

Miss     Ophelia:     You     did,     you 


THE  CHILDREN'S  OWN  BOOK 


383 


naughty  child!  Go  and  bring  it  me 
this  minute. 

Topsy:  Laws,  missis,  I  can't — 
they's  burnt  up. 

Miss  Ophelia:  Burnt  up?  What 
a  story!  Go  and  get  them  or  I  shall 
whip  you, 

Topsy  [groaning  and  crying]:  I 
can't,  I  can't,  Miss  Feely!  They's 
burnt  up,  they  is. 

Miss  Ophelia:  What  did  you 
burn  them  up  for.f* 

Topsy  [rocking  to  and  fro] :  'Cause 
I'se  wicked,  I  is.  I'se  mighty  wicked. 
I  can't  help  it. 

[Enter  Eva  wearing  red  necklace.] 

Miss  Ophelia:  Why,  Eva,  where 
did  you  get  your  red  necklace? 

Eva:  Get  it?  Why,  I  have  had  it 
on  all  day,  and  what  is  funny,  aunty, 
I  had  it  on  all  night.  I  forgot  to  take 
it  off  when  I  went  to  bed. 

Miss  Ophelia  [lifting  her  hands  in 
despair]:  Whatever  shall  I  do  with 
her !  What  in  the  world  made  you  tell 
me  that  you  took  the  necklace,  Topsy? 

Topsy  [wiping  her  eyes]:  Missis 
said  I  must  'fess.  I  couldn't  think 
of  nothin'  else  to  'fess. 

Miss  Ophelia:  But  of  course  I 
didn't  want  you  to  confess  things  you 
didn't  do;  that  is  telling  a  lie  just  as 
much  as  the  other. 

Topsy  [very  surprised]:  Laws  now, 
is  it? 

Miss  Ophelia  :  Topsy,  what  makes 
you  behave  so  badly? 

Topsy  [grinning]:  Dunno,  missis; 
'spects  it's  my  wicked  heart. 

Miss  Ophelia:  What  shall  I  do 
with  you?  I'm  sure  I  don't  know; 
this  is  terrible. 

Topsy:  Laws,  missis,  you  must 
whip  me.  I  an't  used  to  workin' 
unless  I  gets  whipped,  but  I  dunno 
that  it  helps  much  neither. 

Miss  Ophelia  [going  to  door]:  I 
never  saw  such  a  child!  Topsy,  if 
you  do  not  try  to  be  more  honest,  and 


better  in  every  way,  I  shall  have  to 
speak  to  your  master.  [Exit.] 

Eva  :  What  makes  you  so  naughty, 
Topsy?  Why  don't  you  try  to  be 
good?  [Taking  her  hand.]  Don't  you 
love  anybody,  Topsy? 

Topsy  [blinking  her  eyes]:  Dunno 
nothin'  'bout  love.  I  love  candy, 
that's  all. 

Eva  :  But  you  love  your  father  and 
mother? 

Topsy:  Never  had  none:  I  telled 
ye  that  before.  Miss  Eva. 

Eva  [sadly]:  Oh,  I  forgot:  but 
hadn't  you  any  brother  or  sister,  .  . 

Topsy  [interrupting]:  No,  none  on 
'em.     Never  had  nothin'  nor  nobody. 

Eva:  But,  Topsy,  if  you  would 
only  try  to  be  good,  you  might    .    .    . 

Topsy  [interrupting] :  Couldn't 
never  be  nothin'  but  a  nigger,  if  I  was 
ever  so  good.  If  I  could  come  white, 
I'd  try  then. 

Eva:  But  people  can  love  you,  if 
you  are  black,  Topsy.  Miss  Ophelia 
would  love  you  if  you  were  good. 

Topsy  [laughing]:  Would  she 
though? 

Eva:     Don't  you  think  so? 

Topsy:  She  can't  bear  me,  'cause 
I'm  a  nigger.  She'd  as  soon  have  a 
toad  touch  her.  There  can't  nobody 
love  niggers,  and  niggers  can't  do 
nothin'.  I  don't  care.  [Whistles  or 
hums,  and  tosses  her  head.] 

Eva  [laying  her  hand  on  Topsy's 
shoulder]:  O  Topsy,  I  will  love  you: 
I  love  you  now,  because  you  haven't 
any  mother  or  father  or  friends.  And 
it  makes  me  sorry  to  have  you  so 
naughty.  I  wish  you  would  try  to 
be   good,   Topsy.     Won't  you? 

[Topsy  suddenly  sits  down  on  the 
floor  and  hides  her  face  in  her  apron.] 

Eva  [stroking  her  head]:  VoorTo^syl 

Topsy:  O  Miss  Eva,  dear  Miss 
Eva,  I  will  try  .  .  .  indeed  I  will.  I 
never  did  care  nothin'  about  it  before, 
Cuetain, 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME   I 


Abe,  how  to  learn,  265. 

Addition,  218:  decimals,  231;  defini- 
tions, 218;  denominate  numbers, 
235;  drill  In,  218;  tractions,  230; 
oral  exercises,  218;  problems  in, 
218. 

Adjectives,  game  of,  308. 

Aeroplane,  in  warfare,  81. 

Africa,  discoveries  in,  80. 

Age,  of  animals,  36,  37;  of  birds,  37; 
of  trees,  31. 

Air,  changes  in  Its  composition,  62; 
damp  air  malces  us  iil,  26;  how  a 
balloon  keeps  up,  51:  need  of  fresh 
In  lungs,  91 :  what  It  is  made  of,  48: 
what  makes  a  kite  fly,  5i;  w^iat 
makes  the  balloon  go,  54;  why  a 
soap  bubble  ris^s  and  falls,  49:  why 
fresher  after  rain,  52;  why  we  can- 
not see  It,  48;    wonders  of,  48. 

Air  and  Water,  experiments  with, 
287. 

Air  Pressure,  why  the  fountain  plays, 
53;  why  the  smoke  of  a  train  goes 
the  other  way,  79. 

Air  Waves,  how  they  break  a  window, 
41;   why  a  pop-gun  pops,  46. 

Alexander  the  Great,  The  Gordlan 
Knot,  207. 

Alice  in  Wonderland,  tub,  293. 

Alkali,  how  It  dissolves  oH.  73. 

Alphabet,  games  with  movable,  198; 
how  to  learn  the  ABC,  265;  learn- 
ing, 193;  movable,  198;  picture, 
266;  where  it  comes  from,  85. 

American  Flag,  birth  of,  84:  first 
made  by  Betsy  Ross,  83;  how  It 
originated,  81. 

American  Indian,  likeness  to  Japan- 
ese and  Chinese,  85 ;  where  he  came 
from,  85. 

American  Jack,  83. 

Ammonia,  why  It  cleanses  things,  75. 

Amundson,  Roald,  discovery  of 
South  Pole,  80. 

Amusements,  "Alice  In  Wonder- 
land" tub,  293;  boy  conjuror's 
Joke,  29 1 ;  conj  uring  trick  with  nuts, 
292;  disappearing  dime,  290;  ex- 
periments with  air  and  water,  288; 
games,  and,  263;  games  for  hal- 
loween,  299;  games  to  play  by  the 
Are,  296;  garden  games,  302;  little 
shadow  theater,  297;  making  a  ball 
vanish,  291;  mystery  and  n^aeic, 
263,  287:  stories  and  plays,  2^3; 
things  for  boys  to  do,  263;  things 
for  girls  to  do.  263;  trick  to  play 
with  a  book.  289. 

SEE   ALSO   GAMES 

Animal  Power,  problems  concerning, 
246. 

Animals,  age  of,  36,  37:  animal  pets. 
195:  brain  of.  152;  how  arms  and 
limbs  have  been  developed,  148; 
why  some  wear  white  coats,  33; 
why  they  prick  up  their  ears,  114; 
wonders  of,  26. 

Anvil,  of  ear,  117. 

Apollo  and  Leto,  358. 

Apparatus,  Montessorl,  172;  put- 
ting away  Montessorl,  180;  putting 
it  back,  179;   sense  training,  177. 

Apple,  why  it  falls,  58. 

Apples,  games  with,  299,  300;  model- 
ing, 277. 

Arbuthnot,  John,  83. 

Archer,  fish,  376. 

Arches,  Egyptian,  77;  Gothic,  77; 
Greek,  77;  Roman,  77;  who  In- 
vented them,  77. 

Architects,  271. 

Architecture,  what  first  buildings 
were  like.  76;  who  Invented  arches 
for  buildings,  77;  who  the  best 
builders  were.  77. 

Arithmetic,  addition,  218;  beginning 
to  count,  197:  calculations,  218; 
counting  table,  246;  decimals,  231; 
denominate  numbers,  233;  division, 
228:  figures  and  counting,  270; 
first  steps  in,  196;  fractions,  229; 
fundamental  processes,  218:  games 
In,  197:  game  with  counting  sticks, 
198;  game  with  money,  197;  in- 
Burance,  237;  interest,  236;  multi- 
plication, 219;  percentage,  235; 
practical,  218;  subtraction,  218, 
219:  subtraction  drill,  218;  taxes, 
237;  weights  and  values,  247; 
Why  we  count  In  tens,  69. 


Arithmetical  Problems,  animal 
power,  246:  birds  and  insects,  242; 
cement,  262;  concrete,  262;  corn, 
238:  cows,  milk  and  butter.  243: 
drainage,  239;  education  and  In- 
dustry, 238:  feeding,  241;  fencing, 
238;  fertilizers,  261;  hay,  240; 
horse  power,  246;  orchards  and 
spraying,  240;  plowing,  239:  pota- 
toes. 244:  poultry,  245;  rents.  241; 
roads.  241;  silos.  240;  wheat,  242; 
with  the  lever,  245. 

Artful  mole  and  Innocent  blackbird, 
375. 

Artist,  271,  272;  how  his  hand  draws 
a  picture,  272;  qualifications  for,  272. 

.\sbsstos,  why  it  does  not  burn.  55. 

Asia,  disnoverlos  in.  80. 

Association  of  Ideas,  what  it  means, 
158. 

Astronomy,  Galileo,  59. 

Authority,  basis  of  parents'  au- 
thority over  children,  200. 

Automobile,  what  makes  it  go,  73. 

Avebury,  Lord,  on  bees  and  wasps, 
98. 

Avoirdupois  Weight,  234;  table  of, 
234. 


Baby  Ball,   192. 

Babylon,  early  writing  In,  14. 

Backbone,  protection  of  the  spinal 
cord,   146. 

Balance,  how  birds  balance,  125; 
how  body  is  held  In,  122;  us3  of 
eyes  in  balancing  the  body,  123. 

Balancing,  blindfolded  man's  walk 
across  Niagara,   124. 

Balancing  the  Body,  tight-rope 
walker,   123,   124. 

Ball,  baby,  192;  making  one  vanish, 
291;   why  It  bounces,  87. 

Balloon,  how  It  keeps  up,  54;  what 
makes  It  go,  54. 

Banker's  Interest  Method,   236. 

Barbed  Wire,  238. 

Bark,  its  use  on  trees,  32. 

Bartholdi,  liberty  enlightening  the 
world,  168. 

Basketry,  277. 

Baskets,  how  woven,  278,  279. 

Battle  of  Blenheim,   poem,  363. 

Bazar,  things  a  boy  can  make  for, 
332. 

Bee,  brain  of,  144;   why  It  hums,  29. 

Bcrtilllon  System,  what  It  Is,  80. 

Bible,  finest  English  writing  In,  86. 

Bingo,  game  of,  295. 

Birds,  age  of,  37;  Christmas  tree  for, 
301;  eye  of,  99;  have  eggs  of  dif- 
ferent colors,  34;  how  they  baian'-e, 
125;  how  they  find  their  way,  28: 
how  they  fly,  125;  how  they  know 
how  to  build  their  nests,  31:  prob- 
lems concerning,  242;  what  they 
sing  about,  28;  what  makes  them, 
18;  why  they  fly  so  hi':!h,  26. 

SEE   ALSO   VOLU.MB    II 

Birds'  Eggs,  have  different  colors,  34; 

use  of  diiferent  colors,  34. 
Blindfold,  games  and  exercises,  187, 

188. 
Blindfolded  man's  walk  across  Ni- 
agara, 124. 
Blindman's  Buff,  295. 
Blindness,  causes  of,  107. 
Block  Tower,  182. 
Blondes,   22. 
Blood,    how    pumped    through    the 

body,  91;    microbes  of  disease  in, 

91. 
Blowing  the  Egg,  game  of,  301. 
Blue  Eyes,  103. 
Body,  a  human  house,  91;   how  held 

in  ijalance,  122;    human,  16;    part 

that  helps  us  stand,  122. 
Boiling,  what  makes  water  boil.  51: 

why  water  boils  awav.  52. 
Book,  trick  to  play  with,  289. 
Bookshelves,   how   boys   can   make, 

326. 
Boomerang,  how  to  make.  322. 
Boot  Brush  Bax,  how  to  make,  332. 
Bounce  About,  game  of,  3)^. 
Boxes,  computing,  178:    sound,  178, 

187. 
Boy,  conjuror's  Joke,  291;  Peter  Pan. 

367:    what  he  must  do  to  su-ces;!, 

205;  who  wouldn't  grow  up,  357. 
Boys,  carpenter  shop,  324. 
Boys'  Carpenter    Shop,    making    a 


tool-box,  326;  making  bookshelves, 
326;  Joints  and  mortises,  328; 
mitre  Joints,  329. 

Boys,  things  to  do.  263,  311. 

Brain,  a  telephone  exchange,  91; 
special  centers,  153;  centers  of 
hearing  in,  115;  cerebellum,  147; 
composed  of  millions  of  nerve  cells 
152;  convolutions  In  brains  of 
talented  men,  151;  convolutions  or 
folds,  150;  cross-sections  of,  149; 
fibres,  154;  hearing,  114;  how  a 
sound  reaches,  120:  how  it  sends 
and  receives  messages  through  the 
nerves,  145:  how  the  nerves  are 
connected,  150;  how  we  think,  157; 
human,  149;  Inside  and  outside, 
150:  journey  of  sound  to,  119,  120; 
layers  of,  152;  likeness  of  man's 
brain  to  that  of  an  animal,  152; 
mystery  of,  149;  needs  food,  20; 
nerve  centers  that  pass  to  when  we 
hear  music,  121;  nerve  fibres,  91; 
part  that  acts  In  crying,  17;  posi- 
tion in  skull,  150:  the  six  tubes  that 
tell  it  of  our  movements,  123 :  touch 
center,  156;  why  a  man's  Is  better 
than  an  animal's,  153;  of  bee  or 
wasp,  144;  of  bird,  149;  i  of  fish, 
149;  of  the  hippopotamus,  147;  of 
mammal,  149:  of  reptile.  149. 

SEE  ALSO  MEKVE3.  NERVOUS  SYSTEM, 
SENSES 

Brainstorm,  how  to  avoid  In  chil- 
dren, 202. 

Breathing,  how  fishes  breathe,  31; 
how  it  is  done,  90;  why  we  get  out 
of  breath,  20;  why  we  should 
breathe  through  the  nose,  140; 
use  of  larynx,  127;  of  seeds,  30; 
of  worms,  30. 

Brer  Rabbit  and  Tar  Baby,  348. 

Brides,  ori'?in  of  custom  of  wearing 
orange  blossoms,  88. 

British  Lion,  83. 

Broad  Stair,  177;  teaching  the 
child  to  build,  182. 

Brocken,  spectre  of,  40. 

Brown  Eyes,    103. 

Brunettes,   22. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  an  association  of 
Ideas,   157. 

Builder's  knots,  323. 

Building,  what  holds  It  up,  78. 

Buildings,  Invention  of  arches,  77; 
what  first  were  like.  76;  who  the 
best  builders  were,  77. 

Burglars,  how  caught  by  their  finger 
prints,  79. 

Burnt  Sienna,  275. 

Bushel,  weights  of  grain,  per,  247; 
weights  of,  par,  247. 

Business,  application  of  decimals, 
232;  makln?  change,  219:  prac- 
tical arithmetic,  218;  U.  S.  money, 
232. 

Butter,  problems  concerning,  243, 
244. 

Buttons,  why  evening  coat  has  two 
on  back,  87. 


Calculations,  Arithmetical,  218. 

Camera,  how  It  takes  a  photograph, 
71. 

Can  a  Fish  Hear,  35. 

Candle,  why  an  extinguisher  puts 
out  the  flame.  88. 

Carbohydrates,   256. 

Carbon,  why  a  gas  fiame  Is  blue  and 
yellow,  44;    why  coal  burns,  55. 

Carbonic  Acid,  what  becomes  of  it, 
87. 

Carbonic  Acid  Gas,  55. 

Care,  of  the  voice,  134. 

Carpenter  Shop,  Bovs,  324. 

Carpenters'  Tools.  321,  325. 

Cartridge,  why  it  makes  a  noise  when 
exploded,  87. 

Casa  del  Bambini,  174:  Children's 
luncheon  in,  175;  methods  of  secur- 
ing discipline  and  obedience,  201. 

Cast  Iron,  88. 

Cast  Steel,   88. 

Cat,  why  it  purrs,  32. 

Cataract,  frozen,  47;  of  the  eye,  107. 

Catch-Ball,  game  of,  304. 

Cells,  Inner  ear,  119;  nerve,  143; 
upon  whieh  li'^ht  acts,  O^i. 

Cement,   problems  concerning,   262. 

Centers,  of  hearing  in  brain,  115; 
of  the  brain,  153. 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME    I 


Center,  of  touch  In  brain,  156. 

Central,  nervoua  system,  145. 

Cerebrum,  brain,  149. 

Cerebellum,  147;  develops  upward 
in  the  scale  of  life,  148. 

Chalk  line  exercises,  191. 

Character  Making,  in  boys,  205. 

Character  Training,  discipline  and 
obedience,  200:  school  of  real  life, 
205;  what  a  boy  must  do  to  suc- 
ceed, 205;  what  a  girl  must  do  to 
succeed,  210. 

Charts,  multiplication,  220,  221,  222, 
223    224    225    226    227. 

Chemise,  Wd'oiirs'sfi,  337. 

Chemistry,  of  fertilizers,  259.  260; 
of  foods,  256. 

Cherries,  modeling,  276. 

Child,  before  it  goes  to  school,  263; 
how  it  can  learn  self-care,  195; 
how  to  teach  it  self-control,  198: 
how  its  mind  Is  built  up,  158:  how 
to  encourage  Inventions,   192. 

Child  Nature,  appeal  oX  Montessorl 
system,  179. 

Child  Training,  before  the  child  goea 
to  school,  263;  beginning  to  count, 
197:  boys'  carpenter  shop,  263; 
cautions  to  be  observed,  195; 
children's  own  book,  263;  child 
should  not  be  disciplined  when 
nervously  excited,  202;  discipline 
and  obedience,  200;  figures  and 
counting,  270 ;  first  steps  in  arithme- 
tic, 196:  game  of  where  is  it,  308; 
games  and  amusements,  263,  293; 
games  in  arithmetic,  197;  games 
to  play  by  the  fire,  296:  games  to 
play  when  out  walking,  307: 
games  with  counting  sticks,  198; 
games  with  money,  197;  garden 
games.  302:  gymnastic  exercises, 
191;  how  child  can  learn  self-care, 
195;  how  to  avoid  a  "  brain- 
storm,"  202:  how  to  learn  the 
ABC,  265;  how  to  maintain  the 
child's  normal  life,  195:  how  to 
teach  mastery  over  muscles,  192; 
how  to  teach  self-control,  198; 
learning  the  alphabet,  193;  learning 
to  read,  193;  learning  to  write  at 
age  of  four,  193:  lessons  in  things 
beautiful,  263;  little  problems  for 
the  wise,  263,  2S2;  management 
of  very  young,  200:  matching  col- 
ors, 190;  memory  tests  on  Montes- 
sorl system,  204;  modeling,  276; 
Montessorl  system,  171;  mystery 
and  magic,  263.  287:  necessity  for 
constant  activity  in  early  child- 
hood. 203;  nursery  games.  294; 
passing  from  concrete  to  abstract, 
189:  picture  alphabet,  263:  picture 
words,  267,  268,  269:  plant  and 
animal  pets,  195:  plays  for  the 
home,  378;  pleasures  of  a  little 
garden.  317:  practice  words.  194; 
recognizing  and  spelling  words,  193; 
rope-balancing  and  walking  back- 
ward, 191;  spontaneous  writing 
lesson,  184;  stories  and  plays,  263, 
345;  storv  questions  and  picture 
answers.  •2"69:  system  must  fit  the 
child,  171;  teaching  the  child  to 
trace  with  pencil,  194:  things  for 
bovs  to  do  263;  311;  things  for 
girls  to  do,  263.  333;  training  the 
eye,  190;  undirected  work.  195; 
wonderful  land  of  sound,  2S0. 

BEE       ALSO       MONTESSORI       SYSTEM 
AND    CHILDREN 

Children,  all  young  are  far-sighted, 
106;  cultivation  of  voice,  134; 
how  they  "explode  into  writing", 
184;  Montessorl  games  for,  187; 
unreasoning  age  In,  200;  their 
natural  right  to  play,  148;  why 
they  need  sleep,  16. 

BEE     ALSO      CHILD      TRAINING,      AND 

MONTESSORI    SYSTEM 

Children's    own   book,    263;     Whys 

and  Hows,  69. 
Chisel,  325. 

Choosing  a  Farm,  249. 
Christmas  Party,  games  for,  300. 
Christmas,  tree  for  birds,  301. 
Cinematograph,     what    It     Is,     86; 

what  it  teaches,  86. 
Circulatory  System.  92. 
CItv  of  Crowded  Streets,  game  of, 

308. 
CItv     With    the     Golden     Dome, 

game  of,  308. 
Classincatlon,       of       smells,      140; 

tastes,  141. 


Cleopatra's  Needle,  14. 

Clock  strikes  twelve.  The,  282. 

Clothes,  why  they  keep  us  warm,  19 
why  some  are  warmer  than  others, 
19:      why    moths    eat    them,    27 

Clouds,  how  they  make  shadows, 
63;  what  they  are  made  of,  55 
why  they  have  silver  linings,  63. 

Coal,  dlHerent  kinds  of,  88;  why  It 
burns,  55. 

Coat,  how  It  keeps  us  warm,  19. 

Coat,  Evening,  why  It  has  two 
buttons  on  back,  87. 

Cohesion,  how  a  bar  stays  In  place, 
76:  why  a  stick  holds  together,  78; 
why  water  runs,  78 :  why  we  cannot 
make  a  rops  of  sand.  78. 

Coins,  why  milled,  88. 

Cold,  how  clothes  keep  tee  cold,  19; 
how  it  travels,  77;  how  shivering 
makes  us  warm,  24:  why  some 
things  are  colder  than  others,  19; 
why  we  shiver,  24. 

Color,  boxes.  178;  In  the  voice,  132; 
use  of  colored  crayons,  189;  why 
animals  change,  96:  why  leaves 
change,  33:  what  makes  the  rain- 
bow, 44;  why  snow  is  white,  43; 
why  the  sea  looks  green  and  blue.  66. 

SEE    ALSO    LIGHT,    AND    COLORS 

Color-Bllndness,  110;  testa  for, 
111. 

Color  Vision,  108. 

Colors.  best  for  eyes,  112; 
Blenna,  275;  color-blindness,  110: 
differentiation  of,  190;  Gamboge, 
275:  how  we  see  them,  108;  in 
mother-of-pearl,  88;  in  stagnant 
water,  45:  matching,  190;  primary, 
109;  Prussian  blue.  275;  secondary, 
110;  shades  of  color,  110:  that  we 
cannot  see,  109:  three  pure,  109: 
what  produces  them  at  sunset,  38; 
where  paints  come  from,  273; 
why  photographs  are  developed  In 
red  light,  45. 

BEE     ALSO     LIGHT,     AND    COLOR 

Columbus,  example  of  courage,  208. 
Commercial,  fertilizers.  260. 
Commission.  237;    problems  In,  237. 
Computing  Boxes,  178. 
Concrete,  formula  for  making,  261; 
mixing   directions,    262:     problems 
concerning,  262;   what  It  is,  261. 
Concrete  and  Abstract,  189. 
Conduct,    principles    of,    for    boys, 

205,  206,  207,  2U8,  209. 
Conduct,  principles  of,  for  girls,  210, 

211,  212,  213.  214.  215.  216.  217. 
Conduct,   supremacy  of  conscience, 

217. 
Cones  In  Retina.  108. 
Conjuring,  boy  conjuror's  Joke,  291; 

trick  with  nuts,  292. 
Consonants,   importance  of  correct 
pronunciation.      137:      sounds     of, 
contrasted  with  vowels,  136. 
Convolutions    of    Brain.     1.50;      In 
talented    men,     151;     what    they 
mean,  151. 
Corn,   how   to   test  seed   corn,   238; 

problems  concerning,  238. 
Cornea,  101. 

Could  a  top  spin  forever,  72. 
Could  a  Wheel  Fly  Off  an  Engine, 

72. 
Could  we  live  without  rain,  57. 
Counting,   270;    beginning  to,   197: 
boxes    and    sand-paper    numbers, 
196:  games  In,  197;  game  of  sticks, 
198. 
Counting  the  Dogs,  game  of,  307. 
Countries,  Babylon,  14:    Egypt,  14. 
Courage,  examples  of,  208;   glory  of. 
208;  value  of  In  restraining  feelings, 
216. 
Cows,  problems  concerning,  243. 
Crayon  drawing,  274. 
Crayons,  272,  273,  274. 
Crops,  rotation  of,  249. 
Cross-Ball.  304. 
Crying, tears,  17;    the  reason  for  it, 

iOO;  what  causes  It,  17. 
Cubic  Measure,  234;    table  of,  234. 
Cure  for  fatigue,  21. 
Currents,  nerve,  121. 
Customs,  marriage  ring,  88:   throw- 
ing shoes  after  bride,  88;    wearing 
orange  blossoms,  88. 


Daltonism,   110. 

Dampness,    effect    of,    26;     why   It 
makes  wood  decay,  87. 


Darkness,  why  the  night  is  dark,  40. 

Darwin,  Charles,  his  interest  in  find- 
ing the  truth  about  things,  162; 
on  expression,  131. 

Date  Line,  69. 

Day,  Two  days  at  once,  68:  where 
it  begins,  68:  where  It  changes,  68. 

Dead  Sea,  58. 

Deafness,  From  a  cold,  116. 

Decay,  why  wood  decays,  87. 

Decimals,  231;  addition  and  sub- 
traction of,  231:  business  applica- 
tion of.  232:  changing  to  common 
fractions.  231;  division  of.  232; 
multiplication  of.  232;  reading  of 
231;    U.  .S.  money,  232. 

SEE    ALSO    ARITHMETIC 

Decimal  system  of  coinage  In  U.  S., 

88. 

Defects  of  the  eye,  104. 

Denominate  numbers,  233;  ad- 
dition and  subtraction  of,  2o5; 
avoirdupois  weight,  234;  cubic 
measure,  234;  division  of,  235: 
linear  measure,  233;  ilciuid  and 
dry  measures,  234;  multiplication 
of,  235;  square  measure,  233; 
time  measure,  247. 

SEE   ALSO    ARITHMETIC 

Designers,  271. 

Devices,  Montessorl,  172. 

Dewdrop,  what  it  is,  48. 

Didactic  Apparatus,  Montessorl 
System,  174. 

Did  George  walk  around  the  mon- 
key? 283. 

Differentiation,   of  colors,   190. 

Difficulties,  Imaginary,  209;  use  of 
In  real  life,  206. 

Digestible  Nutrients,  In  feeds, 
257. 

Dimension  and  form,  teachings  of, 
182. 

Dimple,  what  makes  It,  25. 

Disappearing  Dime,  290. 

Discipline,  glory  of  courage,  208; 
imaginary  dliflculties,  209:  quali- 
ties that  coin  success,  206;  use  of 
ditHculties,  206;  what  a  boy  must 
do  to  succeed,  205;  what  a  girl  must 
do  to  succeed,  210. 

Discipline  and  Obedience,  child 
should  not  be  disciplined  when  ner- 
vously excited,  202;  how  to  avoid  a 
"brain-storm,"  202;  how  to  teach 
children,  200;  methods  of  the  Casa- 
del  Bambini.  201 :  what  the  attitude 
of  the  mother  should  be,  201. 

SEE  ALSO  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 

Discovery,  In  Asia,  80:  In  Africa,  80; 
of  the  North  Pole  by  Peary,  80; 
of  South  Pole  by  Amundsen,  80. 

Division,  228:  long,  228:  short,  228; 
written  problems.  228:  of  decimals. 
232;  of  denominate  numbers,  235: 
of  fractions,  231. 

Dizziness,  why  things  spin  around,  24. 

Does  a  Fan  cool  the  air,  87. 

Does  Light  weigh  anything,  43. 

Does  the  Brain  need  food.  20. 

Dog,  how  he  knows  a  stranger,  32. 

Doll,  Christmas  hamper,  how  to 
make,  277,  278,  279;  first  little 
garment,  335;  frock  lor,  340:  petti- 
coat, 337. 

Doll's  House,  furniture  for,  332. 

Do  Our  Eyes  deceive  us,  18. 

Do  People  live  on  the  moon,  61. 

Do  Seeds  breathe,  30. 

Do  We  See  what  is  not  there,  42. 

Dragon  Files,  97. 

Drainage,  problems  concerning,  239: 
tile  for,  239. 

Drake,  Francis,  example  of  courage, 

209. 

Drawing,  272;  and  painting,  275;  a 
play  lesson,  276;  first  lessons  in, 
189;  how  artist  draws,  272;  how  to 
sit,  274;  leaves,  274,  275;  materials, 
272;  paper,  274;  things  to  draw, 
274;  use  of  colored  crayons,  189; 
with  crayons,  274. 

Dreams,  16.  17:  what  causes  them, 
17;    why  absurd,  88. 

Drills,  in  multiplication,  220,  221, 
222,  223,  224,  225,  226.  227. 

Driving  a  Blindfolded  Team,  game 
of,  305. 

Dry  matter.  In  feeding,  259. 

Dry  measure.   234. 

Ducking  for  apples,  game  pt,  299t 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  I 


Ear,  anvil  of,  117;  deafness  from  a 
cold,  116;  fibres  of  inner.  119;  ham- 
mer, 117;  how  sound  waves  travel 
to  it,  li:?;  inner,  117;  inner  cells, 
119;  journey  of  sound  to  brain, 
119,  126;  machinery  of,  118; 
middle.  116;  parts  of,  117;  pictures 
of  inside;  118,  real  one  in  the 
brain,  114;  stirrup,  117;  tympa- 
num, 115,  116. 

SEE    ALSO    HEARING,    SOUND,    VOICE 

Ear,  continued,  tympanum,  115,  116. 

Earache,  should  not  be  neglected, 
116. 

Ear  Drum,  115,  116. 

Earth,  changes  in  its  matter,  62: 
how  men  conquered  it,  61;  is  it 
hollow,  66;   wonders  of,  58. 

SEE   ALSO    VOLUME    II 

Earthquake,  what  causes  it,  66. 

Eclipse,  how  observed,  65;  of  the 
sun  by  the  moon,  64.-   what  it  is,  64. 

Education,  desirable  to  train  the 
memory,  165;  importance  of  sense 
of  touch  in,  155,  156;  problems  con- 
cerning, 238:  school  of  real  life,  205. 

BEE  ALSO  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM,  AND 
CHILD    TRAINING 

Egg  Hat,  game  of,  305. 

Eggs,  why  bad  ones  float  and  good 
ones  sink,  35. 

Egypt,  Cleopatra's  Needle,  14;  early 
writing  in,  14;  monuments,  14; 
tombs,  16. 

Egyptian  Tombs,  what  they  con- 
tained, 16. 

Egyptian  Writings,   15. 

Electricity,  effect  upon  water,  87. 

Emotions,  must  be  controlled  by 
reason,  217. 

Engine,  could  a  wheel  fly  off,  72. 

English  Language,  finest  writing  in 
Bible,  "Robinson  Crusoe"  and 
"Pilgrim's  Progress,"  86;  foreign- 
er's difficulties  with,  135;  number  of 
words  in,  80. 

Exercises,  chalk  line,  191 ;  gymnastic, 
191. 

Exercises  and  Games,  Montessorl 
system,  176. 

Experiments,  Simple,  with  air  and 
water,  287. 

Eye,  blindness,  causes  of,  107;    cata- 
ract of,   107;    color-blindness,   110: 
color  vision,  108;    cones  in  retina, 
108;    cornea,  101;    crying,  17;    de- 
fects of,  104,  105;  elasticity  of  lens, 
107;  how  a  picture  is  printed  on  the 
retina,  71;    how  our  eyes  focus  by 
change  of  shape  of  their  lenses,  104 
interior  of  eyeball,   108:    iris,   102 
lens  of,  103:    nearsightedness,  104 
105;   of  backboned  animals,  98,  99 
of  birds,  99;    of  a  dragon  fly,  97 
of  a  fish,  94;   of  fishes,  98:   of  a  fly 
94,  97:    of  a  man,  94;    optic  nerve, 
102;     parts   of,    101;     pupil,    102 
storyof.  94;  tear  gland,  100:  tears, 
17:  training  of,  190-  uses  for  which 
nature  has  fitted  them  106;    where 
tears  go,  18:   winking,  17,  100. 

SEE   ALSO   SEEING,    AND    EYES 

Eyeball,  101;  interior  of,  108. 

Eyebrows,  100. 

Eyelashes,   100. 

Eyelid,  what  it  does,  99. 

Eyes,  best  colors  for,  112;  busy  senti- 
nels of  the  body,  91:  do  they  de- 
ceive us,  18:  how  children  should 
use  them,  106:  how  developed,  94; 
how  to  rest  them.  111;  of  leaf,  94; 
of  plants,  94;  use  of  in  balancing 
the  body,  123;  what  they  .see  during 
reading,  112;  why  onions  make 
them  water,  23;  why  tropical  races 
are  dark-eyed,  88. 

SEE   ALSO    EYE,    AND   SEEING 


Fairies,  home  of  the  seven,  281;  see 
stories. 

Fairies  and  Goblins,  of  piano  key- 
board, 280. 

Fainting,  causes,  20;  what  to  do,  20. 

Fan,  does  it  cool  the  air,  87. 

Farm,  choo.sing  one,  249. 

Fat   256:  heat  value  of,  259. 

Fatigue,  cure  for,  21. 

Feather  and  Fans,  game,  295. 

Feeding,  problems  o«ncernlng,  241; 


rations,  table  of,  258;    standards, 
258. 

Feeds,  chemical  analysis  of,  257;  di- 
gestible nutrients  in,  257;  dry  mat- 
ter, 259;  feeding  rations,  table  of, 
258;  feeding  standards,  258;  heat 
value  of  fats,  259:  mixing  a  ration, 
259;   nutritive  ratio  in,  258. 

Feelings,  how  expressed  by  the  face 
and  eye,  100;  how  they  affect  our 
thoughts,  160:  nerve  cells  upon 
whicii  they  depend    143. 

Fencing,   problems    concerning,  238. 

Fertilizers,  259;  chemical  ingre- 
dients, 259-  chemical  substances 
taken  from  soil  by  various  crops, 
260;  fertilizing  substances,  260; 
problems  concerning.  261;  what 
substances  commercial  fertilizers 
contain,  260. 

Ferns,  for  rock  garden,  343;  types 
of  for  garden,  344. 

Fever,  caused  by  mosquito,  27. 

Fibers  of  inner  ear,  119;  of  the  brain, 
154. 

Figures,  270;  beginning  to  count, 
197;  first  steps  in  arithmetic,  196; 
games  in,  197;  why  we  count  in 
tens,  69. 

Fine  Arts,  271;  crayon  drawing,  274; 
drawing,  272;  modeling,  276;  music 
271;  painting,  275;  where  paints 
come  from,  273. 

Fingers,  Co-ordinating  movements 
of,  180;  uses,  22:  why  different 
lengths,  21;    why  we  have  ten,  21. 

Finger  Nails,  u.ses  of,  23. 

Finger  Prints,  how  burglars  are 
caught  by  them,  79. 

Fire,  how  water  quenches  It,  50; 
wonders  of,  48. 

FIreworlcs,   88. 

Fish,  archer,  376:  gills,  126:  hear- 
ing in,  35;    swim,  bladder  of,   126. 

Fishes,  eye  of,  98,  99;  why  they  can- 
not live  on  land,  31;  why  they  do 
not  drown,  35. 

Fives,  game  of,  305. 

Flag,  American,  how  it  originated, 
81:  "American  .lack."  83;  Eng- 
lish, 83;  official  of  United  States, 
83;  of  Ireland,  83;  Union  Jack, 
83. 

Flag  Day,  83. 

Flags,  game  of,  303. 

Flames,  why  they  go  up,  56. 

Flannel,  why  it  is  warm,  19. 

Flies,  how  they  walk  on  ceiling,  30 

Flowers,    arranging   for   home,    339 
garden,  318;  tame  ones  and  wild,  29. 
where  they  go  in  winter,  27;    why 
they  smell  sweeter  after  rain,  57. 

Fly,  dragon,  97;   eyes  of,  97. 

Flying,  how  birds  fly,  125. 

Flying  Machine,  how  boys  can  make, 
316. 

Fluid,  in  six  little  canals  of  head,  125. 

Following  Leader,  game  of,  303. 

Foods,  Carbohydrates.  256:  chem- 
istry of,  256;  fat,  256;  how  the 
brain  is  fed,  20:  preserving,  250, 
251;    protein,  256. 

Form,  teaching  of,   182. 

Formula,   261. 

Fountain,  why  it  plays,  53. 

Fractions,  220;  addition  of,  230; 
addition  of  mixed,  230;  decimal, 
231;  definitions,  229;  division  of, 
231;  multiplication  of,  231;  re- 
duction of,  229;  subtraction  of,  230. 

SEE   ALSO    ARITHMETIC 

Friction,   could  a  top  spin  forever, 

72;   why  a  wheel  stops,  72. 
Friday,  story  of,  356,  357. 
Fulton,  Robert,  example  of  courage, 

208. 
"Funny-Bone,"   142. 
Furniture  for  Doll's  House,  332. 


Galileo,  experiments  with  falling 
bodies,  59;  leaning  tower  of  Pisa. 
59. 

Games,  baby  ball,  192;  bingo,  295; 
blindman's  buff,  187,  295;  blowing 
the  egg,  301;  ciiy  of  crowded 
streets,  308;  city  of  the  golden 
dome,  308:  counting  the  dogs,  307; 
ducking  for  apples,  299;  feather 
and  fans,  295;  for  children,  187; 
for  Christmas  party,  300;  for  hal- 
loween,  299;  game  of  adjectives, 
308;  garden,  302;  garden  gate, 
294;    general  post,  296;    guessing 


the  color  of  tails,  307;  guessing 
with  wooden  spoons,  300;  hide-and- 
seek,  187;  hold  fast,  let  go,  294; 
hunt  the  slipper,  294;  in  arithmetic, 
197;  interrupted  game  of  bowls, 
309;  landing  of  a  brave  band,  309; 
magic  answers,  296;  nursery,  294; 
of  touch,  302;  proverbs,  296:  pusa 
in  the  corner,  295;  rope-balancing 
and  walking  backward,  191;  still- 
pond-no-more-moving,  187;  to  play 
by  the  fire,  296;  to  play  out  walk- 
ing, 307;  trees  for  Europe's  ships, 
308;  with  apples,  299,  300;  with 
balls,  squares,  triangles,  186;  with 
colors,  190,  191:  with  money,  197; 
with  movable  alphabet,  198;  with 
sandpaper  numbers,  198:  with 
velvet,  186;  what  scene  in  history, 
309;  where  the  cocoanuts  grow, 
309;   wolf,  295;   word-making.  296. 

SEE   ALSO   AMUSEMENTS 

Games  and  Amusements,  263,  293; 
"Alice  in  Wonderland,"   tub,  293. 

Games  and  Exercises,  blindfold,  188. 

Garden,  flowers,  318:  plants,  252, 
2.53,  254,  255;  pleasures  of,  317; 
rock,  343;    when  to  sow  seeds,  318. 

Garden  Games,  302:  bounce  about, 
303;  catch-ball,  304;  cross-ball, 
304;  driving  a  blindfolded  team, 
305;  egg  hat,  305;  fives,  305;  flags, 
303;  follow  my  leader,  303:  games 
of  touch,  302;  leap-ball,  304; 
matchbox  on  the  lawn,  306;  steeple- 
chase, 304:  Tom  Tiddler's  ground, 
302;  traveler  and  wolves,  304;  tug- 
of-war,  303. 

Garden   Gate,  The,   294. 

Gardener's  tools,  little,  318. 

Gas,  ammonia,  75;   carbonic  acid,  55. 

Gases,  what  air  is  made  of,  48:  why 
flames  go  up,  56;  why  hot  gases 
rise,  56. 

Gas  Flame,  why  its  center  is  blue 
and  outside  yellow,  44. 

Gathering,   335. 

General  Post,  game  of,  296. 

Geometric  Figures,  reproduced  In 
cards,   189. 

Geometric  Forms,  plane,  178. 

Geometrical  insets,  solid,   176,   177. 

German  Silver,  88. 

Giddiness,  why  we  suffer  it,  125. 

GUIs,  use  of  in  fish,  126. 

Gimlet,   325. 

Girl,  joyoJ  simplicity,  213:  must  give 
reason  control  over  emotions,  217; 
must  have  courage  to  restrain  feel- 
ings, 216;  must  not  be  wholly  con- 
trolled by  sympathies,  217:  pleas- 
ures should  be  worthy  mind  and 
heart,  215;  qualities  necessary  in 
managing  a  home,  212;  search  for 
pleasure,  213;  things  she  can  do 
without,  213;  unnecessary  extrava- 
gance, 215;  who  loves  her  home, 
212;  who  thinks  and  feels,  216; 
wise  wife  in  the  home,  213;  char- 
acter making  of,  210. 

Girls,  how  to  make  work-box,  333; 
how  to  use  needle,  334:  right  view 
of  life,  211;  should  guard  fair  name, 
211;  should  use  natural  gifts,  210; 
supremacy  of  conscience  in  con- 
duct, 217;  temptations  to  waste 
time,  211;  things  to  do,  263,  333; 
vanity  of  riches,  211:  what  she 
must  do  to  succeed,  210:  wherein 
their  power  for  good  lies,  211. 

Glass,  of  what  common  is  made,  87. 

Glue,  wh.v  it  is  adhesive,  87. 

Goblins  and  fairies,  of  piano  key- 
board, 280. 

Gold,  weight  of  a  cubic  foot,  88. 

Goldiloclcs,  and  the  three  bears.  347. 

Gordian   knot,   207. 

Grains,  weight  of  per  bushel,  247. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.  example  of  courage, 
208. 

Gravitation,  what  holds  a  building 
up,  78:  why  an  apple  falls,  58:  why 
a  stone  sinks,  69. 

Gravity,  why  the  river  runs  into  the 
sea,  51. 

Gray  matter  of  brain,  152. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  58. 

Great  Thinkers,  what  makes  them, 
1.59. 

Greenhouse,  252,  253,  2.54,  255. 

Guessing  the  color  of  tails,  game  of, 
307;    with  wooden  spoons,  300. 

Gun,  noise  when  it  is  fired,  46. 

Gymnastic  Exercises,  191. 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  I 


H 

Halloween,  games  for,  299. 

Hammer,   325:    ot  ear.   117. 

Handv  values,  table  of,  247. 

Hands,  why  they  have  lines,  21. 

Hatchet,   324. 

Have  We  discovered  all  the  world,  SO. 

Hav,  problems  concerning,  240. 

Hearing,  114:  centers  of  the  brain, 
115:  ear  drum,  115,  116:  in  fishes. 
35:  marvel  of.  113:  real  ear  in  the 
brain.  114:  training  sense  of,  187: 
why  animals  pricl?:  up  their  ears, 
114;   wonderful  nerves  of.  156. 

SEE    .4LS0    E.^B 

Heart,  how  it  distributes  the  blood, 

91- 

Heat,  how  a  coat  keeps  us  warm.  19: 
how  it  travels,  77:  in  fats,  259. 

Heavens,  eclipse  of  sun,  64:  meteor- 
ites, 66:    milky  way,  65. 

Hem,   334.  ,    ,  ,, 

Hippopotamus,  brains  of,   147. 

Hold  Fast,  let  go,  294. 

Horizon,  how  far  off.  39. 

Home,  qualities  in  a  girl  necessary  to 
m.anage,  212:  schoo!  for  children, 
176:   wise  wife  in.  213. 

Houses,  why  not  made  of  iron,  76. 

Horsepower  defined,  problems  con- 
cerning, 246. 

How  a  Balloon  keeps  up,  54. 

How  a  Bar  stavs  in  place.  76. 

How  a  Coat  keeps  us  warm,  19. 

How  a  Hog  knows  a  stranger.  32. 

How  a  Mackintosh  keeps  us  dry.  75. 

How  a  Magnifying  Glass  makes 
things  bigger.  70. 

How  a  Soap-bubble  holds  together, 

50.  ^    ,„ 

How  a  Spider  spins  its  web,  28. 
How  a  ?tone  is  Made,  62. 
How  Big  the  world  is.  60. 
How    Birds    Fly    without    tumbling 

over,  125. 
How  Birds  find  their  way,  28. 
How  Birds  know  how  to  build  their 

nests,  31.  ^  , 

How  Burglars  are  caught  by  their 

finger-prints.  79. 
How  Clothes  keep  ice  cold,  19. 
How  did  the  Engineer  change  cars, 

284. 
How  did  the  Sheep  stand.  282. 
How  does  Julia  get  the  eggs.  28o. 
How  Far  off  is  the  horizon.  39. 
How  Fast  Can  a  Wheel  Go  Round, 

72. 
How  Fast  was  the  Horse  Walking, 

How  Flies  walk  on  the  ceiling,  30. 

How  long  a  Pendulum  must  be  to 
vibrate  si.'ity  times  a  minute,  87. 

How  Long  was  the  string,  284. 

How  Man  conQuered  the  earth,  61. 

How  Many  ducks,  282. 

How  Many  eggs.  282. 

How  Many  persons  were  they,  283. 

How  Manv  stamps  had  they.  283. 

How  Many  words  in  English  lan- 
guage, so". 

How  Many  words  we  use.  8o. 

How  Mirrors  are  made.  SS. 

How  Mosquitos  cause  fever.  27 

How  Much  does  a  brick  weigh?    284. 

How  Much  Water  was  spilled?    284. 

How  Our  Eyes  focus  by  change  of 
the  shape  of  their  lenses.  104. 

How  Red  Fire  is  produced.  88. 

How  Science  gives  sight  to  the  blind. 

How  Stoneware  is  gla'.ed.  87. 
How  the  American  flag  originated 

How  the  Camera  takesa  photograph. 

How  the  Face  and  Eye  express  our 

feelings,  100. 
How   the   Leaning  Tower   ot   Pisa 

.stands,  59. 
How  the  piano  plays,  38. 
How  the  Planets  got  their  names,  6< . 
How  the  World  was  peopled,  13. 
How  to  Learn  the  ABC,  265. 
How  to  Make  a  paper  box,  319. 
How  to  Make  toy  zoo.  341. 
How  to  remember,  163. 
How  to  Teach  Children  at  home. 

How  to  Weave  baskets,  278,  279. 

How  we  Breathe,  90. 

How    we    Can    Tell    the    Age    of 

Trees.  31.  .   ^. 

How   we   Know   the   Story   of   the 

world,  14. 


How  we  See  things  upside  down,  70. 

How  worms  breathe,  30. 

Human  Body,  16.  .       ,     ,       , 

Human  House,  Blood  circulation  in, 
92;  brain  signals  of,  93:  sentinels 
of,  91;  telephone  exchange  of,  91; 
ventilation  of,  90. 

Humming  of  bees,  29. 

Hunt  the  slipper,  294. 

Hurrah,  origin  ot,  88. 


Ice,  how  it  Is  kept  cold,  19;    why  It 

is  slippery.  SS. 
Ideas,  association  of.  158. 
Illusions,    do    we   see    what   is    not 

there,  42. 
Indians,    how   they   sent   messages, 

311.  .  OQQ 

Industrv,  problems  concerning,  238. 

Ingredients,  of  fertilizers.  259. 

Ink,   why  it  is  diJlcult  to  write  on 

greasy  paper,  88. 
Inner  Ear.  117. 

Insects,  problems  concerning.  242. 
Instinct,    in   birds,    29:     how    birds 

know  how  to  build  their  nests,  31. 
Insurance,  problems  in,  237:    prop- 
erty, 237.  ,      .  ,,      . 
Interest,     236;      banker  s     method, 

236;      oral     drUl.     236;      written 

exercises.  236. 
International  date  line.  69. 
Interrupted  Game  of  bowls.  309. 
Inventiveness,    how    to    encourage 

child's.  192.  „^    ,^„ 

Iris,  102-   color  of,  102,  103. 
Iron,   cast,  88;    three  forms  ot,   88: 

why  It  sinks,  74. 
Is  the  Earth  hollow?    66. 
Is    the    Matter   of   Earth    and    .\ir 

Changing  Places?     62. 
Italian,  why  adapted  to  singing,  136. 


Jack  Frost,  at  Niagara  Falls.  4,  . 
Joanof-\rc.  example  of  courage.  209. 
"John  Bull,"    why    England    is    so 

called.  83. 
Joints  and  mortises,  328. 


Kevboard,  ot  Piano,  280. 
Kite,  what  makes  it  fly,  54. 

Knots,  ot  sailors  and  builders,  323. 


Lacing  frames.  177. 

Landing  ot  a  brave  band,  game  of, 
309. 

Languages,  different  vowel  sounds 
of.  135. 

Language,  vowel  sounds  and  con- 
sonant sounds,  136. 

Larvnx,  how  it  was  developed,  126; 
in  breathing,  127;  its  mechanism, 
127. 

Latitude,  what  is  meant  by  it,  88. 

Laughter,  what  causes  it.  17. 

Lawyer  versus  scientist.  162. 

Leaf,  why  it  changes  color,  27;  why  it 
falls,  27. 

Leap-Ball,  304. 

Leaves,  why  they  change  color,  33. 

Learning  by  heart,  165. 

Lens,  of  the  eye,  103. 

Lessons,  in  things  beautiful,  2/1. 

Lever,  explained,  245;  problems 
concerning,  245.    . 

Liberty,  Enlightemng  the  ^\  orld, 
Statue,  168.  ,     ,^       ^     „    ,t 

Light,  diffraction  of.  46;  does  it 
weigh  anything,  43;  how  it  acts 
upon  cells  of  plants  and  animals. 
96:  magnifying  glass,  70;  reflec- 
tion of  38;  what  causes  it  to  be 
yellow  43;  what  makes  the  rain- 
bow. 44;  why  center  ot  gas  flame 
is  blue  and  outside  yellow  44; 
why  it  attracts  moths.  35;  why  it 
seems  red  when  we  shut  our  eyes, 
42-  why  photographs  are  devel- 
oped in  red  light,  45;  why  sky  is 
dull  during  a  storm,  4o:  why  some 
houses  look  crooked.  46;  why  the 
sky  is  blue,  40;  why  the  stars 
twinkle.  62:  why  we  see  ourselves 
in  the  glass,  38:  wonders  of.  3/ . 

SEE  ALSO  COLOR,  -VXD  COLORS 


Lighting,  for  houses.  111. 

Lightning,  why  it  frequently  strikes 
a  crowded  hall.  87. 

Lights,  why  spinning  makes  rings, 
44. 

Life,  in  seeds,  34;    training  tor,  205. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  example  of  cour- 
age. 209.  .  . 

Linear  measure.  233;  reduction  of. 
2:J3;    table  of.  233. 

Linen,  why  it  is  cool,  19. 

Lion,   British,  83. 

Liquid  and  Dry  measures,  tables  of, 
234. 

Liquid  measures,  234. 

Little,  Gardener's  tools,  318'  lessons 
in  things  beautiful.  263:  problems 
for  the  wise.  263,  282:  shadow 
theater,  how  to  make,  297. 

Little  Problems  for  the  wise.  Did 
George  walk  round  the  monkey. 
283;  How  did  the  engineer  change 
cars'^  284:  How  did  the  sheep 
stand''  282;  How  does  Julia  get 
the  eggs?  285:  How  fast  was  the 
horse  walking?  284-  How  long 
was  the  string?  284;  How  many 
ducks?  282;  How  many  eggs?  282; 
How  manv  persons  were  they? 
283;  How  many  stamps  had  they? 
283;  How  much  does  a  brick 
weigh?  2S4;  How  much  water  was 
spilled?  284;  kiddles.  285;  the 
clock  strikes  twelve.  2S2:  the 
farmer  and  the  tramp.  283:  things 
difficult  to  say.  286:  \\'Tiat  vehicles 
were  sent?  282;  When  was  the 
watch  right?  2S2;  Whose  portrait 
is  it?  283:  twelve  eggs  in  basin, 
283 

see' ALSO  GAMES.  AND  AMUSEMENTS 

Little  Tiny  Thumbellne,  370. 
Livingstone,      David,      example     of 

courage,  208. 
Locke,  John,  Theory  of  knowledge. 

Longitude,  what  is  meant  by  it,  88. 
Long  Stair,    177. 
Long  Stair  game,   184. 
Lullaby,  origin  of  word,  87. 
Lungs,    90:     development    of,    126; 
their  function,  91. 


M 

Machinery,  plowing.  248. 
Mackintosh,   how  it   got  its  name, 

75:   how  it  keeps  us  dry,  75. 
Magic,   287. 

Magic  Answers,  game  of.  296. 
Magic  Lantern,  how   to  make,  320. 
Magnifying  Glass.  70. 
Making  Change,   219. 
Management,  of  very  young  child, 

^00.  ,    „„ 

Marriage  Ring,  origin  of,  88. 
Marvels,   of  hearing,   113;    of  nerve 

currents,   121. 
Master  self,   345. 

Matchbox  on  the  lawn,  game  of,  306. 
Materials,     for    drawing,    272;     for 

modeling.  276. 
Mechanism,     of     larynx.      127.     of 

mouth.  140:    ot  nose,  140. 
Measurements,   233. 
Measures,    cubic,   234;    linear,   233, 
liquid   and  dry,  234    square,  233; 
time,  247.  „ 

Measuring,  distance  by  sound,  3iz. 
Memory,  best  way  of  remembering 
what  we  have  heard,  166:  desirable 
to  train  it.  165:  difference  between 
remembering  and  recalling.  164; 
how  to  remember.  163;  important 
in  education.  165;  learning  by 
lieart,  165;  learning  to  discriminate, 
165-  outdoor  life  best  aid,  166; 
reading  as  an  aid,  166;  te^ts  on 
Montessori  system,  204;  when  at 
its  best,  164:  why  old  people  re- 
member things  of  long  ago,  164; 
writing  as  an  aid,  166. 
Men,     do    not    always    search    for 

truth,   161.  ,.  JO,, 

Messages,  how  Indians  send,  311. 
Meteorites.   66. 
Microbes,  in  blood,  91. 
Middle  Ear,    116. 

Milk,  problems  concerning,  243,  244. 
Milky  Way.  what  it  is,  65. 
Milton,  words  used  py    So. 
Mind,  how  a  child  s  is  built  up,  lo8. 
Mirrors,  how  made,  .SS. 
Miscellaneous  quesuon  boi,  87. 
Mitre  joints,  329. 


INDEX  TO   VOLUME   I 


Mixing,  rations  for  stock,  259. 

Modeling,  apples,  277;  cherries,  276; 
in  clay,  276;  materials,  276. 

Monday,  story  of,  3.54. 

Money,  games  with,  for  children,  197; 
United  States,  232. 

Montessorl,  Dr.  Maria,  portrait, 
170;    system  of  child  training,  171 

Montessorl  System,  a  day  with 
children  s  activities,  172;  apparatus 
not  enough,  203;  baby  ball,  192; 
basic  principles,  172;  beginning  of 
writing,  179;  blindfold  games  and 
exercises,  188;  block  tower,  182; 
broad  stair,  177;  buttoning  and 
lacing  frames,  177;  Casa  del 
Bambini.  174;  cautions  to  be  ob- 
served, 195;  chalk  line  exercises, 
191;  children  choose  their  own 
occupations,  175;  children  learn  to 
feel  responsibility,  174;  child's 
attention  directed  to  siz'  and  form, 
176;  color  boxes,  178;  computing 
boxes,  178;  co-ordinating  move- 
ments of  fingers,  180;  developing 
the  sense  of  touch,  185;  differ- 
entiation of  colors,  190;  disciplina 
and  obedience.  200;  encourages 
child's  Inventiveness,  192;  exer- 
cises and  games,  176;  explosion 
Into  writing,  194;  first  lesson  in 
drawing,  189;  first  steps  in  arith- 
metic, 196;  first  use  of  pencil,  189; 
further  development  of  tactile 
sense,  185;  games  and  exercises 
involving  the  sense  of  touch,  186; 
games  with  balls,  squares  and 
triangles,  186;  game  with  counting 
sticks,  198;  games  in  arithmetic, 
197;  games  with  money,  19  ; 
game  with  sandpaper  numbers,  198; 
games  with  velvet,  186;  gymnastic 
exercises,  191;  how  child  learns 
self-care,  195;  how  it  maintains  the 
child's  normal  life,  195;  how  to 
teach  mastery  over  muscles  of 
child,  192;  how  to  teach  selt- 
control,  198;  lacing  frames,  177; 
learning  to  read,  193;  learning  to 
write  at  age  of  four,  193;  long 
stair.  177;  long  stair  exercise,  183; 
long  stair  game,  184;  matching 
colors,  190;  memory  tests  on  204; 
movable  alphabet.  178;  necessity 
for  constant  activity  in  early 
childhood,  203;  passing  from  con- 
crete to  abstract,  189;  plana 
geometric  figures  reproduced  in 
cards,  189:  plane  geometric  forms, 
178;  plant  and  animal  pets,  195; 
practice  words,  194;  preparatory 
exercises  to  writing,  18?:  purpose 
of  devices,  172;  putting  away 
apparatus,  180:  recognizing  and 
spaillng  word.s,  193;  rope  balancing, 
191;  sandpaper  boards,  178;  sand- 
papsr  board,  number  two,  185; 
school  in  the  home.  176;  self- 
education  by,  173:  self-Instructing 
devices,  178;  se  .se-training  appa- 
ratus, 177;  solid  geometrical  insets, 
176,  177;  sound  boxes,  178,  187: 
spirit  essential,  174:  spontaneous 
writing  le.sson,  181;  supplementary 
games  for,  187;  teaching  dimension 
and  form,  182;  teaching  practical 
application  of  kno\fledge  gained, 
181;  teaching  the  child  to  build  the 
broad  stair,  182:  training  must  fit 
the  child,  171;  training  sense  ol 
hearing,  187:  training  the  eye,  190, 
trains  the  five  senses,  172;  traits 
of  child  nature  appealed  to,  179; 
underlying  idea,  171;  undirected 
work,  195;  use  of  colored  crayons, 
189;  value  of  free  will  over  forced 
attention,  175;   what  it  is,  171. 

SEE    ALSO    CHILD    TRAINING 

Monuments,  Egyptian,  14. 

Moon,  eclipse  of  sun,  64;  is  it  In- 
habited, 61. 

Mortar,  why  it  becomes  hard,  88. 

Mortises,  328. 

Mosquito,  how  it  causes  fever,  27. 

Moth  uses  of,  27;  why  it  flies  round  a 
candle,  35. 

Mother-of-pearl,  colors  in,  SS. 

Mouth  and  Nose,  mechanism  of, 
140. 

Movements,  how  body  movements 
are  told  to  brain,  123. 

Muller,  Max   80, 

Multiplication,  219;  charts,  220; 
chart  and  drills,  221,  222,  223,  224, 
225.  226,  227;  of  fractions,  231; 
methods  in,  228;   of  decimals,  232; 


of  denominate  numbers,  235;  prob- 
lems In,  228;   tables,  220. 

SEE   ALSO   AKITHMBTIC 

Muscles,  how  to  teach  mastery  over, 
in  child,  192;    particular,  17. 

Music,  271;  goblins  and  fairies,  280; 
home  of  the  seven  fairies,  281; 
how  the  piano  plays,  38:  how  to 
teach  young  children,  280;  nerve 
currents  that  pass  to  the  brain 
when  we  hear  it,  121;  piano,  280; 
power  of  singer  over  human  voice, 
129;  singing,  130,  131;  the  voice 
box,  127,  128,  129:  where  it  comes 
from  37;  why  a  singer  likes  to  sins.' 
In  Italian,  136:  wonderful  land  of 
sound,  280,  writing  and  singing  of. 
130,  131 

Mystery  and  Magic,  263,  287;  boy 
conjuror's  joke,  291;  conjuring 
.  trick  with  nuts,  292;  disappearing 
dime,  290;  making  a  ball  vanish, 
291;  simple  experiments  with  air 
and  water,  287;  trick  to  play  with 
a  book,  289. 

SEE    ALSO    AMUSEMENTS 

Myths,  see  Stories. 


N 

Names,  why  we  liave  them,  86. 

Nations,  live  and  die,  13. 

Near-Sightedness,   104. 

Need  of  fresh  air.  91. 

Needle,  how  to  use.  334. 

Nerve    Fiber,    how    it    grows,    144; 

what  it  is,   142. 
Nerve  Fibers,  their  function,  91. 
Nerve  Cells,  143;   how  they  produce 

nerve  fiber,  144;   in  lower  animals 

144;     millions  compose   the   brain. 

152;    upon  which  feelings  depend, 

143. 

SEE    ALSO    BBAIN 

Nerve  Currents,  marvel  of,  121. 

Nerves,  changes  produced  by  nerve 
currents,  143,  forest  of  within  us, 
142;  how  they  carry  messages  to 
and  from  the  brain,  145;  mystery 
of  the  nerve  current,  143;  of  nose, 
139. 

SEE   ALSO   BEAIN 

Nervous  System,  93;  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  146;  central,  145;  cere- 
bellum, 147;  different  parts  of, 
146:  how  brain  and  spinal  cord  are 
protected,  146;  see  brain  and 
nerves,   145. 

SEE   ALSO    BRAIN 

New  York     Cleopatra's  Needle,    14' 

Niagara  Falls,  Blindfolded  man's 
walk  across,  124:    frozen  over    47. 

Night,  why  it  is  diark,  40. 

Nitrogen,   259,  260. 

Noises,  in  sea  shell,  41. 

Noise,  when  a  gun  is  fired,  46:  why 
an  exploding  cartridge  makes  a 
report,  87;  why  It  breaks  a  win- 
dow, 41. 

North  Pole,  discovery  of  by  Peary, 
80. 

Nose,  nerves  of,  139;  why  we  should 
breathe  through  it,  140. 

SEE   ALSO   SMELL 

Numbers,  denominate,  233;   why  wa 

count  in  tens,  69. 
Nutritive  Ratio  in  feeds,  258. 


Oak.  why  it  Is  stronger  than  pine,  87. 
Obedience,   how   to   teach   children, 

200. 
Onions,    why   they   make    the   eyes 

water,  23 
Optic  Nerve,   102. 
Orange  Blossoms,  origin  of  custom 

of  wearing,  88. 
Orchard.  252.  2.53.  2.54,  255. 
Origin,  of   'A  feather  in  his  cap. "87; 

of  "hurra.h,'    88;    of  "pin  money," 

87;    of  ring  in  marriage  ceremony, 

88. 
Outdoor  Life,   its  aid  to   memory, 

166 
Oxidize,  why  silver  tarnishes,  87. 
Oxygen,  why  coal  burns,  55. 
Ozone,  Jn  air,  52. 


Paint,  why  it  keeps  iron  from  rusting, 

88. 
Paint   Box,    where   the  colors  come 

from,  273. 
Painting,   271;    leaves,   275;    where 

the  colors  come  from.  273. 
Pal  .Its,  where  we  get  them,  273. 
Pap2r,  drawing,  274. 
Paper  Box,  how  to  make,  319. 
Papering,  for  rooms.  111. 
Papyrus,   15. 

Parent  and  Teacher,  book  for.  169. 
Parents,  authority  of  over  children, 

200. 
Parts,  Of  ear,  117,  118;    of  eye,  101. 
Paste,  why  it  is  adhesive,  87. 
Patterns,   for  doll's  frock.   340:    for 

doll's  petticoat,  338;    for    toy  zoo 

342. 
Paving,  problems  on,  234. 
Pawnbroker's  sign.  88. 
Peary,  Robert  E.,  discovery  of  North 

Pole,  SO. 
Pencil,  first  use  of,  189. 
Pendulum,  law  of,  87. 
People,  color  of,  22;    how  the  world 

was   peopled,    13:     why   some  are 

dark    22;    why  some  are  fair,  22; 

why  they  have  different  kinds  of 

voices,   133. 
Percentage,  235:  oral  problems.  236: 

table  of  equivalents,  235;    written 

problems,  236. 
Perception,  visual,  182. 
Peter  Pan,  364;  statue  of,  365. 
Pets,  animal  and  plant.  195. 
Petticoat,  for  doll    337. 
Phosphoric  acid,  259,  260. 
Photographs,  how  the  camera  takes 

one,  71;    that  plants  can  take.  95; 

why  developed  in  red  light.  45. 
Piano,  how  it  plays  38:  how  to  teach 

young   children,   280;     key   board, 

280. 
Picture,  alphabet,  266;  answers,  269; 

drawn  bv  the  voice,  128;   how  artist 

draws,  272;   how  made,  71;    words, 

267,   268,   269. 
Pictures,  on  retina  of  the  eye,  71; 

why  some  faces  in  pictures  follow  us, 

79. 
Picture  Writing,  14;    In  Egypt,  85. 
Pigment,  96. 
Pilgrim's    Progress,    flne.3t    writing 

in,  86. 
Pine,  why  It  is  weaker  than  oak,  87. 
Pin  Money,  origin  of  phrase,  87. 
Pisa,  leaning  tower  of,  59. 
Plane,   325. 
Planets,  how  they  get  their  names, 

67. 
Plant  and  animal  pets,  195. 
Plant  Life,  in  garden,  orchard,  vine- 
yard and  greenhouse,  252. 

SEE   ALSO    V'JLUME    II 

Plants,  eyes  of,  94;  garden,  318;  how 
they  turn  their  leaves  to  the  light, 
95;  where  they  get  their  salts,  36; 
wonders  of,  26. 

SEE    ALSO   VOLUME   II 

Plaster  of  Paris,  what  it  is,  88. 
Plav,  the  natural  right  of  boys  and 

girls,   148. 

SEE   ALSO  GAMES,  AND  .WIUSEMENTS 

Plays  and  stories,  263,  345. 

Plays,  scene  from  Robin  Hood,  378; 
scene  from  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  381. 

Pleasures,  should  be  worthy  mind 
and  lieart,  215. 

Plowing,  by  machinery,  248;  prob- 
lems concerning,  239. 

Poetry,  Battle  of  Blenheim,  363; 
jingles,  verses  and  poems  for  little 
people,  3,60;   Santa  Glaus,  362. 

Poets,  271. 

Polar  Star,  67. 

Poles,  discovery  of,  80. 

Polishing  and  varnishing,  331. 

Potash,  259,  260. 

Potatoes,  problems  concerning,  244. 

Poultry,  problems  concerning.  245. 

Practical,  arithmetic.  218;  problems 
and  calculations,  238. 

Practice  Words  for  child,  194. 

Preserving  Foods.  250,  251. 

Primary  Colors,   109. 

Principles  of  child  training,  171,  172, 
of  Montessorl  system,  172. 

Problems,  little  for  the  wise,  263 
282. 

Processes,  of  arithmetic,  218. 

Produce,  weights  of  per  bushel,  24"!'. 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME   I 


Pronunciation,  Importance  of  cor 
rectly  pronouncing  consonants.  137; 
use  of  tongue  and  teeth  in,  137. 

Protein,   256 

Proverbs,  game  of,  296. 

Pumice  Stone,  what  it  is,  87. 

Pupil,  of  the  eye,  102. 

Purr,  why  a  cat  purrs,  32. 

Puss  In  the  Corner,  295. 

Pygmies,  The,  373. 


Question  Box,  87. 


Races,  why  tropical  are  darlc-eyed, 
88. 

Railway  signals,  why  red,  green  and 
white,   110. 

Ramsay,  Sir  William,  theory  of 
smell,   141. 

Rain,  could  we  live  without,  57:  how 
It  freshens  the  air,  52;  why  flowers 
smell  sweeter  after,  57. 

Rainbow,  what  makes  it,  44. 

Raindrops,  why  they  are  round,  54. 

Rainwater,  why  best  for  plants,  88. 

Reading,  as  an  aid  to  memory,  166; 
learning  to,  193;  picture  words, 
267,  268,  269 ;  recognizing  and  spell- 
ing words,  193;  safe  rule  for,  112; 
what  the  eyes  see  during,  112. 

SEE       ALSO       MONTESSORI       SYSTEM, 
AND    MEMORY 

Red  Fire,  how  produced,  88- 

Rembrandt,  in  his  studio,  271. 

Rents,  problems  concerning,  241. 

Rest,  for  the  eyes,  HI 

Retina,  how  it  takes  pictures    71. 

Riches,  vanity  of,  211. 

Riddles,  285,  286. 

Right-handed,  why  we  are,  23. 

Rings,  why  spinning  lights  make.  44. 

River  Beds,  why  they  change.  58. 

Rivers,  why  their  beds  change,   58. 

Roads,  problems  concerning.  241. 

Robin  Hood,  scenes  from  378. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  finest  writing  In, 
86. 

Rock  Garden, 343 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  example  of 
courage,  208. 

Rope  balancing,  191. 

Rosetta  Stone,  15,  16,  85. 

Ross,  Mrs.  Betsy  made  first  Ameri- 
can flag,  S3. 

Rot,  why  wood  rots,  36. 

Rotation  of  crops.  249. 

Running  and  felling,  335. 

Rust,  why  paint  prevents,  88. 


Sailor's  Knots.  323. 

Salteratus,  why  it  makes  cake  light, 

87. 
Sand,  why  we  cannot  make  a  rope 

of  it,  78. 
Sandpaper  Boards,   178. 
Sandpaper  Board,  number  two,  185. 
Santa  Claus.  poem.  362. 
Salt,  in  the  sea,  49;   uses  of,  88. 
Salts,  in  plants.  36. 
Salt  Water,  why  it  is  easier  to  swim 

in,  58. 
Saturday,  story  of,  357. 
Saw,  how  to  use   324. 
Science,  how   it   gives  sight   to   the 

blind.  107. 
Scientist  vs.  lawyer.  162. 
School,  of  real  life.  205. 
School    in    the     home,     Monlessori 

system,   176. 
Scott,    Capt.,   example    of    courage, 

209. 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,  on  waste  of  time, 

211. 
Screwdriver,   325. 
Sculptors,   271. 
Sea,  why  it  is  salt,  49;    why  it  looks 

blue,  why  it  locks  green,  56. 
Sea   Shell,   noises  in,  41. 
Sea  Water,  why  it  is  green  or  blue, 

56. 
Seams,  335. 
Secondary  Colors,   110. 
Seeds,  how  they  breathe,  30;    what 

brings  life  out  of  them,  34;    when 

to  sow,  318;  why  they  come  up  at 

certain  times  33. 


Seeing,  can  we  see  everything.  42: 
do  we  see  what  is  not  there,  42; 
with  the  eyes,  42;  with  the  mind, 
42. 

SEE   ALSO    EYE,    AND    EYES 

Seeing  Colors,   108. 

Self-Care,  how  child  can  learn,  195. 

Self-Instructing,   devices,   178. 

Senses,  by  which  we  know  the  outer 
world,  114;  developing  sense  of 
touch,  185;  difference  in,  155; 
hearing,  113;  matching  colors, 
190:  nerves  of  hearing,  156;  of 
balance,  122;  seeing,  94;  smell 
and  taste,  138.  the  nobler,  154; 
touch,  the  mother  of  senses,  155' 
trained  by  Montessori  system,  172; 
training  sense  of  hearing,  187. 

SEE   ALSO   IlRAIN;   NERVOUS   SYSTEM 

Senses  Chemical,  taste  and  smell,  138. 

Sense-training    apparatus,     177. 

Sentinels,  of  the  human  house,  91. 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  88. 

Sewing,  334;  buttonhole  scallops, 
336;  doll's  clothes,  335;  folding, 
335;  gathering,  335;  hem,  334; 
materials,  334:  patterns  for  doll's 
garments,  336;  running  and  felling, 
335.  seams,  335;  stitches,  334,  335; 
whip  stitch,  336. 

SEE  ALSO   THINGS  FOR   GIRLS   TO   DO 

Shades  of  Color,  110. 

Shadows,   biggest  that  we  can   see, 

64;     Brocken,     40;      what     causes 

them,  40;    what  makes  them,  63; 

why  we  cannot  jump  oft,  40. 
Shakespeare,  words  used  by,  85. 
Shale,  what  it  is.  88. 
Ship,  why  an  iron  one  floats,  74. 
Shivering,  makes  us  warm,  24 
Shivering  from  Cold,  causes  of,  24. 
Shoes,  whv  hotter  when  dusty,  87. 
Shooting  Stars,  66. 
Shorthand,  when  it  came  into  use, 

88. 
Sienna,  burnt.  275. 
Signals,  of  Indians,  311. 
Silicon,  why  a  stone  does  not  burn, 

55. 
Silos,  problems  concerning,  240 
Silver,  German,  88. 
Silver  Linings,  of  clouds,  63. 
Simple  Simon,   361. 
Singing,  130,  131;  why  we  can  sing 

different  vowels  on  the  same  note, 

134. 

SEE   ALSO    VOICE 

Sing-Song  speaking,  133 

Skull,  protector  of  brain,  146:    why 

it   can  tell   us  nothing  about  the 

brain,   151. 
Sky,  why  it  is  blue,  40;  why  it  is  dull 

in  a  storm,  45. 

SEE    .\LSO    VOLU.ME    II 

Sleep,  covering  the  face,  25;  what 
wakes  us,  18;  where  we  go  in,  16; 
why  children  need,  16;  why  we 
go  to,   16. 

Sleeping  with  bed  clothes  over  face, 
25. 

Smell,  an  inferior  sense.  138;  closely 
allied  to  taste,  138;  nose.  138;  or- 
gans of,  138:  !*ir  William  Ramsay's 
theory  of,  141:  upon  what  it  de- 
pends. 141:  weak  in  man,  strong  in 
animals,  155:  family  likeness  of,  139. 

SEE   ALSO    NOSE 

Smoke,  what  it  is  made  of.  56;  why 
that  of  a  train  goes  the  other  way, 
78. 

Snail  Shell,  where  it  comes  from,  30. 

Snail,  where  it  finds  its  shell,  30. 

Snow,  why  it  is  white,  43. 

Soap,  why  it  takes  out  the  dirt,  73. 

Soap-Bubble,  how  it  is  made,  49; 
what  holds  it  together.  50. 

Sound  Boxes,  178,  187;  deafness 
from  a  cold.  116;  hearing,  marvel 
of,  113;  how  it  reaches  the  brain, 
120;  how  we  put  color  in  the  voice, 
132;  in  measuring  distances,  312; 
journey  of  to  brain,  119,  120; 
music,  37:  talking  and  singing, 
131:  the  noise  when  a  gun  is  fired, 
46;  training  the  sense  of  hearing, 
187;  vocal  chords,  129;  voice  box, 
127;  why  a  kettle  sings,  41;  why 
a  pop-gun  pops,  46:  why  telegraph 
lines  hum,  4  .  wonderful  land  of, 
280;    wonders  of,  37. 

SEE   ALSO    VOICE,    AND    EAR 


6 


Sounds,  of  tbe  sea  shell,  41;  soma 
that  cannot  be  sung,  136:  vowels 
contrasted  with  consonants,  136. 

Sounds  of  voice,  how  produced,  135: 
in  different  languages.  135. 

Sounds,  Vowel,  in  different  lan- 
guages, 135. 

Sound  Waves,  Uow  they  travel  to  the 
ear,  113. 

South  Pole,  discovery  by  Amundsen, 
SO. 

Speaking,  sing-song,  133;  why  we 
use  different  notes  in,  132. 

SEE    ALSO    VOICE 

Specific  Gravity,  why  a  stick  floats, 
74;  why  iron  sinks,  74;  why  an  iron 
ship  floats,  74 

Spectroscope,  what  tne  stars  are 
made  of,  61. 

Spelling,  picture  words,  267,  268, 
269. 

Spider,  how  it  spins  its  web,  28. 

Spiders,  why  they  do  not  get  caught 
in  their  webs,  31. 

Spider-Web,  covered  with  dewdrops, 
28:  how  spun,  28;  why  spiders 
do  not  get  caught  in  them,  31. 

Spinal  Cord,  146;  connection  with 
the  brain,  146. 

Spinster,  origin  of,  88. 

Square,   325. 

Square  Measure,  233;   table  of,  233. 

St.  Andrew,  cross  of,  83. 

St     George,    83. 

St.   Patrick,   83. 

Staining  and  Polishing,  330. 

Stains,  colors  of,  330 

Stair,  broad,  177:  long.  177. 

Stair  Broad,  teaching  child  to 
build,   182. 

Stair  Long,  teaching  child  to  build, 
183. 

Standing,  part  of  body  that  helps 
us  to  stand,   122. 

Stars,  how  they  were  named,  67; 
milky  way.  65 :  shooting,  or  meteor- 
ites, 66:  what  keeps  them  In  their 
places,  63;  what  they  are  made  of, 
61 ;  where  they  stay  in  daytime,  60; 
why  they  twinkle,  62;  wonders  of, 
58. 

SEE    ALSO    VOLUME    II 

Stars  and  Stripes,  ^see  American 
Flag.) 

Statue,  Liberty  Enlightening  the 
World,  168. 

Steel,  cast,  88. 

Steeplechase,  game  of,  304. 

Stephenson,  George,  example  of 
courage,  208. 

Stirrup,  of  ear,   117. 

Stitches,  Buttonhole,  335;  how  to 
make,  334. 

Stock,  feeding,  256. 

Stone,  how  It  is  made,  62;  Rosetta, 
85;    why  it  sinks,  69. 

Stoneware,  how  It  is  glazed,  87. 

Stories  and  Plays,  263. 

Stories,  Apollo  and  I.eto,  358;  Art- 
ful mole  and  innocent  blackbird, 
375;  Brer  Rabbit  and  Tar  Baby, 
348;  history  of  world  transmitted 
In,  14,  Little  Tiny  Thumbeline, 
370;  Master  Self,  345;  Peter  Pan, 
364;  Story  of  the  Days,  352;  the 
Archer  Fish,  376 ;  The  Pygmies,  373 ; 
The  Three  Bears,  346;  Three  Little 
Pigs    349. 

Storm',  why  sky  is  dull  during,  45. 

Storv,  of  the  eye,  94;   questions,  269. 

Subtraction,  218,  219;  checking, 
219;  drill  in,  218:  fractiisns,  230; 
making  change,  219;  of  decimals, 
231:  of  denominate  numbers,  235; 
written  exercises,  219. 

Success,  emotions  must  be  controlled 
by  reason,  217:  girl  who  loves  her 
home,  212;  girls  should  use  natural 
gifts,  210,  glory  of  courage,  208; 
Imaginary  difficulties,  209;  joy  of 
simplicity,  213:  pleasures  should 
be  worthy  mind  and  heart,  215; 
qualities  in  a  girl  necessary  in  man- 
aging a  home.  212:  qualities  that 
coin,  206:  search  for  pleasure,  the, 
213;  unnecessary  extravagance, 
215:  use  of  difficulties,  206:  what 
aboy  must  do  to  succeed, 205;  what 
a  girl  must  do  to  succeed,  210. 

SEE    ALSO     CHILD     TRAINING;      MON- 
TESSORI  SY'STEM 

Sun,  Eclipse  by  moon,  64;  how  it 
changes  the  course  of  the  wind.  57; 
what  keeps  It  bright,'60;  wonders  of, 
68. 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  I 


Sunday,  story  of,  352. 

Sunset,  what  produces  colors  of,  38 

Swim,  bladder  of  flsh,  126. 

Swimming,  wTiy  it  Is  easier  to  swim 
in  salt  water.  58. 

Symbolism,    189. 

Sympathies,  must  be  limited  In  con- 
trol of  girls.  217. 

System,  Circulatory,  92;  nervous, 
9o> 


Tables,  counting,  246. 

Tallting,   131. 

Tarnisii.  why  silver  tarnishes,  87. 

Taste,  organs  of,  138;  where  It  re- 
sides, 141. 

Tastes,  better  classified  than  smells, 
141 . 

Taxes ,  237 ;  method  of  spreading,  237 ; 
problems  in,  237. 

Teaching,  practical  application  of 
knowledge,  ISl;   visual  perception, 

Tear"GIand,   100. 

Tears,  crying,  17;    use  of,  IS:   where 

they  go,   IS:    why  they  come,   17; 

why  they  overflow,   100. 
Teeth,  use  in  pronunciation,   137; 

why  only  two  sets  grow,  23. 
Telegraphy,  why  lines  hum.  45. 
Telephone,  way  to  make  lor  boys. 

Tests  for  color-blindness.  111. 

Theater,  little  shadow.  297. 

Things,  beautiful,  263;  difllcult  to 
say,  286;  for  boys  to  do,  263;  for 
girls  to  do,  263,  333:    to  draw,  274. 

Things  for  Boys  to  do,  bookshelves, 
326;  boy's  carpenter  shop,  324; 
how  to  make  flying  machine,  316; 
Indian  signals,  311;  kites,  how  to 
make,  314:  knots  of  sailors  and 
builders.  323;  mea.suring  distance 
by  sound.  312;  staining  and  polish- 
ing, 330;  tool-box,  326;  way  to  make 
a  telephone.  312. 

SEE  ALSO  GAMES   A>rD  AMUSEMENTS 

Things  for  Girls  to  do,  arranging 
flowers  for  the  house,  339:  bas- 
try,  277,  278.  279:  doll'-  frock,  340; 
doll  s  garments,  335;  drawing,  272, 
274,  275,  276:  game  of  where  is  It, 
308;  games  and  amusements,  293; 
games  for  halloween,  299:  games 
for  nursery,  294;  games  to  plav  by 
the  Are,  296:  garden  games,  302; 
girls  work-box,  333;  how  to  make 
the  stitches,  334;  how  to  use  needle, 
334;  success  in  things  beautiful, 
271;  little  problems  for  the  wise, 
282;  little  shadow  theater,  297- 
making  a  rock  garden,  343.  344- 
making  a  toy  zoo,  341-  modeling! 
2(6;  music,  280,  281;  patterns, 
336;  seams,  334,  337:  sewing,  334- 
Btltches,  334;  stories  and  plays, 
345. 
SEE  ALSO  GAMES,  AND  AMUSEMENTS 

Things  to  Make,  322;  for  a  bazar 
332;  magic  lantern,  320;  paper 
box,  319. 

SEE   AL.SO   THINGS  FOR   BOYS  TO   DO' 
THINGS    FOR   GIRLS   TO    DO 

Thinkers,  their  secret  of  success. 
loS. 

Thinking,  how  affected  by  our  feel- 
ings, 160:  should  not  be  guided  by 
wrong  Interests.   160. 

Thought,  expressed  by  famous 
artists,  157;  how  affected  by  feel- 
ings, 160:  how  our  thinking  should 
be  guided,  160:  how  we  can  help 
ourselves  to  become  real  thinkers, 
lo9;  how  we  think,  157;  secret  of 
success  of  all  thinkers,  158;  what 
makes  great  thinkers,  159:  what 
real  thinking  Is,  158:  why  a  thinker 
should  seek  only  the  truth,  161 

Three  little  pigs,  349. 

Thumbeline,    Illustration,    264 

Thursday,  story  of,  356,  357. 

body'"°123"''l>l°^'     *'^'^'^"'^S     the 

Time,  date 'line.  69;   measure,   247- 

waste  of,  211:    where  the  day  b&l 

gins,  68:    where  the  day  changes. 

Do. 

Toast,    why    more    digestible    than 

Toasting  Forks,  how  to  make,  332 

Toe-nails,  22. 

Tombs,  Egyptian,   16. 

Tom  Tiddler's  ground,  game  of,  302. 


Tongue,  nerves  of,  138;  use  In  pro- 
nunciation, 137. 

Tool-Box,  how  to  make,  326. 

Tools,  carpenter's,  for  boys,  324. 

Top,  could  it  spin  forever,  72. 

Touch,  developing  sense  of,  185; 
development  of  the  tactile  sense, 
ISo:  games  and  exercises  in,  186- 
importance  In  education,  156; 
mother  of  senses,  155. 

SEE       ALSO       -MONTESSORI      SYSTEM; 
BKAI.N:   SENSES 

Tower,  block,  teaching.  182;  teach- 
ing the  child  to  build.  182. 

Traveler  and  Wolves,  game  of,  304. 

Tree,  Christmas,  for  birds,  301. 

Trees,  for  Europe's  ships,  game  of, 
308;  how  we  can  tell  their  age.  31; 
why  they  have  bark,   32. 

Trick,  to  play  with  a  book,  289. 

Truth,  search  for  desirable,  161. 

Tuesday,  storv  of,  354. 

Tug-of-War,  game  of,  303. 

Twelve  Eggs  in  basin,  283. 

Tympanum,   115,   116. 


U 

••Uncle  Sam"  Why  United  States  Is 

so  called,  81. 
Uncle   Tom's   Cabin,    scene   from. 

United  States,  money.  232. 
Use  of  a  Moth,  27. 


Vacuum,  what  It  Is,  75. 

Values,  table  of,  handy,  247. 

Vanishing  Red  Man.  310. 

Vanity  of  Riches.  211. 

Varnish.  330. 

Ventilation,  of  human  house,  90. 

Verses  for  Children,  360,  361,  362, 
363. 

Vibration,  why  a  kettle  sings,  41; 
why  telegraph  lines  hum,  45. 

Vineyard.  252,  253,  254,  255. 

Vision,  organs  of,  94;    range  of,  39. 

Visual  perception.  182. 

Vocal  Chords,  129;  how  tightened 
to  produce  sounds,  129. 

Voice,  human,  127;  care  of,  134; 
cultivation  of  children's,  134;  how  to 
put  color  Into  It,  132;  pictures 
drawn  by,  128:  power  of  singer 
over,  129;  talking  and  singing,  131- 
value  of  soft  and  gentle,  134:  why 
different  people  have  different 
kinds  of  voices.  133;  whv  more 
marvelous  than  piano,  130:  why 
we  use  different  notes  In  speaking, 

SEE  ALSO  SOUND  ;  SPEAKING  ;  SINGIN  Q 

Vowel  Sounds,  contrasted  with  con- 
sonant sounds,  136;  of  different 
languages,  135. 


W 

W'alking,  backward,   191. 

Wall    Papers,  undesirable   patterns. 

War  use  of  aeroplane  in,  81. 

Warp,  why  wood  does,  87. 

Washington,  George,  209. 

Wasp,  brain  of,  144. 

Water,  effect  of  electricity  upon  87- 
experiments  with,  287:  rain  best  for 
plants,  88:  what  a  dewdrop  is,  48' 
what  clouds  are  made  of,  55:  what 
colors  stagnant,  45:  what  makes  it 
Doil,  ol:  why  a  river  runs  into  the 
sea,  ol;  why  it  boils  away,  52;  why 
It  quenches  fire.  50:  why  it  runs, 
78;  why  raindrops  are  round,  54- 
why  the  sea  is  salt,  49;  wonders  of, 
48. 

SEE  ALSO  VOLUME   II 

Wednesday,  story  of,  355,  356. 
^^IIM-  °'  ^  <^^*''''  foot  of  gold,  88: 

of  light,  43 :  avoirdupois,  234. 
Weights  of  Produce,  24V 
Were  Tame  flowers  once  wild,  29. 
What  are    Meant    by   latitude    and 

longitude,  88. 
What  a  Vacuum  is,  75. 
What  becomes  of  carbonic  add,  87. 
What  Brings  Life  out  of  seeds.  34. 

43  *  *-°"^^*  "  Light  to  be  yellow. 


What  causes  an  earthquake,  66. 
What   Changes   the  course  of   the 

wind,   57. 
What  Clouds  are  made  of,  55. 
What  Colors  stagnant  water,  45. 
What  Happens  when  one  faints,  20. 
What  Holds  a  building  up,  78. 
What    is    the    Efifect    of   electricity 

upon  water,  87. 
What  is  Plaster  of  Paris,  88. 
What  is  Pumice  stone  87. 
What  is   Shale.   88. 
What    Keeps    the    Stars    In    their 

places,  63. 
What  Keeps  the  sun  bright,  60. 
What  Makes  a  bee  hum,  29. 
What  Makes  a  Cat  purr,  32. 
What  .Makes  a  dimple,  25. 
What  .Makes  a  Kite  fly,  54. 
What  Makes    an    Automobile    go. 

What  Makes  the  shadows,  63. 
What  Makes  the  Colors  of  sunset. 

What  Makes  the  rainbow,  44. 
What  Scene  In  history,  game  of,  309. 
What  Smoke  Is  made  of,  56. 
What    Substances    make    common 

glass,  87. 
What  the  birds  sing  about,  26. 
What  the  Cinematograph  Is,  86. 
What  the  Cinematograph  teaches, 

86. 
What  the  First  buildings  were  like, 

76. 
What  the  Stars  are  made  of,  61. 
What  Vehicles  were  sent,  282. 
What  Wakes   us,   18. 
Wheat,  problems  concerning,  242 
Wheel,  could  it  fly  off  an  engine,  72; 

how  fast  can  It  go  round,  72;    why 

it  stops,  72. 
When  was  the  Watch  right,  282. 
Where  Flowers  go  in  winter,  27 
Where  Plants  get  their  Salts.  36. 
Where  Tears  go,    18. 
Where  the  .\lphabet  came  from,  85. 
Where  the  cocoanuts  grow,  game  of. 

Where  the  day  begins,  68. 
Where  the  Day  changes,  68. 
Where  the  Indian   came  from,   85 
Where  the  Snail  flnds  Its  shell.  30. 
Where  the  Stars  stay  In  daytime, 

60. 
Where  We  Go  In  our  sleep.  16. 
Which    Travels    Quicker,    heat    or 

cold.  77. 
Who  Gave  the  stars  their  names,  67. 
Whose  Portrait  is  it.  283. 
Why  a  Bad  egg  floats  and  a  good  one 

sinks,  35. 
Why  a  Ball  bounces,  87. 
Why  a  Crowded   Hall   Invites  light- 
ning, 87. 
Why  a  Leaf  falls,  27 
Why  a  Man  Is  wise,  162. 
Why  a  Man  may  be  foolish,  162. 
Why  Ammonia  cleans  things,  75. 
Why  a  Moth  flies  round  a  candle,  35. 
Why  an  apple  falls,  58 
Why  an  Exploding  cartridge  causes 

a  report,  87. 
Why  an  Iron  ship  floats    ,4 
Why  a  polished  tin  pan  will  not  bake 

as  readily  as  an  iron  one,  87. 
Why  a  pop-gun  pops,  46. 
Why  are  dreams  illogical,  88. 
Why  are  There  two  buttons  on  the 

back  of  an  evening  coat.  87. 
Why  a  River  runs  into  the  sea,  51 
Why  Asbestos  does  not  burn,  55 
Why  a  Singer  likes  to  sing  in  Italian, 
'    136. 

Why  a  Stick  holds  together,  78. 
Why  a  Stone  sinks,  69, 
Why    a    Thinker   should   seek    only 

the  truth,   161. 
Why  a  Wheel  stops,  72. 
Why  Bark  grows  on  ^rees.  32. 
Why  Beds  of  Rivers  change,  58. 
Why    Birds    Eggs    are    of    different 

colors,   34. 
Why  Birds  Fly  so  high,  26. 
Why    Coal    Burns   and   stone   does 

not.  55. 
Why  Damp  Air  makes  us  111.  26. 
Why  Dampness  makes  wood  decay. 

Why  does  a  Silver  dish  tarnish,  87. 

Why  Does  a  Stick  float,  74 

Why  Does  Wood  warp.  87. 

Why  Dry  Wood  burns  more  readily 

than  green,  S7. 
Why  Every  Cloud  has  a  silver  lining, 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  I 


Why   FlniJcrs   are   not   of   the   same 

leiKtli.   21. 
Why  Kishcs  cannot  live  on  land,  SI. 
Why  Fishes  do  not  drown.  35. 
Whv  KIsinios  uo  up.  .">(> 
Why    ruiwors    Smell   sweeter   after 

rain.   ,">r. 
Whv  The  Kountaln  iilays,  5o. 
Why    Gold    and    .Silver    coins    are 

milled.   SS. 
Whv  Glue  and  Paste  are  adhesive. 

Why  Houses  are  not  made  of  Iron, 

7(i. 

Whv  Is  Ice  slippery.  SS. 

Wliv  is  Oak  stronger  than  pine,  S7. 

Whv  is  it  dark  at  ulixht.  40, 

Why    is    it    easier    to    swliu    In    salt 

water,   ;"iS. 
Whv  the  leaves  Chance  color,  33. 
Wh>  Llilht  Seems  Red  when  we  shut 

our  eves,   4J. 
Why  Men  do  not  always  search  for 

truth,   li'l. 
Whv  Mortar  become.^  hard,  SS. 
Why    Old    People   remember   things 

of  loiit:  as:o.    Hit 
Whv  Onions  Make  our  eyes  water, 

•J3. 
Why  Paint  Keeps  Iron  from  rustlns, 

SS. 
Whv  PhotoiSraphs  are  developed  In 

rod  liu-ht.   ■!.">. 
Why  Railway  sisjn.als  are  red,  green 

and   wiiUo.    110- 
Whv  Raindrops  are  round,  54. 
Why   Rainwater  Is  best   for  plants, 

SS. 
Why   Saleratus    makes   cake   light, 

S7. 
Why    Seeds    come    up     at     certain 

times.  oS. 
Whv  Shoes  are  hotter  when  dusty, 

S7. 
Why  Smoke  of  a  trala  goes  the  other 

way.  7S. 
Why  Snow  Is  white.  4."?. 
Why  Soap  takes  out  dirt,  73. 


Whv  Some  anlmaUs  wear  white  coats 

33. 
Whv  some  Faces  In  pictures  follow 

us,   70. 
Whv  Some  houses  look  crooked,  4fl. 
Whv  Some  People  are  dark  and  some 

fair,   2J. 
Why   Spiders  do  not  get  caui;ht  In 

their  own  webs.  31. 
Whv  reloilraph  Hues  hum,  45. 
Whv  the  Sea  Is  salt.  40. 
Whv  the  skv  is  blue.  40. 
Whv  tlio  Stars  twinkle,  62. 
Why     the     Worlds    are    round.     03. 
Why   Things   Spin  round   when   we 

are  dlzzv.  24. 
Why  Toast  Is  more  digestible  than 

bread.   S7. 
Whv  Tropical  Races  are  dark-eyed, 

SS. 
Why  United  States  Is  called  "rncle 

Sam. "  SI . 
Why  Water  quenches  Are,  50. 
Whv  Water  runs.  7S. 
Whv  Wood  floats  and  Iron  sinks,  74. 
Whv  Wood  rots.  30 
Why  We  are  right-handed.  23. 
Why    we   cannot    make    a    rope    of 

sand.   7S. 
Why  we  cannot  see  air.  48. 
Whv  we  covmt  in  tens,  69. 
Whv  we  cry,  100. 
Whv  we  cet  out  of  breath,  20. 
Why  we  So  to  sleep.  Hi. 
Whv  we  have  lluser-nails.  22. 
Why  we  have  lines  on  our  hands,  21. 
Why  we  have  names,  S6. 
Why  we  have  only  two  sets  of  teeth. 

Why  we  have  ten  fingers.  21. 

Whv  we  have  toe-nails.  22. 

Whv  we  see  farther  from  a  height, 
30. 

Why  we  see  ourselves  in  the  glass, 
3s. 

Whv   we   shiver.    24. 

Whv  we  suffer  giddiness,  125. 

Whv  we  use  different  notes  In  speak- 
ing, 132. 


Why  you  cry,  17. 

Whv  you  laugh,   17. 

Whys  and  Hows,  children's.  69. 

Wind,  what  changes  Us  course,  57. 

WinkinS.    100. 

Wire,   barbed.   23S. 

Wolf,  came  of,  295. 

Wonders,  of  air.  lire  and  water,  4H: 
of  animals  and  plants,  26;  of  earth, 
sun  and  stars.  5S;  of  light  and 
sound.  37:  of  the  human  body,  16. 

Wood,  wliy  dampness  makes  It  de- 
cay, S7:  why  dry  burns  more 
readilv,  S7:  why  It  decays,  S7;  why 
It  floats,  74:  why  It  rots,  36;  why 
It  warps.  S7. 

Word-.MakinfS,  game  of,  296. 

Words,  how  many  we  use.  S5:  Lulla- 
by, origin  of.  S7:  number  used  In 
Old  Testament.  S5:  picture.  267, 
26S.  269:  practice,  194:  recognizing 
and  spelling  193.  spinster,  origin 
of.  SS.  used  by  Milton.  S5:  used  by 
Shakespeare.  S5'  why  they  grow 
In  number.  SO. 

Work-Bo\,  girls,  how  to  make,  333. 

World,  have  we  discovered  It  ail.  SO; 
how  big  it  is.  60:  how  it  was  peopled, 
13:  how  we  know  the  story  of,  li; 
its  motions.  60 

Worlds,  wh.\-  they  are  round.  63, 
Worms,  how  they  breathe,  30. 
Writinii.  beginning.  179;  explosion 
into,  194;  tirst  use  of  pencil.  1S9; 
how  tracing  teaches  the  child  to 
use  pencil,  194;  in  Babylon,  l-.gypt 
and  .\sia.  14:  picture,  in  Egypt, 
85:  learning  to  write  at  age  of  four, 
193:  of  music,  130:  on  stones  and 
t.ablets,  14;  picture,  14:  prepara- 
tory exercises,  1S7;  spontaueoie 
lesson.  A,  1S4. 

SEE  .^LSO  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM 


Zoo,  how  to  make  toy,  341- 


THE  HUMAN 
INTEREST  LIBRARY 

VISUALIZED  KNOWLEDGE 


EDITORS 

RT.  REV.  SAMUEL  FALLOWS,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
HENRY  W.  RUOFF,  M,A.,  Litt  D.,  D.C.L. 


VOLUME  IL 


CHICAGO 
THE   MIDLAND   PRESS 


Copyright  1914,  by  The  Midland  Press 


DESCRIPTION  OF  CONTENTS 


VOLUME  TWO 
BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY '7 

No  study  is  more  fascinating  than  that  of  the  great  globe  on  which  we  live.  This  book  deals 
with  the  great  truths  of  the  forces  of  nature — physics,  geology  and  astronomy — not  as  dry  facts,  but 
in  a  charming  way  which  captivates  the  imagination.  It  tells  us  how  the  earth  was  born  from  the 
primeval  chaos,  how  under  the  influence  of  cosmic  laws,  here  fully  described,  it  took  form  and  slowly 
cooling  and  shrinking  through  the  ages,  became  the  solid  sphere  upon  whose  crust  we  live;  and  then, 
taking  a  wider  flight,  it  tells  us  all  that  is  known  of  the  starry  heavens. 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 81 

Plants  and  animals,  the  denizens  of  the  world  about  us,  are  a  source  of  never-ending  interest 
to  young  and  old  alike.  Nothing  could  be  more  entertaining  than  this  book  with  its  varied  panorama 
of  the  animate  world.  In  it  we  explore  the  depths  of  the  ocean  abyss,  and  watch  the  eagle  renew  his 
sight  at  the  fioon-day  beam;  follow  the  busy  bee  through  his  life  of  toil,  or  the  king  of  beasts  as  he 
stealthily  approaches  his  prey.  The  text  is  accompanied  with  striking  and  unique  illustrations.  It 
will  prove  of  immense  assistance  to  the  boy  or  girl  pursuing  grammar  or  high  school  work  in  nature 
study. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 173 

The  world  moves  so  fast  and  the  industry  and  ingenuity  of  this  present  age  are  so  great  that  we 
can  hardly  keep  pace  with  them.  No  work  is  complete  unless  it  furnishes  a  summary  of  the  most 
recent  of  man's  wonderful  achievements.  Here  are  graphic  accounts  by  the  best  authorities,  telling 
the  story  of  the  electrical  and  mechanical  conquest  of  the  world.  Radium,  X-rays,  telegraphy,  engines, 
animated  photography,  mechanism  for  the  measurement  of  time,  new  sources  of  power — all  come  in 
for  a  human  interest  treatment.  The  illustrations,  charts  and  diagrams  which  accompany  the  text 
are  the  best  of  their  kind,  and  are  a  course  of  instruction  in  themselves. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 269 

The  American  is  nothing  if  not  practical  and,  be  he  man  or  boy,  will  appreciate  this  book.  It 
teaches  us  how  science  has  been  applied  in  those  recent  discoveries  which  are  revolutionizing  modern 
life.  Many  of  the  most  interesting  forms  of  industry  and  structural  engineering — such  as  glass- 
making,  concrete  construction,  bridges,  light-houses,  water  power,  conquest  of  the  sea,  etc. — are 
taken  up  and  explained.  The  construction  of  the  world's  greatest  canal;  the  great  Keokuk  dam 
which  harnesses  the  "Father  of  Waters;"  and  the  wonderfu'  Niagara  power  plants  are  described  by 
masters  of  engineering  enterprise.  The  modern  processes  of  great  industries  are  also  vividly  described 
by  specialists. 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS    IN    VOLUME    II 


FULL  PAGE  COLOR  PLATES 

PAGE 

The  Dreaded  Simoon opp.   6 

Building  the  Celebrated  Forth  Bridge "      7 

A  Group  of  Plants  That  Catch  Insects "    80 

The  Sperm  Whale— The  Tiger  of  the  Deep "    81 

Birds  of  Prey  and  Game  Birds "  123 

Birds  Noted  for  Song  or  Plumage "  124 

FULL  PAGE  ENGRAVINGS  AND  DRAWINGS 

Procession  of  Worlds  in  the  Skies 8 

The  Sun  and  Its  Numerous  Children 15 

The  Infinite  Space  no  Man  Can  Measure 19 

The  Changing  Earth  from  Age  to  Age 32 

The  Wonder  Story  Told  in  the  Rocks .  33 

The  Fire  Burning  Inside  the  Earth 38 

How  Fire  Conies  Out  of  the  Earth 42 

The  Splitting  of  the  Earth's  Crust 43 

How  We  Look  at  Another  World 46 

The  Earth  as  Viewed  from  the  Moon 58 

Map  of  the  Stars  in  Spring 63 

Map  of  the  Constellations  in  Summer 64 

Map  of  the  Stars  in  Autumn  and  Winter 65 

The  Water  That  Is  Everywhere 79 

Members  of  the  Numerous  Cat  Family 82 

The  Development  of  the  Animal  Kingdom 85 

Animals  That  Live  on  Ants 88 

The  Elephant  in  Anger 91 

The  Lords  of  the  Wild  Kingdom 93 

The  Hyena,  Grizzly  and  Polar  Bears 95 

The  Fox,  the  Jackal  and  the  Wolves 99 

The  Handsomest  Birds  in  the  World 103 

Some  Beauty  Birds  of  Foreign  Lands 107 

Strange  Birds  with  Strange  Feathers 109 

Colony  of  Flamingoes  in  the  Bahamas Ill 

The  Immense  Family  of  Vultures 116 

Some  Birds  That  Hunt  for  Beasts 118 

The  First  Cousins  of  the  Ostrich 121 

The  Barn-Owl  of  the  Countryside 131 

Picture  of  Parts  of  the  Bee 135 

The  Growth  of  the  Honey  Bee  in  the  Tiny  Cell 136 

i 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  II— Continued 


PAGE 

The  Life  of  the  Bee  in  Its  Wonderful  Hive 138 

Offer  of  Life  to  the  Earth  and  Sun 142 

Insect  Mothers  and  Their  Famihes 147 

Marvelous  Homes  of  the  Water  Spider 149 

Beautiful  Forms  of  the  Shell  Sand  on  the  Seashore 151 

Secrets  of  the  Past  Locked  in  a  Pebble 153 

Starfish  and  Sea  Anemones ;.........    156 

Living  Light  of  the  Ocean  Depths 158 

Exploring  the  Ocean  Bed 160 

Some  Examples  of  Climbing  Plants 168 

A  Plant  That  Breaks  the  Rules 171 

Radiograph  of  the  Structure  of  the  Hand 174 

Apparatus  by  Which  X-Ray  Penetrates  the  Body 179 

A  Series  of  X-Ray  Pictures 181 

Striking  Vision  of  the  Radio- Activity  of  an  Atom 189 

Behind  the  "Foothghts"  of  the  Moving  Picture  Studio 198 

How  Moving  Pictures  Are  Produced 201 

How  Moving  Picture  Tricks  Are  Done 203 

The  Impossible  Made  to  Seem  Real 204 

Behind  the  Great  Face  of  Big  Ben 207 

How  Time  in  Past  Was  Measured  by  the  Sun 209 

The  Mystery  of  Stonehenge 212 

How  Time  Is  Now  Measured  by  the  Stars 214 

Time  Recorders  in  Clockless  Ages 217 

What  Makes  the  Wheels  Go  Round 219 

Many  Clocks  Worked  by  One  Pendulum 221 

How  a  Telegram  Is  Sent  and  Received 223,  225 

The  Bottom  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 227 

The  Electric  Wave  That  Runs  Under  the  Sea 228 

Making  the  Electric  Cable  for  the  Ocean  Bed 229 

How  the  Ship  Lays  the  Ocean  Cable 230 

How  the  Cable  Is  Joined  Together  at  Sea 231 

How  a  Cable  Is  Lowered  and  Raised 232 

Words  Travel  Everywhere  on  Electric  Waves 235 

Wireless  Stations  on  Duty  Day  and  Night 236 

The  Unseen  Telegraph  Messenger 238 

How  Electric  Waves  Are  Turned  into  Words 239 

Trans-Atlantic  Messages  Flying  Through  Space 240 

Two  Continents  Joined  by  Electric  Waves 241 

A  Station  That  Talks  to  All  the  World 243 

The  Two  Extreme  Types  of  Big  Guns 245 

Three  Stages  in  a  Big  Gun's  Growth 247 

The  Manufacture  of  Rifles 250 

Testing  Rifles  and  Making  Shot 254 

5 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  II— Continued 


PAGE 

Adaptations  of  the  Inclined  Plane 256 

Various  Types  of  Gears 263 

Possibility  of  Tapping  the  Fires  of  Earth 267 

Wonderful  Steps  of  Water  up  Which  Ships  Will  Climb 270 

Scenes  on  the  Panama  Canal 272 

Excavation  of  Panama  Canal 275 

Bed  in  Which  Two  Seas  Met 276 

Walls  Through  Which  the  Seas  Flowed 277 

Panama  City  and  Map 281 

Scenes  in  the  Lucky  Little  City  of  Panama 282 

Development  of  Steam  Navigation 285 

From  the  Caravel  of  Columbus  to  the  "Imperator" 290 

The  "Vaterland"  under  Construction 292 

Maiden  Voyage  .of  the  "Imperator" 294 

The  Bull  Dog's  Teeth 297 

Interior  of  a  Dreadnought  at  a  Glance 298,  299 

Manufacture  of  Armor  Plate 303 

Barbette  of  Battleship 304 

Beacons  of  the  Sea 314 

Life  Saving  Bells  in  Operation 317 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Plants 318 

How  Niagara  Falls  Are  Harnessed 3^1 

Gigantic  Wheel  Turned  by  Niagara 322 

How  Power  Is  Generated  and  Controlled 323 

Keokuk  Dam  and  Locks 327 

Underground  Engineering  in  Paris 332 

The  Jawbone  Siphon 334 

Underground  Engineering  in  New  York 336 

New  York  Subways 337,  338 

Old-fashioned  Bridges  in  Picturescjue  Lands 342 

Beginning  to  Build  a  Great  Bridge 343 

The  Interior  Workshop  Under  the  Water 344 

The  Great  Forth  Bridge  Section  by  Section 346 

The  Tower  Bridge,  London 348 

Brooklyn  Suspension  Bridge 350 

Cultivation  of  the  Tea  Plant  in  Ceylon 355 

The  Preparation  of  Teas  for  the  Markets 359 

Where  the  Fragrant  Coffee-berry  Is  Grown 361 

Where  the  Chocolates  Come  From 364 

From  Grinding  Mill  to  Chocolate  Molds 366 

Art  Glassware  of  the  Last  1500  Years 370 

Machinery  for  Making  Glass  Bottles 374 

How  a  Fragile  Wine  Glass  Is  Shaped 378 

AND  78  ADDITIONAL  TEXT  ILLUSTRATIONS 

« 


T. 


2-3 


to 


■T.     .h 


—  o 


:i  o 


"7-  y) 
-  >>  I 


^       a 


BUILDING   THE   CELEBRATED    FORTH    BRIDGE 

This  bridge  with  its  two  mighty  spans  of  1.700  feet  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  worki.      For  seven 
years  an  army  of  intrepid  workers  hil)nr('d  in  nii<1-iiir  to  lomplete  it.      It  cost  $15,000,000  and  57  linnian  lives. 


Book  of  Earth  and  Sky 


THE  GREAT  BALL  UPON  WHICH  WE  LIVE 

THE  SUN  AND  ITS  FAMILY 

HOW  THE  EARTH  WAS  MADE 

THE  EARTH  AS  IT  IS  TODAY 

THE  EARTH'S  CHANGING  FACE 

WORLDS  IN  THE  SKIES 

THE  MOON,  THE  LAMP  OF  NIGHT 

THE  SUN'S  GIFT  TO  THE  EARTH 

STARS  AND  CONSTELLATIONS 

AIR,  WATER  AND  FIRE 


PROCESSION  OF    THE    WORLDS   IN   THE    SKIES 


The  earth  is  not  the  only  world;  it  is  only  a  fragment  of  the  great  Universe — the  name 
we  give  to  all  created  things.  In  the  picture  the  earth  looks  the  biggest  of  all  the  globes; 
but  that  is  only  because  it  is  the  nearest  to  us.  Round  the  sun  are  many  other  worlds  and 
millions  of  stars.  The  great  world  balls  travel,  always  spinning,  round  the  sun.  This 
picture  helps  us  to  understand  what  a  mighty  universe  we  live  In.  Nobody  has  ever  seen 
the  universe  like  this  because  nobody  can  get  outside  it  to  look;  and  even  if  we  could  it  is 
so  vast  that  nobody  could  possibly  see  it  all.  Through  a  telescope  we  can  see  a  little  bit  of 
the  world  nearest  our  earth;  but  the  majesty  and  wonder  of  the  universe  is  something  that 
no  man  can  fully  understand. 


8 


The  World  is  round  like  a  ball,  and  this  Is  the  side  of 
the  bpll  called  the  Old  World,  the  part  of  the  World  that 
was  known  before  Christopher  Columbus  found  America. 


This  is  the  other  side  of  the  ball,  the  New  World,  called 
America,  which  the  men  living  in  the  Old  World  did  not 
know  until  Columbus  found  it,  four  hundred  years  ago. 


THE  GREAT  BALL  UPON  WHICH  WE  LIVE 


THE  earth  on  which  we  Uve  is  so 
big  that  we  cannot  possibly 
see  it  all  at  the  same  time.  It 
has  come  to  be  what  it  is  through 
millions  and  millions  of  years.  Yet 
the  earth  is  only  one  of  many,  many 
worlds,  some  of  them  much  greater 
than  the  earth,  all  of  them  moving 
through  space  like  a  ball  when  it  is 
thrown  in  the  air.  What  do  we  know 
of  all  these  worlds?  How  were  they 
made?  Is  every  star  a  sun  like  ours, 
and  are  there  little  children  playing 
on  balls,  like  the  earth,  that  circle 
round  the  stars?  How  does  the  sun 
give  us  life  and  warmth?  All  these 
questions  we  ask  as  we  think  of  the 
great  universe  in  which  we  live,  and 
we  come  to  know  more  and  more 
about  the  world  as  time  goes  on. 

The  men  who    thought  the  earth 
WAS  flat 

The  first  men  who  tried  to  under- 
stand the  earth  naturally  thought  that 
there  were  two  or  three  great  facts 
which  he  could  start  with,  about 
which  there  was  no  doubt  at  all.  To 
begin  with,  it  seemed  quite  plain  that, 
though  there  were  hills  and  valleys, 


ups  and  downs,  yet,  on  the  whole, 
the  earth  was  flat.  The  hills  and  the 
valleys  seemed  to  be  mere  ups  and 
downs,  like  the  ups  and  downs  on  a 
bad  road.  However  far  you  walk 
your  head  is  still  upright,  at  the  top 
of  you,  and  your  feet  are  still  beneath 
you.  You  will  never  come  to  an 
edge  and  fall  off.  Walking  on  the 
earth,  or  even  going  in  a  train,  is  not 
at  all  like  walking  on  a  ball,  as  people 
do  at  the  circus. 

Well,  then,  men  thought  that  here 
was  something  plain.  First  of  all,  there 
was  this  great  stretched-out  earth, 
giving  us  a  certain  level  upon  which 
we  live,  and  stretching  out  in  all 
directions.  Then  men  began  to  think 
of  everything  else  in  the  whole  world  as 
either  at  that  level  or  else  above  that 
level  like  the  sky,  or  else  below  that  level. 
It  was  not  possible  to  get  very  far 
down  below  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  digging;  but  still,  just  as  there  was 
an  above,  so  men  knew  that,  of  course, 
there  must  be  a  below. 

GREAT  mystery  OF  THE  UNDER  WORLD 

In  some  parts  of  the  world  it  was 
possible,  men  thought,  to  get  hints  of 


10 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  lower  regions,  and  men  came  to 
learn  that  the  earth  below  was  hot 
and  on  fire.  How  did  they  find  this 
out?  Here  and  there  upon  the  surface 
of  the  earth  there  are  great  holes, 
usually  found  at  the  tops  of  moun- 
tains. These  mountains  have  a 
special  name  which  we  must  learn; 
they  are  called  volcanoes,  and  the 
holes  are  called  craters.  Sometimes  a 
volcano  becomes  excited,  and  all  sorts 
of  things  come  up  from  below  and  are 
shot  up  into  the  air  through  the  hole 
at  the  top.  Now,  these  things  that 
come  up  are  all  terribly  hot,  and  with 
them  comes  a  great  deal  of  black 
smoke.  So  it  seemed  probable  that 
what  men  called  the  under  world — 
that  is  to  say,  the  part  below  the  level 
of  the  earth — was  a  very  hot  place, 
probably  with  fire  always  burning 
in  it. 

Another  idea  was  that  the  earth  was 
quite  still  and  at  rest.  We  do  not  feel 
the  earth  moving  vnider  our  feet;  we 
cannot  imagine  that  it  moves.  If  we 
look  "up"  to  the  stars  and  watch 
them  carefully  from  day  to  day  and 
from  night  to  night,  they  seem  to 
come  up  from  the  edge  of  the  earth, 
in  a  direction  which  we  call  the  East. 
Then  they  seem  to  travel  across  the 
sky,  and  then  to  dip  down  at  the 
other  edge  of  the  earth,  which  we  call 
the  West. 
What  men  used  to  think  about  the 

SUN 

We  can  easily  see  the  sun  doing  this, 
as  it  seems  to  do  it  every  day.  At 
some  time  in  the  morning  we  see  it 
in  the  East;  it  travels  across  the  sky, 
and  then  it  passes  from  our  sight  in 
the  West.  It  used  to  be  thought  that 
the  great  fire  of  the  sun  w^as  put  out 
every  night  in  the  water  in  the  West, 
and  that  then,  in  some  mysterious 
way,  it  passed  through  the  under 
world,  and  was  set  blazing  again,  and 
turned  up  next  morning  in  the  East 


to  begin  its  journey  afresh.  Whatever 
happened  to  the  sun  at  night,  at  any 
rate  there  seemed  to  be  no  doubt  that 
it  did  what  we  think  we  see  it  do- — 
rise  in  the  morning,  move  across  the 
sky,  and  set  on  the  other  side  from 
where  we  first  saw  it  rise.  The 
notion  that  the  earth  itself  moved 
seemed  to  be  such  nonsense  that 
everybody  laughed  at  it. 

But  at  last  there  came  the  notion 
that,  in  spite  of  what  we  think,  the 
earth  is  not  flat!  Some  bold  men 
actually  declared  that  the  earth  was 
nothing  else  than  a  big  ball,  and  that 
we  lived  on  the  outside  of  it.  Many 
people  laughed  at  such  an  idea.  "If 
it  is  a  big  ball,"  they  said,  "we  should 
be  able  to  go  right  round  it  and  come 
back  to  where  we  started  from." 
Now,  in  those  days  the  only  part  of 
the  earth  that  men  knew  at  all  was 
scarcely  more  than  a  spot  on  its  sur- 
face, and  beyond  this  they  knew 
nothing.  So  this  idea  of  traveling 
boldly  out  in  one  direction  and  going 
on  and  on  until  you  came  back  to  the 
place  you  started  from  seemed  really 
too  absurd. 
Could    a   man    tumble    off  the 

EARTH? 

Then  again,  people  argued  that 
there  could  not  possibly  be  other 
people  on  the  under  side  of  this  big 
ball,  for  if  they  were  they  would  fall 
off,  and,  indeed,  if  it  were  a  ball, 
anyone  starting  at  the  top  of  it,  and 
walking  too  far  in  one  direction, 
would  soon  find  himself  beginning  to 
slip — just  as  a  doll  might  slip  off  an 
orange — until  at  last  he  would  tumble 
off  altogether,  and  that  would  be  the 
end  of  him.  It  seemed  a  great  puzzle, 
or,  rather,  it  seemed  not  a  puzzle  at 
all;  it  simply  seemed  that  the  people 
who  said  the  earth  was  a  ball  were 
talking  nonsense.  But  these  people 
would  not  stop  talking,  and  they  went 
on  with  one  argument  after  another 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


11 


so  strongly  that  at  last  people  believed 
that  what  they  said  was  true. 

How  WE  KNOW  THE  EARTH  IS  ROUND 

One  of  their  best  arguments  was 
that  if  you  watch  a  ship  as  it  sails  out 
to  sea  from  the  harbor,  it  does  not 
behave  as  it  should  behave  if  the  sea 
were  flat.  Suppose  the  sea  were  like 
a  flat,  ploughed  field.  You  could 
watch  the  ship  go  up  and  down  and 
on  and  on,  looking  smaller  and  smaller, 


until  at  last  it  became  just  a  speck, 
and  then  disappeared  out  of  sight. 
But  that  is  not  at  all  what  happens 
when  a  ship  sails  out  to  sea.  If  we 
watch  it  closely,  we  find  that  it  begins 
to  disappear  in  a  particular  way.  The 
hull — that  is,  the  bottom — of  the  ship 
disappears  first,  and  then  the  ship 
seems  to  sink  lower  and  lower,  until 
we  can  see  only  the  tops  of  the  masts, 
and  then  only  the  top  of  the  highest 


HOW  WE  KNOW  THE  EARTH   IS   ROUND 


The  earth  is  not  flat  like  a  table,  but  Then  we  see  the  top  of  the  mast,  Then  the  front  appears,  and  we  see 

round  like  an  orange.     We  know  this  as  if  the  ship  were  climbing  up  the      the  vessel  rising  higher  and  higher, 

by  the  way  a  ship  comes  into  sight  side  of  a  hill, 
at  sea.     At  first  we  see  only  smoke. 


^^?^-   , 


Jdb. 


If  the  earth  were  flat  we  should  see  But  we  do  not  see  it  that  way.     We  At  last  the  ship  is  over  the  circle, 

the  whole  of  the  ship  at  once,  not  the  see  the  ship  rising  as  if  it  were  sailing      sailing  clear  on  the  top  of  the  ball, 

front  of  it  first  and  the  rest  of  it  bit  up  the  other  side  of  a  ball. 
by  bit. 


12  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIHHARY 

mast,  and  then  nothing  at  all.     When  they  were  sailing  farther  from  their 

it  has  quite  gone,  the  ship  is  really  homes,    and    what    way    back    could 

near  enough  for  us  to  see  quite  well,  there   be   except   the   way   they   had 

but  it  is  hidden  by  something — some-  come? 

thing  which  first  hides  the  lowest  part,  But   there   was   to   be   no   turning 

and  then  hides  it  all.  back.     Each  day  their  leaders  gazed 

How  THE  SHIP  COMES  INTO  SIGHT  AT  SEA  ahead     lookiug    for    land — laud    that 

Then,    supposing    the    ship    comes  had  never  been  seen,  but  which  they 

back,  what  do  we  see?     Is  it,  first  of  hoped  to  be  the  other  side  of  the  land 

all,  a  sort  of  dim  shape,  which  gradu-  from  which   they  had  started.     And 

ally  becomes  clearer  and  clearer,  like  once    they    nearly    found    what    they 

a  man  meeting  us  in  a  street  in  a  fog?  were  looking  for. 

Not  at  all.     The  ship  seems  to  rise  up  It  was  not  a  great  stretch  of  land 

from  somewhere,  and,  as  it  rises,  comes  that    they    saw,    only     some     small 

nearer  and  nearer,  so  that  we  see  the  islands,  but   that  was   quite  enough, 

tops  of  the  masts  first  and  the  hull  they    thought.      Where    there    were 

last.  islands,  they  said,  there  would  surely 

The  first    men    who  tried    to  sail  be  land  beyond  them. 

AROUND  the  great  EARTH-BALL  HOW  MEN  FOUND   THAT  THE  EARTH    WAS 

"Very  well,  then,"  said  some  bold  a  great  ball 

sailors.     "Very  well,  then;  if  the  earth  Now,    in    those   days,    people   who 

is  really  a  ball,  and  if  there  is  water  lived  in  Spain,   and  in  that  part  of 

enough,  we  shall  sail  around  it.     We  the  world,  used  to  call  the  land  which 

shall  start  out  from  the  edge  of  the  lay  farthest  east  from  them  the  Indies, 

land  with  our  ])est  boats  and  a  big  So  when  the  sailors  came  across  these 

supply  of  food,  and  we  shall  go  straight  islands,  they  thought  that,  by  going 

on   and   on   and   on,   though   we   see  round     the     other     way,     they     had 

nothing  but  water  in  front  of  us;  and  reached   some   of   those   same   Indies 

if  you  are  right,  and  if  we  sail  long  which    they    had    visited    before    by 

enough   and   our  food   does   not   run  traveling  east,  and  they  called  these 

short,  we  shall  go  right  round  the  ball  islands  to  which  they  first  came  the 

and  turn  up  again  at  the  place  we  West  Indies,  and  the  Indies  they  had 

left" — not  at   the  same  edge  of   the  left    behind    them    they    called    the 

land,  but  at  the  opposite  edge.  East    Indies.     Little    did    those   bold 

And  that  is  what  these  sailors  tried  sailors  guess  that  instead  of  going  all 

to  do.     They  went  out  in  their  best  the  way  round  they  had  gone  only  a 

and  biggest  boats;  they  turned  their  quarter  of   the  way. 

boats  straight  ahead,  and  waved  their  Soon   there   followed   other  sailors, 

hands    to    the    crying    friends    who  equally  brave,  and  at  last  they  suc- 

thought  they  would  never  see  them  ceeded  in  sailing  right  round  the  earth, 

again.     The    country    called     Spain,  That  was  the  end  of  the  notion  that 

which  was  at  that  time  one  of  the  the   earth    was    flat.     These   voyages 

most  famous  countries  in  the  world,  discovered  for  us  what  we  still  call  the 

was    their    starting    place.     On    they  New  World,  and  they  have  been  of 

went,  and  we  may  imagine  how  often  great  importance  to  the  lives  of  all  of 

those  sailors,  who  could  not  believe  us.     But    their    greatest    importance 

this    story    about    the    earth    being  was  really  to  prove  forever  that  this 

round,  wanted  to  turn  back  and  get  wonderful  earth  is  nothing  else  than 

home    again.     Every    day    they    felt  a  great  ball. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


13 


1^ 

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^^^^^^^^ 

^H^ 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

UBANUS 

™"4 

^^^^^^^1                              ^^^^^^^^1 

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^ 

^^^^^^V                            EARTH                                         ^^^^^^^H 

SATURN                  MERCURY       VENUS          HARS                         j„p,^„ 

We  know  the  earth  spins  through  space  like  a  ball,  spinning  round  once  in  a 
day,  and  traveling  round  the  sun  once  in  a  year.  But  the  earth  was  not  always  a 
great  ball.  Once  it  was  a  great  cloud,  made  of  the  stuff  of  which  the  earth  is  made, 
and  of  which  our  bodies  are  made.  The  cloud  was  moving,  spinning  round  until  it 
came  together,  shrinking  into  the  shape  of  a  globe,  and  at  last  becoming  solid.  Spin- 
ning in  space  at  the  same  time  were  other  great  clouds.  We  call  them  planets, 
which  means  wanderers,  because  they  wander  through  the  sky.  They  are  the  sun's 
family.  One  is  so  near  to  the  sun  that  it  goes  round  it  in  88  days;  one  is  so  far 
away  that  it  has  only  been  round  the  sun  12  times  since  Jesus  Christ  was  born.  All 
round  these  planets  are  other  worlds  called  moons,  and  millions  of  strange  and  won- 
derful things  which  go  through  the  universe  spinning. 


THE      SUN      AND       ITS      FAMILY 


NOW  we  must  take  up  the 
story  of  the  earth  from  the 
beginning.  As  we  know  that 
the  earth  is  not  in  the  middle  of  the 
world,  but  that  it  goes  round  the  sun, 
we  must  be  very  sure  to  find  out  all 
that  we  can  as  to  what  the  sun  is, 
and  why  it  makes  the  earth  go  round 
it.  We  could  not  live  without  the 
sun,  and  we  cannot  know  too  much 
about  it.  Where,  then,  have  the  sun 
and  the  earth  come  from,  and  what 
were  they  like  at  first  .-^ 

We  have  seen  that,  as  the  earth 
spins  round  itself,  it  moves  rovmd  the 
sun,  and  so  we  know  that,  so  to  speak, 
the  sun  is  a  neighbor  of  ours.  Now 
we  must  find  out  whether  we  have 
any  other  near  neighbors,  and  we  find 
that  we  have.  There  is,  for  instance, 
the  wonderful  moon,  the  story  of 
which  is  part  of  the  story  of  the  earth. 
But  also  we  see  in  the  sky  a  number  of 
bright  objects  that  look  like  stars,  but 
which,  for  several  reasons,  we  know 
are  different  from  the  stars,  that  we 


also  see  when  we  look  upwards.  These 
bright  objects  are  not  stars  because, 
for  one  thing,  they  move  about  the 
sky,  while  the  real  stars  seem  to  be 
fixed,  and  for  ages  past  have  been 
called  the  "fixed  stars."  Since  they 
are  always  seen  to  be  moving,  the 
men  of  long  ago  called  them  the 
wanderers;  but,  of  course,  those  men 
did  not  speak  English,  but  Greek,  and 
we  now  use  the  Greek  word  when  we 
speak  of  them.  They  are  called 
planets,  which  just  means  wanderers. 
Now,  of  course,  when  we  talk  of 
wandering  we  think  of  a  movement 
that  is  haphazard  and  does  not  quite 
know  where  it  is  going.  That  is  not 
true  of  the  planets,  even  though  we 
call  them  wanderers.  We  know  now 
that  these  planets  all  move  round  the 
sun  just  as  the  earth  moves  round  the 
sun,  and  in  just  as  orderly  a  way. 
That  is  why  we  may  talk  of  the  sun 
and  its  family.  We  must  think  of 
the  sun  as  a  great  light  and  furnace 
in  the  center  of  the  great  world. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Around  it  there  travel,  from  one 
year's  end  to  another,  a  wonderful 
family  of  planets.  One  of  these  is 
the  earth.  It  is  not  the  biggest,  nor 
the  smallest,  nor  the  nearest  to  the 
sun,  nor  the  farthest  from  it.  They 
all  go  round  the  sun  in  the  same 
direction — they  go  the  same  way; 
but,  of  course,  if  a  planet  is  farther 
away  from  the  sun  than  the  earth  is, 
it  will  have  much  farther  to  go  before 
it  can  get  right  round  the  sun  and  come 
back  again  to  the  same  place.  This 
takes  a  very  much  longer  time  then, 
and  so  "from  one  year's  end  to 
another"  would  mean  something  very 
different  on  that  planet  from  w^hat  it 
means  to  us.  Our  earth  may  go 
round  the  sun  more  than  a  hundred 
times  while  one  of  these  other  planets 
that  is  much  farther  away  from  the 
sun  goes  round  only  once. 

But  all  that  does  not  matter  at 
present.  The  great  fact  is  that  our 
earth,  which  is  so  important  for  us, 
is  really  just  one  of  several  planets 
that  go  round  the  sun.  It  is  our  sun 
and  their  sun.  Now,  the  Latin  word 
for  the  sun  is  Sol,  and  so  this  great 
system,  made  up  of  Sol — the  sun — and 
all  the  planets  is  called  the  solar  system. 
Plainly,  then,  we  shall  not  be  able  to 
tell  the  story  of  the  earth  unless  we 
know  the  story  of  the  solar  system,  for 
the  earth  is  part  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem. 

Time  when  there  was  neither  earth 

NOR  SUN 

You  will  remember  that  men  used 
to  think  that  the  earth  was  flat  and 
still,  with  the  sky  above  it,  and  the 
fiery  under- world  below  it.  How  dif- 
ferent that  is  from  what  we  know 
now — that  the  earth  is  a  ball,  one  of 
a  number  of  balls  that  are  always 
flying  round  the  sun! 

Now  at  last  we  can  begin  at  the 
beginning  of  the  story  of  the  earth. 
We  must  go  back  to  a  time  when  there 


was  no  earth  at  all,  when  there  was  no 
sun  at  all,  and  no  planets  at  all. 

There  was  only  in  those  far-away 
times — we  cannot  say  those  far-away 
days,  for  there  could  be  no  days  when 
there  was  no  sun  or  earth — there  was 
only  in  those  far-away  times  a  great 
cloud  of  atoms,  so  much  bigger  than 
any  cloud  you  ever  saw,  so  much 
bigger  than  anything  we  know,  that 
not  even  the  wisest  of  wise  men  can 
really  make  a  picture  in  his  mind  of 
how  big  that  cloud  must  have  been. 
There  it  was,  however.  Enormous 
though  it  was,  it  was  only  a  cloud.  If 
we  could  have  been  there  to  see  it  we 
should  not  have  found  much  to  say  of 
it,  except  simply  that  it  was  there  and 
that  it  was  very  big.  All  parts  of  it 
were  like  all  other  parts.  It  was  just 
a  cloud,  and  if  you  had  tried  to  draw 
a  map  of  it  you  could  only  have 
drawn  its  edge  all  round,  for  there  was 
nothing  else  to  draw  in  it. 

The  atoms  that  we  are  made  of  was 
in  the  great  cloud 

Some  people  think  that  it  must  have 
been  a  very  bright  and  even  a  very  hot 
cloud,  giving  out  light  and  heat  from 
itself;  but  most  people  think  that  this 
was  not  so,  and  that  at  first,  at  any 
rate,  this  cloud  was  not  bright  or  hot, 
but  perhaps  very  cold. 

Now  you  probably  guess  what  is 
coming.  That  great  cloud  w^as  made 
of  the  stuff  which  now  makes  up  the 
sun  and  the  planets,  including  our 
own  earth,  and  even  the  atoms  of  which 
your  body  is  now  made,  and  the  stuff 
which  is  before  you  and  which  you 
call  paper.  All  the  stuff,  or  matter, 
as  it  is  called,  that  now  goes  to  make 
the  solar  system — the  sun  and  its 
family — was  there  in  that  great  cloud. 
There  was  no  system,  however.  The 
cloud  had  no  particular  shape,  and 
one  part  of  it  was  just  like  another. 

There  was  only  this  to  be  said — if 
we,  and  not  merely  the  matter  of  which 


THE    SUN    AND    ITS   NUMEROUS   CHILDREN 


'.^^^  Path  of  Neptune 

1-- 


NEPTUNE 
and  his  Moon 


Path  of  Uranus 


URANUS 
and  his 4 Moons 


•.NEPTUNE 


.URANUS 


SATURN 

With  his  Rintfs 
and  9  Moons 


^^-'^path  of  Saturn 


»and  his  7  Moons 


•>?^^^? 


^!^  tVe    Minor* 


^/^     • 


SATURN 


'\VENJS^  MERCURY,''       / 


JUPITER 


MARS  . •     * 

and  his2Moons     .     •   '  • 


,    Minor 
Planets 

.  MARS 
EARTH 
VENUS 

MERCURY 


9'>y 


The  sun  Is  like  a  great  furnace  of  heat  and  light  in  the  center  of  the  universe.     Around  it  travel  a  wonderful  family 

of  worlds,  which  we  call  planets.     They  all  go  round  the  sun  in  the  same  way,  but  some  members  of  the  sun's  family  are 

-eo  'ar  away  that  it  takes  them  many  years  to  go  round  It.     The  earth  goes  round  the  sun  once  in  a  year,  but  Neptune, 

the  most  distant  planet,  goes  round  only  six  times  in  1000  years.     The  picture  at  the  right  shows  the  size  of  the  planets 

compared  with  one  another,  and  their  distance  '"-om  the  sun. 

15 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


our  bodies  are  made,  had  been  there  to 
say  it — and  that  is  that  all  the  little 
bits  of  which  the  cloud  was  made  up 
were  moving.  They  were  probably 
rushing  about  in  a  very  rough-and- 
tumble  sort  of  way.  Nothing  could 
have  been  less  like  a  system  of  any 
kind.  This  all  happened  so  long  ago 
that  we  simply  cannot  think  how  long 
ago  it  was.  But,  as  the  ages  went  on, 
all  the  little  bits  of  stuff  that  made  up 
the  cloud  found  themselves  moving, 
not  like  a  jumble,  but  in  a  more 
orderly  way.  Indeed,  so  orderly  was 
their  movement,  after  a  long  time, 
that  the  whole  great  shapeless  cloud 
slowly  began  to  twist  or  spin  on 
itself. 

When  the  spinning  of   the  earth 

BEGAN 

Now  that  reminds  you  of  the  earth 
spinning  on  itself,  and  so  it  should,  for 
the  slow  spinning  of  this  great  cloud 
was  the  beginning  of  the  spinning  that 
makes  our  night  and  day.  The  stuff 
that  makes  the  earth  was  set  spinning 
in  that  cloud,  and  it  has  been  spinning 
ever  since;  it  is  spinning  now,  and  in 
the  same  direction  as  when  it  first 
began.  But  there  is  no  earth  yet, 
nor  sun,  nor  solar  system;  there  was 
merely  this  spinning  cloud. 

As  time  went  on  it  began  to  shrink. 
This  we  can  be  quite  sure  of,  for  we 
know  that  every  speck  of  matter  in  the 
whole  world  tries  to  attract  every 
other  speck  of  matter  in  the  world. 
That  is  why  a  ball  falls  to  the  earth 
when  you  let  it  go.  Now,  if  in  this 
enormous  cloud  all  the  little  parts 
were  pulling  upon  each  other,  of 
course  it  would  shrink,  for  those  on 
the  outside  would  have  all  the  others 
pulling  them  inwards  and  none  pulling 
them  outwards. 

We  have  made  up  our  minds  to  try 
to  find  out  where  the  sun  and  the 
earth  come  from,  and  what  they  were 
like  at  first.     But  before  we  do  that  we 


must  look  for  a  little  while  at  what  we 
may  call  the  brothers  and  sisters  of  the 
earth — heavenly  bodies  that  began  as 
the  earth  began,  and  that  depend  upon 
the  sun  in  the  same  way.  These 
heavenly  bodies,  together  with  the  sun 
and  the  earth,  make  up  a  little  family 
which  is  complete  in  itself,  and  is,  in 
a  way,  independent  of  the  rest  of  the 
world.  This  little  family,  since  its 
center  is  the  sun,  the  Latin  name  for 
which  is  Sol,  is  known  as  the  solar 
system.  What,  then,  are  the  other 
bodies,  not  unlike  the  earth,  that  go 
to  make  up  the  family  of  the  sun? 

Ages  and  ages  ago,  men  who  watched 
the  face  of  the  heavens  found  that 
among  the  stars  there  were  some  few 
which  behaved  quite  differently  from 
the  rest.  All  the  heavenly  bodies,  of 
course,  seem  to  rise  in  the  east  and  set 
in  the  west;  but  that,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  simply  because  the  earth,  from  which 
we  behold  them  is  rotating  the  other 
way.  Apart  from  that  movement, 
which  is  only  apparent  and  not  a  real 
movement,  men  found  that  all  the 
heavenly  bodies  except  a  very  few  were 
fixed  in  their  positions.  If  we  take, 
for  instance,  the  stars  that  make  up 
what  the  ancients  called  the  "Great 
Bear" — part  of  which  we  often  call 
the  "Plow"  — we  find  that,  year  after 
year,  they  are  always  found  in  the 
same  position.  The  brightest  of  the 
stars  had  their  place  in  the  heavens 
noted  thousands  of  years  ago,  and,  so 
far  as  we  can  tell  without  very  careful 
study,  they  occupy  just  the  same 
places  now.  We  have  lately  learned 
that  really  they  are  moving,  but  they 
are  so  far  away  that,  to  the  unaided 
eye,  nothing  can  be  noticed  even  in 
the  course  of  many  years.  These 
stars,  then — that  is  to  say,  all  the  stars 
except  a  very  few — were  called  fixed 
stars. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  or  two 
bright  stars  could  be  seen,  including 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY  17 

even  the  brightest  of  all  the  stars,  that  it  has  actually  taken  three  years  to 

were  quite  different  in  the  way  they  reach  us,  and  light  travels  so  fast  that 

behaved.     They  were  not  fixed,  but  it   would   go   eight   times    round    the 

moving,  and  their  movement  could  be  entire  earth  in  a  second, 

seen  quite  easily  from  day  to  day  or  All  these    planets  move  round  the 

week   to   week.     In   one   month   you  sun,    but    some    of    them    are    much 

might   see   one   of   these   very   bright  nearer  to  it  than  others  are.     Two  of 

stars  seeming  to  lie  in  one  part  of  the  them,  we  know  for  certain,  are  nearer 

sky,  but  in  another  month  it  would  the  sun  than  the  earth  is.     All  the  rest 

not    be    there    at    all.     Therefore,    a  move    round    the    sun    at    distances 

special  name  was  given  to  these  stars  greater  than  that  of  the  earth, 

which  moved  or  wandered  about  the  Now  what  about  the  moon,  you  will 

heavens,   and  which  were,   therefore,  say.     Well,  there  is  no  doubt  at  all  that 

so  very  different  from  the  fixed  stars,  the  moon  goes  round  the  earth  just  as 

They   were   called   planets,    which    is  the  earth  goos  round  the  sun.     So,  of 

simply  the  Greek  word  meaning  "wan-  course,  the  moon  goes  round  the  sun, 

derers."     Among   them   was,    for  in-  too,    only    instead    of    going    straight 

stance,   the  morning  star,   or  Venus,  round  as    the    earth    does,   it  has  to 

which   outshines   all   the   fixed   stars ;  keep  on  circling  round  the  earth  all  the 

another    was    Jupiter;    and    another,  way.     The  moon,  then,  is  part  of  the 

because  of  its  reddish  color,  was  named  solar  system.     Then  we  have  to  ask 

after  ]\Iars,  the  god  of  war.  ourselves   whether   any   of   the   other 

These  planets  are  quite  different  in  planets  have  moons,  and  the  answer 

every  way  from  the  fixed  stars,  and  is  that  they  have,  so  that  all  these  moons 

from  age  to  age  go  on  circling  round  must  be  included  in  the  solar  system, 

the  sun  just  as  the  earth  does.     The  It  is  not  very  long  ago  since  the  first 

planets    are    not    stars    at    all;    ccm-  of    these    moons    were    found.     They 

pared    with    the    fixed   stars.     They  were    discovered  by    a    great   Italian 

are    so   bright    simply   because    they  named  Galileo.     Galileo  looked  at  the 

are  so  near  us.     More  than  that,  they  great  planet  called  Jupiter,  the  biggest 

do  not  even  shine  by  light  of  their  of  all  the  planets,  and  there,  with  the 

own,  but  only  by  the  light  of  the  sun,  help  of  his  telescope,  he  saw  what  no 

which  strikes  upon  them,  and  then  is  one  had  ever  seen  till  then— four  tiny 

thrown   back  to  us   upon   the  earth,  moons.     As   he    watched   them   from 

just  as  a  ball  is  thrown  back  from  a  night    to    night,    he   could    see    quite 

wall.     The  planets  owe  all  their  light  plainly   that   they  were   going   round 

to  the  sun,  and  if  we  w^ere  upon  one  of  Jupiter,  just  as  the  moon  goes  round 

them  we  should  see  the  earth  shining  the   earth.     Sometimes   one   of   them 

in  the  sky  very  brightly  and  behaving  would    disappear    altogether    because 

like  a  planet.     Indeed,  the  earth  is  one  it  had  got  behind  Jupiter,  and  then  it 

of  the  planets,  and  shines  by  sunlight  would   turn    up    again   on  the    other 

just  as  they  do.  side    from    where    it    was    last    seen. 

All  the  planets,  then,  including  the  These  moons  went  round  Jupiter  at 

earth,  circle  round  the  sun  and  make  different  distances  from  it,  just  as  the 

up  the  family  which  we  call  the  solar  planets  go  round  the  sun  at  different 

system.     This    solar    system    is    very  distances  from  it;  but  they  all  went 

much  alone  in  the  great  world.     The  round  in  the  same  direction. 

very  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars  is  so  far  Since  that  time  moons  have  been 

away  that  the  light  by  which  we  see  discovered  going  round  many  of  the 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


other  planets.  So  all  these  moons 
must  be  included  in  the  sun's  family. 
The  two  planets  that  are  nearest  the 
sun  have  no  moons;  then  comes  the 
earth,  which,  as  we  know,  has  one 
moon.  Some  of  the  planets  which  go 
round  the  sun  at  a  greater  distance 
than  the  earth  are  better  off.  The 
wonderful  planet  called  Saturn,  for 
instance,  has  nine  moons,  and  four 
more  moons  of  Jupiter  have  been  dis- 
covered since  Galileo's  time,  so  that 
this  planet  is  pretty  well  off  with  eight. 
The  last  two  of  these  were  found  only 
a  few  years  ago,  and  perhaps  there 
may  be  more. 

The   worlds    that    fly    round    and 
round  the  sun 

Now  I  think,  we  must  have  a  list 
of  the  planets  that  make  up  the  solar 
system,  and  we  shall  name  them  in 
the  order  of  their  distance  from  the 
sun;  also  we  may  put  opposite  each 
planet  its  distance  from  the  sun  in 
miles,  the  time  that  it  takes  to  go 
round  the  sun,  and  the  number  of  its 


moons. 

Names  of 

Miles  from   Length  of 

No.  of 

Planets 

the  Sun        i 

ts  year 

Moons 

Mercury 

36,000,000 

88 

days 

0 

Venus 

67,000,000 

224 

days 

0 

Earth 

93,000,000 

365i 

days 

1 

Mars 

142,000,000 

686 

days 

2 

Jupiter 

483,000,000 

12 

years 

7 

Saturn 

870,000,000 

29 1 

years 

9 

Uranus 

1,754,000,000 

83 

years 

4 

Neptune 

2,792,000,000 

165 

years 

1 

If  you  look  at  the  second  column 
you  will  see  that  we  have  called  it 
"length  of  year."  Now,  you  under- 
stand that  what  we  mean  by  that  is  the 
length  of  time  the  planet  takes  to  go 
right  round  the  sun,  and  we  measure 
that  by  the  units  that  we  on  the  earth 
know  best.  So,  when  we  say  that  the 
length  of  Neptune's  year  is  165  years, 
what  we  mean  is  simply  that  while 
Neptune  goes  round  the  sun  once  the 
earth  has  gone  round  it   165   times. 


Hundreds   of  tiny   planets   and 
"stars"  with  tails  of  fire 

But  even  this  is  not  the  whole  of  the 
sun's  family,  for  we  have  lately  found 
some  very  tiny  little  planets,  far 
smaller  than  the  moon,  which  go  round 
the  sun  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter.  All  of  them  pvit  together — ■ 
and  they  are  num})ered  by  hundreds — 
would  not  be  nearly  as  large  as  the 
earth.  At  one  time  it  used  to  be 
thought  that  all  these  tiny  little  bodies 
had  been  formed  by  the  breaking  up 
of  some  big  planet;  but  nowadays  men 
are  very  far  from  sure  that  this 
"shattered  planet"  ever  existed.  How- 
ever, all  these  little  bodies  have  to  be 
included  among  the  sun's  family. 
They  are  all  found,  be  it  remembered, 
in  one  particular  part  of  the  solar 
system,  and  doubtless,  if  w^e  coidd 
discover  the  history  of  any  one  of 
them,  that  would  also  be  the  history 
of  all  the  others. 

Yet  again,  the  solar  system  includes 
a  number  of  strange  and  wonderful 
objects  which  are  utterly  different  from 
any  of  those  we  have  described;  they 
are  called  comets,  from  the  Greek  word 
for  hair,  because  when  we  can  see  them 
best  they  seem  to  have  long  hairy 
tails  streaming  out  across  the  sky. 
These  also  travel  round  the  sun,  and 
therefore  belong  to  its  family;  but 
they  do  so  in  a  very  curious  way. 
None  of  the  planets  go  round  the  sun 
in  circles,  but  always  in  paths  like  a 
circle  that  has  been  rather  flattened  in 
one  direction. 

In  the  case  of  the  comets,  however, 
this  flattening  is  very  extreme.  At 
one  time  in  its  history  the  comet  is 
quite  close  to  the  sun,  and  just  misses 
running  into  it.  Then,  after  passing 
round  the  sun.  it  travels  away  from  it, 
out  and  out,  cutting  across  the  paths 
of  all  the  planets  and  passing  millions 
of  miles  beyond  even  Neptune, 
and  then  at  last  it  turns  on  its  course 


I<( 


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and  comes  back  again.     But  still  it  is 

one  of  the  sun's  family. 

The  bright  lights  that  shoot  across 

THE  SKY 

Now  even  this  is  not  quite  all.  You 
must  have  heard  of  what  are  called 
shooting  stars,  and  on  any  clear  night 
in  November  you  will  very  likely  see 
some — and  also  at  other  times  of  the 
year.  A  flash  of  light  seems  to  come 
from  nowhere,  dart  for  a  little  distance 
across  the  sky,  and  then  disappear. 
These,  of  course,  are  not  stars  at  all, 
but  quite  small  things,  perhaps  the 
size  of  a  football,  which  the  earth  has 
caught  as  it  flies  through  space,  and 
which,  as  they  pass  through  the  air, 
are  made  very  hot  and  bright.  What  is 
left  of  them  often  may  reach  the  earth, 
and  many  of  them  are  to  be  found  in 
museums  nowadays.  It  seems  that 
throughout  the  solar  system  there  are 
countless  numbers  of  these  small 
objects  called  meteors.  These  meteors 
also  circle  round  the  sun  and  belong 
to  its  family.  In  November  the  earth 
is  apt,  in  its  path,  to  cut  across  the 
path  taken  by  a  very  large  number  of 
these  tiny  wandering  bodies,  and  that 
is  why  we  are  most  apt  to  see  shooting 
stars  in  November. 

A  very  interesting  fact  is  that  a 
famous  comet,  the  path  of  which  was 
well   known,    disappeared    some    time 


ago,  and  just  in  that  same  path  we  now 
know  that  there  are  a  number  of  these 
small  bodies  like  pebbles.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  they  are  the 
remains  of  the  broken  comet. 

Now  we  have  completed  the  strange^ 
list  of  the  different  kind  of  things  thai 
make  up  the  solar  system:  Sol,  the  sun 
itself,  in  the  center,  the  planets 
round  it,  the  moons  of  the  planets 
going  round  them,  the  very  small 
planets  found  between  Mars  and 
Jupiter,  the  comets,  and  a  host  of 
little  things  like  pebbles.  All  these 
make  up  one  great  family  ruled  by  the 
sun.  So  far  as  we  can  find  out,  they 
practically  all  move  in  the  same  direc- 
tion round  the  sun;  they  twirl  or  twist 
on  themselves  as  the  earth  does,  also 
in  that  same  direction;  their  moon  goes 
round  them  in  that  same  direction, 
and  even  the  sun  is  twisting  in  the 
same  direction  also. 

This  solar  system  is  very  much 
alone  in  the  great  world.  But  it  does 
not  stay  in  one  place.  We  know  that 
the  sun — and  with  it  all  the  planets 
and  moons — is  moving  through  space 
at  a  great  rate  of  about  twelve  miles 
per  second.  Though  the  solar  system 
is  very  much  alone  in  space  now,  we 
have  no  reason  to  think  that  it  was 
always  so,  or  that  it  will  always  be 
so. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


21 


The  earth  began,  as  far  as  we  can  tell,  in  a  great  shapeless  cloud  like  this.  All  the  matter  of  which  the  sun  and  its 
family  of  worlds  are  made  was  in  this  cloud,  which  moved  through  space  for  millions  of  yeajs,  until  parts  broJse  away. 
The  parts  shruiLk  into  themselves  and  became  globes,  Uke  the  earth  and  the  moon  opposite. 

HOW      THE      EARTH      WAS      MADE 

This  story  tells  us  of  the  time  when  the  sun  and  its  family  of  worlds  were  all 
one — a  great  fiery  cloud,  which  at  last  broke  into  smaller  clouds.  One  of  these  was 
the  cloud  that  formed  the  earth,  which  became  at  last  a  glowing  globe  of  gas,  hot  at 
the  center  and  cooler  at  the  surface.  Slowly  the  gas  became  liquid — like  water,  but 
red  hot.  There  was  then  no  living  thing  on  the  earth,  which  was  like  a  red-hot 
ocean.  As  the  earth  spun  round  in  space  an  extraordinary  thing  happened :  part  of 
the  red-hot  stuff  fell  away,  like  drops  from  a  wet  umbrella,  and  formed  the  moon. 
Slowly  the  globe  cooled  down  and  the  hard  surface  of  the  earth  was  formed — the 
great  ball  of  earth,  still  glowing  inside  perhaps,  on  which  we  live. 


A 


ND  now  we  must  ask  ourselves 
again  the  great  question: 
Where  have  the  sun  and  the 
earth  come  from,  and  what  were  they 
like  at  first? 

For  a  long  time  men  used  to  think 
that  the  solar  system,  including  the 
sun  and  the  earth,  had  been,  from  the 
first,  as  they  are  now.  No  one  now 
thinks  that,  however.  We  believe 
that  they  have  grown,  so  to  speak, 
to  be  what  they  are,  and  we  have  a 
fairly  good  idea  of  the  way  in  which 
they  have  grown.  Now,  in  order  to 
see  what  the  solar  system  was  like  at 
first,  we  have  only  to  take  a  telescope 


and  look  up  at  the  sky,  and  there  we 
shall  see  scores  of  thousands  of 
wonderful  bodies  which  are  still  at  the 
stage  the  solar  system  was  at  long 
ages  ago.  These  bodies  are  called 
nebulae,  and  one  of  them  would  be 
called  a  nebula,  which  is  simply  the 
Latin  word  for  a  cloud.  They  look 
like  the  tiniest  little  bright,  fleecy 
clouds  in  the  sky.  Some  of  them  can 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  then 
they  look  like  stars,  but  they  are 
quite  different  from  stars. 

We  now  know  for  certain,  by  ex- 
amining the  kind  of  light  that  they 
send  to  us,  that  the  sky  contains,  at 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  very  least,  120,000  real  nebulae. 
They  are  not  star-clusters  at  all,  but 
glowing  clouds  of  matter.  Perhaps  you 
can  get  the  best  idea  of  what  a  nebula 
is  like  by  using  the  name  which  the 
poets  often  call  it  by,  and  that  is 
fire-mist.  A  nebula  is  like  a  great 
mist  of  fire.  Those  we  see  in  the 
heavens  are  of  different  shapes  and 
sizes.  Many  of  them  are  far  bigger, 
hundreds  or  thousands  of  times  bigger, 
than  the  whole  space  occupied  bj'  the 
solar  system.  A  great  many  of  them, 
probably  about  half,  have  a  shape 
very  like  a  lens.  They  are  called 
spiral  nebulae.  You  know  what  a 
spiral  staircase  is.  The  spiral  nebulae, 
however,  ought  never  to  have  had 
that  name,  because  they  are  not  at 
all  like  a  spiral  staircase;  they  are 
quite  flat,  thin  things,  much  more 
like  a  lens  in  shape. 

If  we  look  at  some  of  these  spiral 
nebulae  we  see  bright  points  in  them 
here  and  there,  which  suggest  to  us 
that  the  fire-mist  has  become  thicker 
at  certain  places  than  at  others.  Often 
these  bright  points  are  so  large  and 
bright  that  they  look  like  stars,  and, 
indeed,  probably  they  are  stars. 
Probably  all  stars  are  made  out  of 
nebulae.  Now  let  us  come  back  to 
our  solar  system. 

If  you  could  look  at  the  solar 
system  from  a  great  distance  away 
you  would  notice  many  remarkable 
facts  about  it.  In  the  first  place, 
you  would  notice  that  all  the  twistings 
and  movements  are  in  one  direction, 
as  we  have  already  said;  then  you 
would  notice  that  the  solar  system  is 
a  flat  thing.  All  the  planets,  so  to 
speak,  go  round  the  sun  at  much  the 
same  level.  You  know  that  if  you 
took  two  hoops  you  might  put  one 
inside  the  other,  so  that  while  the  one 
hoop  was  upright  on  the  pavement 
the  other  lay  across  it;  then  anything 
traveling  along  the  rim   of  the   one 


hoop  would  be  traveling  round  and 
round,  and  anything  traveling  along 
the  rim  of  the  other  hoop  would  be 
traveling  up  and  down.  Now,  that 
is  just  what  we  do  not  find  in  the  case 
of  the  solar  system.  It  is  a  flat 
thing  like  a  system  of  hoops  of  many 
sizes,  all  laid  on  the  ground  inside 
one  another;  and  the  spiral  nebulae  are 
also  flat. 

Now,  there  is  another  curious  fact, 
and  this  is  that  the  kind  of  matter  the 
sun  is  made  of  is  the  same  as  the  kind 
of  matter  that  the  various  planets  are 
made  of.  It  almost  looks — does  it 
not? — as  if  our  little  earth  and  all  the 
planets  were  once  a  part  of  the  sun. 

The  sun  is  made  of  the  same  matter 
AS  the  earth 

And  so  men  guessed  that  perhaps 
the  pieces  of  matter  that  now  make 
the  planets  have  been  somehow 
brushed  off  from  the  sun,  and  that  as 
tbey  cooled  down  they  had  become 
solid  and  started  traveling  round  and 
round  it. 

We  are  sure  now  that  that  is  not 
what  happened,  but  we  are  also 
sure  that  the  idea  underneath  that 
notion  was  right.  The  sun  and  all 
its  planets  were  once  one. 

Indeed,  we  believe  that  in  its  first 
stage  the  solar  system  was  nothing 
else  than  a  nebula,  like  one  of  the  very 
smallest  of  the  thousands  of  nebulae 
that  we  now  see  in  the  sky.  No  one 
who  has  studied  the  subject  now 
doubts  that;  still  we  are  not  certain 
as  to  exactly  how  such  a  nebula  would 
gradually  become  changed  into  the 
solar  system  that  we  know.  It  seems 
to  be  certain,  at  any  rate,  that  a 
nebula  is  apt  to  become  flattened  and 
also  to  take  on  the  shape  of  a  lens. 
Far  too  many  of  the  nebulae  are  of 
that  shape  for  us  to  imagine  that 
there  is  not  some  good  reason  why 
they  should  be  so.  Possibly  if  we 
could  live  long  enough  to  watch  the 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY  28 

nebulae  that  are  not  spiral  we  should  "ow  the  great  cloud  began  to  come 

see  them  gradually  become  so.  together  and  form  the  earth 

Now   there   is  one  great  fact  that  From    the    first    moment    that    a 

must  always  be  true  of  a  nebula  like  nebula   was    formed,    then — ^probably 

this.     It  is  a  fact  which  is  true  every-  by  a  collision  between  two  or  more 

where,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  de-  stars — there  would  begin  to  act  upon 

scribe.     We   are  certain   that   in  the  all  its  parts  the  same  force  of  gravita- 

course  of  time  this   fact   must  work  tion  which  acts  upon  you  if  you  miss 

great     changes     in     a     nebula — such  your  footing  and  tumble  downstairs. 

changes  as  we  believe  to  have  been  And  this  is  a  force  that  goes  on  acting 

worked  in  the  nebula  from  which  the  all  the  time,  never  ceasing  and  never 

solar  sj^stem  was  formed.  getting   tired.     So,    some  years  after 

What  happened  when  sir  isaac  new-  the   great   work   of   Newton,    several 

TON  SAW  AN  APPLE  FALL  FROM  A  TREE  men  began  to  apply  his  ideas  to  the 

This  fact  is  called  gravitation,  and  nebulse  and  to  ask  what  must  happen 

it    simply    means    that   every    tiniest  in  the  course  of  ages  when  this  force 

piece  of  matter,  or  stuff,  in  the  whole  of  attraction  acts  upon  such  a  nebula. 

world  has  a  natural  tendency  to  attract  Herschel,  the  man  who  made  a  list 

and    be    attracted    by    all    the    other  of  the  great  stars 

matter  in  the  world.     Gravitation  is.  One  of  the  greatest  of  these  followers 

perhaps,  the  most  familiar  of  all  facts  of  Newton  was  Herschel    who   made 

in  our  daily  lives.     When  you  let  go  finer  telescopes  than  anyone  had  used 

of  a  ball  it  drops  to  the  earth,  and  before,    and    who    spent    all    his    life 

that  is  simply  because  the  earth  and  studying   the   stars   and   the  nebulse. 

the  ball   have  attracted   each   other.  He  was  the  first  man  who  ever  made 

The  ball  is  so  small  that  it  moves  the  a  list  of  nebulae    and  he  it  was  who 

earth  to  itself  only  a  very  little  dis-  first  saw  that  they  may  be  arranged 

tance,  and  what  we  see  is  simply  that  in  classes,  from  those  which  look  just 

the  ball  falls  to  the  earth.     One  of  like  little  milky  clouds  and  nothing 

the  greatest  men  who  ever  lived,  an  more,  to  those  which  are  really  stars 

Englishman  named  Isaac  Newton,  it  with  a  sort  of  cloudy  substance  round 

is  said,  was  lying  on  his  back,  under  them. 

the    shade    of    an    apple-tree    in    his  So    it    seemed    to    him    that    some 

father's    garden.     He    was    not    just  "clustering  power"  must  be  at  work 

dreaming    his    time    away,    however,  turning    these    scattered    and    milky 

but     thinking;     and     he     saw     what  nebulae    into    brighter    and     smaller 

thousands  of  people  had  seen  before  objects  which  would  some  day  become 

him,    but    never    troubled    to    think  stars    or    suns    and    solar    systems, 

about — an  apple  falling  from  the  tree  Herschel  compared  the  heavens  to  a 

to    the    ground.  rich  garden   containing  plants  in  all 

The    result    of    his  thinking  about  stages  of  their  lives.     This  gives  us 

this  was  that  he  discovered  this   law  the  advantage,  he  says,  that  at  one 

of  attraction,  which  is  true  through-  and  the  same  time  we  can  see  all  the 

out   the   whole   wide  world,  not  only  different    stages    in    the    history    of 

of  the  earth  and  a  ball  or  the  earth  and  plants — from     their    birth     to     their 

an  apple,  but  also  of  the  earth  and  the  death ;  so  also  in  the  heavens  we  can 

moon,   the  earth    and    the   sun,    and  see   all    the   different   stages   from    a 

also  of  all  the  atoms,  or  matter,  in  a  nebula    to    a    star.     Then    there    fol- 

nebula.  lowed  a  great   Frenchman  who  saw 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


that  the  "clustering  power"  must  be 
gravitation,  and  who  worked  out 
exactly  what  must  happen  in  such  a 
case,  since  we  know  exactly  the  force 
with  which  gravitation  acts. 

The    earth    may    once    have     been 
shaped  like  a  pear 

That,  then,  is  all  that  we  can  tell  at 
present  about  the  origin  of  the  sun 
and  its  family.  Men  who  work  at 
these  things  are  constantly  filling  in 
little  details,  explaining  the  small 
difficulties  and  helping  us  to  gain  a 
complete  picture.  But  everyone  is 
agreed  that  something  like  what  we 
have  described  is  what  really ,  hap- 
pened. 

Now  let  us  try  to  imagine  what  our 
own  earth  must  have  been  like  in  its 
beginnings.  The  most  important  facts 
we  can  be  quite  sure  of,  even  though 
we  are  not  quite  sure  about  every  step 
in  the  way  in  which  the  earth  first 
came  to  be  separated  from  all  the  rest 
of  the  family  to  which  it  belongs. 
We  cannot  be  quite  certain  as  to  the 
shape  of  the  earth  at  first,  though 
some  men  who  are  studying  this 
matter  just  now  think  that  it  may 
have  been  shaped  like  a  pear  instead 
of  like  a  flattened  orange,  as  it  is  now. 
But,  at  any  rate,  whatever  its  exact 
shape  was,  it  was  so  utterly  different 
from  the  earth  we  know  that  we  can 
scarcely  imagine  it.  Really,  the  earth 
of  long  ago  must  have  been  far  more 
like  what  the  sun  is  now — only,  of 
course,  quite  tiny  compared  with  the 
sun. 

The  air  is  part  of  the  earth  and 
moves  with  it 

The  earth,  as  we  think  of  it  now,  is 

something  that  stops  suddenly  at  the 

surface — at  the  level  of  the  ground. 

That  is,  however,  by  no  means  quite 

correct.     Even  now  the  earth  does  not 

stop  sharply  all  round  as  an  orange 

does.     We  must  not  imagine  that  the 

earth  stops  at  the  level  of  the  ground 


or  at  the  level  of  the  water,  and  that 
we  are  really  walking  outside  the 
earth. 

Not  at  all.  Above  both  the  ground 
and  the  water  there  is  something 
which  is  really  part  of  the  earth, 
though  we  cannot  see  it.  It  moves 
with  the  earth  round  the  sun,  and 
twists  round  with  the  earth  as  it 
spins.  The  stuff  of  which  it  is  made 
is  constantly  being  exchanged  in  both 
directions  with  the  water  of  the  sea 
and  the  stuff  of  which  the  dry  ground 
is  made.  In  short,  the  air  is  part  of 
the  earth,  and  if  we  lived  on  another 
planet,  and  looked  at  the  earth  from 
afar,  we  should  never  question  this  for 
a  moment.  The  air  as  it  is  at  present 
probably  extends  upwards  from  the 
surface  of  the  solid  and  liquid  part  of 
the  earth  to  a  distance  of  about  100 
miles.  As  we  pass  upwards  through 
the  air  in  a  balloon  we  find  the  air 
becoming  more  and  more  thin,  or,  to 
use  the  proper  word,  more  and  more 
rare;  and  though  we  cannot  go  very 
far  in  a  balloon,  we  are  quite  sure  that 
this  rareness  goes  on  increasing  until 
there  is  no  air  to  be  found  at  all. 

When  the  earth  was  a  great  glow- 
ing GLOBE  OF  GAS 

So  even  now,  you  see,  the  earth 
does  not  really  stop  short  sharply 
anywhere,  but  its  matter  is  spread  out 
all  round  it  in  a  layer,  which  gradually 
becomes  rarer  and  rarer,  until  at  last 
it  stops  altogether. 

Now,  that  was  certainly  true  of  the 
earth  long  ago,  and  no  one  who  could 
have  seen  the  earth  then  would  have 
had  any  doubt  at  all  that  the  air  was 
part  of  the  earth;  for  the  earth  then 
did  not  consist  of  anything  at  all  like 
what  we  call  "earth,"  but  it  consisted 
altogether  of  gases  like  those  of  which 
the  air  is  made  today.  If  you  take 
anything  you  please  and  make  it  hot 
enough,  you  will  be  able  to  turn  it 
into  a  gas;  and  the  earth  in  its  begin- 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


25 


nings  was  so  hot  that  all  the  stuff  in  it 
was  in  the  form  of  gas.  Even  the 
stuff  that  now  makes  the  hardest  rocks 
and  stones,  not  to  mention  every  drop 
of  water  in  the  sea,  was  then  gas. 

What  we'  now  call  the  earth  was  at 
first  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  great 
globe  of  glowing  gas.  In  that  hot, 
twisting,  glowing  globe  there  were 
contained  all  the  tiny  little  portions 
of  matter,  or  atoms,  as  they  are  called, 
which  now  make  up  the  water  of  the 
sea,  the  soil,  the  rocks,  the  bodies  even 
of  all  living  things,  and  also,  of  course, 
the  air,  or  mixture  of  gases,  that  still 
remains  covering  the  whole  earth  like 
a  warm  blanket. 
We  live  at  the  bottom  of  an  ocean 

OF  air 

So  far  are  we  from  being  really  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  that  the 
whole  earth,  sea  and  land  together,  is 
really  covered  with  a  great  sea  or 
ocean  of  air.  We  move  about  at  the 
bottom  of  this  ocean,  and  the  thing 
we  are  puzzling  our  heads  about  just 
now  is  how  to  learn  to  jump  off  the 
bottom  and  swim  in  it,  as  birds  have 
been  able  to  do  for  ages  without 
troubling  their  heads  at  all. 

In  the  course  of  time  we  know  that 
great  changes  had  to  happen  in  this 
glowing  globe  of  gas.  It  was  doubtless 
then  giving  out  light  and  heat  like  a 
little  sun,  but  in  doing  so  it  would 
gradually  become  cooler.  If  you  make 
a  poker  red  hot,  and  then  take  it  out 
of  the  fire,  it  will  give  out  light  and 
heat  for  some  time;  then  it  will  give 
out  heat  only,  but  no  light — which  is 
to  say,  that  it  is  still  hot,  but  will 
have  become  dark;  and  lastly,  it  will 
become  quite  cold.  It  cannot  give 
out  light  and  heat  without  becoming 
cooler  itself,  for  it  does  not  make 
them  out  of  nothing.  The  case  was 
the  same  with  the  earth,  and  in  the 
course  of  long  ages  it  had  gradually 
to  become  cooler.      At  last  it   would 


have  to  become  so  cool  that  part  of  the 
matter  of  which  it  was  made  would  no 
longer  be  a  gas,  but  would  become 
liquid,  like  water.  This  is  a  perfectly 
simple  thing  which  you  have  seen  for 
yourself  a  hundred  times — whenever 
you  look  out  of  a  railway  car,  for 
instance.  As  you  breathe,  a  great 
deal  of  water  comes  out  of  your 
mouth  and  nose.  This  water,  having 
come  from  the  inside  of  your  warm 
body,  is  itself  so  warm  that  it  is  in 
the  form  of  a  gas ;  but  when  this  warm 
gas  strikes  the  cold  glass  of  the  window- 
pane  it  is  cooled  so  much  that  it  is 
turned  into  a  liquid,  and  will  run 
down  the  pane  in  little  drops.  If  you 
cool  any  gas  sufficiently,  it  must 
become  liquid. 

Now,  that  part  of  the  earth  which 
would  soonest  become  cooled  would 
not,  of  course,  be  the  hot  inside — 
which  is  believed  to  consist  of  a  gas  at 
this  very  moment— but  would  be  the 
part  next  the  surface.  All  the  kinds 
of  matter  that  were  most  apt  to  become 
liquid  would  do  so,  and,  being  heavier, 
would  fall  towards  the  center;  while 
the  kind  of  matter,  like  the  air  of  today, 
which  is  not  so  apt  to  become  liquid 
would  stay  where  it  was. 
The  red-hot  tide  that  rolled  over 

THE  earth  long  AGO 

So  you  can  imagine  an  earth  with  a 
core  of  hot  gas  and  a  layer  of  liquid 
outside  that,  and  then  a  layer  of  cool 
gas,  or  air,  outside  that.  But  soon  even 
part  of  the  matter  that  had  become 
liquid  would  become  solid,  or  perhaps 
like  a  very  thick  oil. 

Now,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
all  this  time  the  earth  was  twisting 
round  and  round  like  a  top,  as  it  has 
done  ever  since,  and  as  it  is  doing 
today.  Also  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  great  sun  is  all  this  time 
pulling  as  hard  as  it  can  upon  the  earth 
by  means  of  gravitation.  You  can 
imagine,   then,   that   the   liquid   stuff 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


next  the  sun  at  any  given  moment 
would  be  apt  to  be  pulled  out  towards 
the  sun  or  heaped  up  at  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  But,  of  course,  since 
one  point  of  the  earth  is  never  opposite 
the  sun  for  long,  this  heaping  up  of  the 
liquid  on  the  surface  would  be  like  a 
wave  traveling  over  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Now,  this  great  traveling  wave 
is  nothing  else  than  a  tide,  and  every 
child  who  has  ever  been  to  the  sea  has 
seen  its  consequences.  Only  the  first 
tides  that  were  raised  by  the  sun  upon 
the  earth  were  not  tides  of  cold  water, 
for  there  was  no  liquid  water  upon  the 
earth  at  that  time  at  all. 

Th(  earth  was  too  hot  for  that,  and 
all  the  water  in  it  was  in  the  form  of  a 
gas  in  the  air,  just  like  the  water  in 
your  warm  breath  before  it  strikes  the 
cold  window-pane.  The  first  tides 
that  rolled  upon  the  earth  must  have 
been  terrible  tides  made  of  something 
like  red-hot  lava — the  red-hot  stuff 
that  comes  out  of  a  volcano  and  runs 
down  in  fiery  streams  until  it  turns 
cold  and  solid. 

How   THE   MOON    WAS    FLUNG    OFF  FROM 
THE  SPINNING  EARTH 

Now,  it  is  much  more  than  probable 
that  a  very  remarkable  thing  happened 
somewhere  about  this  time.  The  men 
who  have  studied  this  subject  believe 
that  one  day,  while  these  tides  of  lava 
were  rolling  round  the  earth  as  it  spun, 
part  of  the  lava  was  whisked  off  like 
drops  from  a  wet  umbrella  when  you 


spin  it.  It  is  even  possible  that  two 
great  lumps  were  whisked  off  at  about 
the  same  time — one  from  one  side  of 
the  earth  and  one  from  the  other. 
Perhaps  at  this  time  the  surface  of  the 
earth  had  become  cool  enough  for  the 
great  gaps  left  by  this  loss  to  remain 
more  or  less  fixed,  and  some  people 
have  supposed  that  those  gaps  are 
now  the  great  bites  into  the  surface  of 
the  earth  which  have  since  been  filled 
by  the  seas.  They  would  not  be  filled 
with  water  then,  because  the  earth 
was  doubtless  still  so  hot  that  all  the 
water  remained  in  the  form  of  a  gas 
in  the  air. 

But  what  became  of  the  lava  that 
was  so  whisked  off  from  the  surface  of 
the  earth?  Its  shape  at  first,  of 
course,  would  be  very  irregular,  but 
as  it  went  on  moving  and  became 
cooler,  and  as  its  parts  acted  upon 
one  another  by  gravitation,  it  would 
become  round. 

The     DISTANCE      OF      THE      MOON,       OUR 
NEAREST  NEIGHBOR    FROM   THE   EARTH 

Now,  surely,  with  all  these  hints, 
you  do  not  need  to  be  told  that  it 
is  the  moon  which  men  believe  to  have 
been  formed  from  the  earth  in  this 
wonderful  way.  At  first  it  was  very 
near  the  earth,  and  for  a  long  time 
afterwards  it  went  gradually  farther 
and  farther  away.  But  even  now  the 
moon  is  really  close  to  the  earth,  not 
so  far  off  as  ten  times  round  the 
earth. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


27 


Though,  compared  with  all  the  stars  and  suns  and  planets,  the  earth  is  only  a 
grain  of  dust,  yet  it  is  to  us  the  most  important  part  of  the  whole  universe,  and  we  are 
right  to  think  so.  Therefore  we  cannot  know  too  much  about  it.  We  read  here  of 
the  earth's  crust  and  its  inside,  and  we  begin  to  learn  how  the  world  is  kept  warm. 


THE       EARTH       AS        IT        IS        TODAY 


SO  far  we  have  been  going  over  a 
kind  of  history,  showing  very 
briefly  the  chief  things  that  have 
happened  in  order  to  make  the  earth 
of  today.  But  we  have  seen  also 
what  people  are  so  apt  to  forget — 
that  the  things  which  went  on  in  the 
past  are  going  on  still ;  the  earth,  which 
is  the  product  of  changes,  is  still 
changing. 

We  shall  not  talk  here  about  the 
oceans  and  the  seas  and  continents 
and  mountains — what  is  called  geog- 
raphy. That  is  important,  and  we 
shall  come  to  it  in  its  proper  place 
and  at  the  proper  time.  We  must 
begin  now  by  thinking  of  the  earth  as 
a  ball,  speaking  about  it  just  as  one 
might  speak  about  a  base  ball.  Per- 
haps you  know  that  a  base  ball  has 
a  certain  weight,  that  it  has  a  cover, 
and  that  inside  this  there  is  a  core, 
which  is  made  of  certain  materials  put 
together  in  a  particular  way.  You 
may  also  know  that  a  base  ball  is 
elastic,  so  that  when  you  throw  it 
against  a  wall  it  comes  back  again 
instead  of  spreading  out  and  sticking 
to  the  wall,  as  a  lump  of  mud  would. 
Now,  just  in  the  same  way  let  us 
examine  the  great  earth-ball,  tiny 
little  pieces  of  which  we  put  together 
to  make  base  balls,  cathedrals,  and 
other  things. 

We  have  mentioned  what  the 
size  of  the  earth  was.  Now,  we  have 
a  good  idea  of  what  a  yard  is  and 
what  a  mile  is,  but  it  is  very  difficult 
to  imagine  such  a  distance  as  25,000 
miles;  yet,  though  this  sounds  such  a 
big  figure,  compared  with  other  things, 
the  earth  is  really  very  small.  If  the 
center  of  the  sun  could  be  placed  at 


the  center  of  the  earth,  the  surface  of 
the  sun  would  reach  far  beyond  the 
distance  that  the  moon  is  from  the 
earth — that  is  to  say,  the  sun  occupies 
far  more  space  than  the  whole  of  the 
space  swept  by  the  earth  and  the 
moon  moving  round  it. 


The  sun  is  so  much  bigger  than  the  earth  that  if  tlie 
sun  could  be  placed  at  the  center  of  the  earth  the  outer 
edge  of  it  would  reach  as  far  beyond  the  moon  as  tlie 
moon  is  from  the  earth.  It  is  four  times  as  far  across 
the  sun's  face  as  it  is  from  the  earth  to  the  moon. 


And  yet  the  sun  does  not  look  so 
very  much  bigger  than  the  moon, 
though  really  you  might  throw  a 
thousand  moons  into  the  sun,  and 
the  difference  they  would  make  would 
not  be  worth  mentioning. 

The  EARTH'S  CRUST 

If  we  turn  to  the  earth  and  study  the 
crust  under  our  feet,  we  are  able  to 
find  out  many  important  facts  con- 
cerning it.  Men  dig  mines  in  the 
earth,  they  make  deep  borings  into  it, 
they  study  the  sides  of  its  canyons  and 
gorges,  they  climb  its  mountains,  and 
little  by  little  they  have  been  able  to 
piece    together    the    scattered    facts 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


about  the  crust,  until  at  last  a  great 
deal  is  known  about  what  happened 
here  upon  the  earth  long  before  man 
appeared  upon  it. 

This  study  of  the  earth  and  its 
history  is  called  geologj%  and  it  has 
been  necessary  not  once,  but  often, 
to  refer  to  it  in  these  pages.  We  have 
learned  a  little  about  the  part  that 
water  plays  in  the  history  of  the  earth; 
we  know  that  there  are  rocks  which 
were  formed  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  that  there  are  others,  which 
w^ere  formed  by  water.  We  shall  now 
make  a  survey  of  some  of  the  main 
facts  and  ideas  of  geology,  enough  for 
us  to  be  prepared  to  study  the  earth 
with  intelligence  and  to  follow  the  w'ork 
of  geologists  with  interest  and  profit. 

We  sometimes  read  accounts  of 
great  earthquakes,  such  as  that  which 
happened  a  few  years  ago  at  Messina, 
which  shake  whole  regions,  destroying 
cities,  towns  and  killing  many  people. 

Great  volcanic  eruptions  occur 
which  overwhelm  large  areas  and 
bring  ruin  in  their  train.  Now  it  is 
the  earthquake,  the  eruptions  of  vol- 
canoes and  other  violent  occurrences, 
which  occasionally  happen,  that  tempt 
us  all  into  an  utterly  wrong  idea  of 
the  earth's  history.  We  are  apt  to 
think  that  it  is  the  violent,  exceptional 
occurrences  that  have  made  up  the 
history  of  the  earth,  or,  at  least,  that 
have  been  the  chief  factors  in  it.  We 
see  the  rain  falling,  the  rills  of  water 
rushing  down  the  road,  the  river  flow- 
ing in  its  valley,  the  waves  dashing 
upon  the  shore,  we  notice  the  wand 
blowing  or  the  dust  flying  over  the 
fields.  It  is  not  easy  to  imagine  that 
such  things,  apparently  so  slight  in 
their  effects  and  so  slow  in  their  action 
can  accomplish  much.  Yet  it  is 
these  rather  quiet  activities  that  have 
had  most  to  do  with  the  present  shap- 
ing of  the  crust  and  not  the  violent 
earthquake  or  the  volcanic  explosion. 


When  we  cross  a  stream  or  note  the 
rain  falling  upon  the  soil,  or  when  we 
play  with  the  sand  on  the  seashore  we 
can  see  and  watch  for  ourselves  the 
slow  happenings  which  have  made, 
are  making  and  will  continue  to  make 
the  features  of  the  land  upon  wliich 
we  dwell. 
The  forces  that  make  the  crust 

The  crust  of  the  earth,  too,  is  not 
stable,  it  is  not  terra  firnia,  as  we  some- 
times call  it,  but  it  moves  now  up, 
now  down.  At  times  portions  of  the 
continents  are  depressed  beneath  the 
sea,  sometimes  raised  above  it.  These 
movements  are  exceedingly  slow,  so 
much  so  that  we  do  not  notice  that 
any  change  is  taking  place. 

Our  lifetime  is  too  brief  to  enable  us 
to  realize  that  any  movement  is  hap- 
pening. If  the  land  rises  up  high 
above  sea-level  then  the  streams,  the 
atmosphere  begin  to  attack  it;  if  time 
permits  they  may  wear  it  down  almost 
to  sea-level  again.  The  erosion  of 
land  into  hills,  valleys,  plains  and 
mountains  is  more  rapid  when  the 
lands  are  being  elevated  and  less  rapid 
when  they  are  depressed  and  ap- 
proach the  level  of  the  sea.  These 
movements  of  the  land  give  the  op- 
portunity for  rain,  frost  and  other 
agents  to  carve  and  develop  the 
scenery,  which  surrounds  us. 

Another  important  fact  in  connec- 
tion with  the  study  of  geology  is  that 
it  is  a  historical  study;  it  tries  to 
present  to  our  view  all  of  the  important 
events  of  the  earth's  history  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence,  it  also  at- 
tempts to  enable  us  to  see  what  was 
happening  during  the  long  ages  before 
human  beings  had  appeared. 

It  tries  to  show  us  how  large  the 
continents  were  millions  of  years  ago, 
what  their  shape  was  at  that  distant 
time,  what  mountains  existed,  what 
plants  flourished,  what  animals  lived 
and  where. 


nOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


"29 


The    wonderful    succession     of 
changes  in  the  earth's  structure 

We  realize  that  human  history  is 
always  in  the  process  of  making,  it  is 
being  unfolded  as  we  read  these  pages; 
it  is  just  as  true  that  the  rain,  the  wind 
outside  at  this  very  moment  are  help- 
ing to  make  the  history  of  the  earth's 
crust.  The  history  of  the  earth,  then, 
like  the  history  of  man,  is  really  made 
from  moment  to  moment,  by  small 
things,  which  do  yery  little  in  a  mo- 
ment of  time  but  do  accomplish  much 
in  a  million  years.  Geology  teaches 
us  that  time  is  very  long,  that  the 
earth  has  existed  through  such  vast 
periods  that  the  human  mind  is  un- 
able to  grasp  their  immensity  of 
reach. 

The  earth  has  had  its  being  for  tens 
of  millions  and  probably  for  hundreds 
of  millions  of  years.  If  we  might  only 
see  that  wonderful  panorama,  which 
has  been  unfolded  here  through  all 
of  these  long  ages.  We  know  some- 
thing about  it,  through  the  efforts  of 
geologists,  but  not  in  all  of  its  beauty, 
grandeur  and  interest. 

What  continents  have  existed,  where 
now  rolls  the  sea,  how  oceans  have 
spread  out  and  covered  areas,  now  dry 
land;  what  great  forests  have  waved 
where  now  deserts  and  plains  extend, 
what  endless  troops  of  animals  have 
crossed  and  recrossed  the  continents, 
animals  of  such  strange  appearance 
and  structure  that  we  would  be  as- 
tounded beyond  measure  should  we 
meet  them  in  the  flesh!  What  suc- 
cessions of  beautiful  sunrises  and  sun- 
sets have  flashed  their  beauty  on  the 
world,  what  great  canyons,  with  their 
gorgeous  colorings  have  seamed  the 
crust,  what  stupendous  mountain 
peaks,  glittering  with  snow  and  ice, 
have  lifted  their  heads  in  air!  No 
human  eye  saw  them,  their  beauty 
went  for  naught  so  far  as  man  is  con- 
cerned, yet  they  were  here  and  their 


fleeting  glory,  their  majestic  presence, 
have  been  a  part  of  the  record  of  old 
mother  earth  and  her  vast,  far- 
extended  history. 

These  are  some  of  the  lessons  which 
geology  has  to  teach  us  and  now  we 
may  go  on  to  look  at  some  of  the  main 
facts  regarding  the  earth's  ever  chang- 
ing crust.  The  term  crust  is  a  relic 
of  the  old  idea  that  the  globe  had  a 
molten  interior,  which  was  covered 
by  a  thin  but  solid,  compact  covering, 
to  which  the  name  crust  was  naturally 
applied.  This  theory  is  no  longer 
believed,  but  the  old  term  is  still  re- 
tained and  is  likely  to  remain  in  our 
current  language.  Geologists  call  the 
crust  "the  lithosphere,"  because  it  is 
composed  chiefly  of  rocks  of  one  kind 
and  another;  these  rocks  continue 
down  as  far  as  man  has  ever  been 
able  to  study  the  crust. 
Rock  structures  and  origins 

Rocks  everywhere  underlie  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth;  they  are  as  a  result 
the  foundation  upon  which  we  live 
and  carry  on  our  activities.  The 
rocks  are  composed  of  minerals,  united 
together  more  or  less  compactly  into 
masses  of  varying  size.  The  rocks 
have  one  of  three  origins,  as  follows: 

Some  of  them  were  once  molten 
and  have  gradually  cooled  from  that 
melted  state;  sometimes  they  cooled 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  sometimes 
they  were  injected  into  previously 
existing  rocks  and  cooled  there  below 
the  surface.  Such  rocks  are  called 
igneous  rocks.  Granite  is  a  common 
type  of  such  rocks;  another  form  is 
the  dark-colored,  fine-grained  rock 
usually  found  on  lava  plains  or 
plateaus,  called  basalt,  or  trap. 

Most  of  the  rocks  on  the  surface  of 
the  globe  belong  to  the  second  group, 
the  sedimentary,  often  called  strati- 
fied or  aqueous  rocks.  These  rocks 
are  laid  down  by  the  agency  of  water, 
hence  the  term  aqueous  rocks;    sand- 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


scones,  limestones,  mud  rocks  or  shales 
are  examples  of  this  group.  They  are 
commonly  arranged  in  layers  or  strata. 

The  third  group  of  rocks  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  igneous  or  the 
stratified  rocks  may  be  changed  by 
heat  or  pressure,  they  may  be  so 
folded  and  crushed,  so  altered  as  to 
lose  their  original  appearance,  per- 
haps they  may  be  so  changed  that 
they  are  no  longer  recognizable  as 
either  igneous  or  sedimentary  in 
origin.  Such  rocks  are  called  meta- 
morphic  rocks.  Marble  is  an  ex- 
ample of  a  metamorphic  rock,  which 
has  been  changed  over  from  a  lime- 
stone; slate  is  a  metamorphic  rock 
also,  it  was  formerly  a  mud  rock  or 
shale. 

Commonly  the  solid  rocks  do  not 
appear  at  the  surface,  but  they  are 
hidden  from  view  by  the  covering  we 
call  the  soil  or  by  other  deposits. 
Though  rocks  may  seem  to  us  to  be 
hard  and  unyielding,  yet  as  a  matter 
of  fact  they  do  not  long  retain  their 
compact  nature;  they  are  attacked 
by  various  agencies,  they  decay,  they 
become  broken  up  into  fine  particles, 
which  gradually  collect  to  form  the 
soil,  or  else  they  are  swept  away  to 
their  final  resting  place  beneath  the 
sea. 
Action  of  air  and  water  on  rocks 

We  should  know  something  about 
these  agents  that  thus  attack  the 
rocks  and  provide  for  man  that  abso- 
lutely indispensable  product,  the  soil. 
In  order  to  understand  the  methods 
by  which  rocks  are  disintegrated  we 
must  borrow  help  from  several  of  the 
sciences.  We  must  learn  all  that 
men  can  teach  us  about  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  way  it  acts  upon  rocks. 
The  chemist  finds  oxygen  in  the  air 
and  in  water;  it  is  known  that  the 
oxygen  will  unite  with  the  iron  in 
rock-making  minerals  and  cause  them 
to  rust  and  to  crumble  awav.     The 


chemist  finds  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
air  and  in  rain  water;  he  is  able  to 
show  that  this  gas,  when  united  with 
water,  helps  to  dissolve  some  of  the 
mineral  matter  in  rocks  and  this 
causes  the  rock  to  waste  away.  All 
of  this  knowledge  is  a  necessary  part 
of  geology.  The  physicist  shows  us 
that  when  water  is  frozen  in  a  tightly 
closed  vessel,  it  expands  as  it  freezes 
and  bursts  the  vessel;  so  when  water 
freezes  in  the  cracks  of  the  rocks  it 
rends  the  rocks  apart  and  helps  to 
break  them  up.  This  knowledge  be- 
comes a  part  of  geology.  We  must 
study  where  we  can  the  action, 
chemical  and  physical,  of  rain  and 
frost,  of  water  on  the  surface  and 
under  the  surface;  we  must  study  the 
work  of  wind  and  waves,  of  glaciers, 
of  ice  on  lake  and  river;  these  are  all 
tools  engaged  in  breaking  up  the 
rocks  of  the  crust.  If  we  watch  these 
agents  at  work  day  by  day,  if  we  study 
the  results  of  their  activity,  we  may 
know  why  the  crust  is  so  altered  from 
period  to  period  and  why  it  has  its 
present  form. 

Geology  also  borrows  from  the  stu- 
dent of  earthquakes  and  of  volcanoes 
and  learns  to  know  what  these  dreaded 
powers  have  done  to  make  the  earth  as 
it  is.  Geology  is  the  great  borrowing 
science,  had  it  not  been  for  the  things 
geologists  have  obtained  from  other 
sciences,  little  would  be  known  about 
the  earth  and  geology  would  not  be 
the  important  study  that  it  now  is. 
The  forming  of  minerals 

But  the  borrowings  of  geology  are 
not  vet  ended;  it  must  learn  from 
the  mineralogist  about  minerals.  It 
must  take  everything  that  mineralogy 
has  to  teach  about  crystals,  about 
minerals,  how  they  are  formed,  how 
they  break  up,  how  they  melt  down, 
how  they  are  dissolved  and  by  what, 
how  hard  they  are  and  how  much 
they  weigh.     Not  only  this,   but  we 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKV 


31 


should  learn  about  where  minerals  are 
found  in  the  earth,  how  they  lie  in 
veins,  in  cavities,  in  masses;  all  of 
this  knowledge  comes  to  form  a  part 
of  geology.  Nor  has  this  exhausted 
our  sources  of  knowledge,  for  every- 
thing we  may  learn  about  plants  and 
animals  contributes  to  geology.  The 
rocks  have  records  of  many  forms  of 
life,  some  of  which  are  utterly  different 
from  any  now  existing,  while  others 
are  scarcely  different  from  those  now 
living. 

If  we  are  to  understand  this  life  of 
the  past  it  is  necessary  to  use  the 
knowledge  furnished  us  by  botany  and 
zoology.  Geology  gains  enormously 
from  a  study  of  these  remains  in 
rocks  just  as  the  study  of  biology  gains 
greatly  from  geology. 

By  the  use  of  these  sciences  geol- 
ogists have  learned  much  about  the 
crust,  about  the  rocks  which  compose 
it  and  about  the  long  history  through 
which  they  have  passed.  This  his- 
tory is  told  by  the  structure  of  the 
rocks  themselves  and  also  by  the 
fossils  in  the  rocks;  it  is  a  twofold 
presentation  and  we  shall  now  con- 
sider each  of  these  sources  of  informa- 
tion. The  rocks  tell,  in  a  measure, 
the  experiences  through  which  they 
have  passed.  The  mud,  the  sand  and 
gravel,  which  form  many  rocks,  show 
the  conditions  that  were  in  existence, 
when  they  were  forming.  We  may 
know,  for  example,  whether  they  were 
formed  under  the  sea  or  on  the  conti- 
nental surface,  whether  in  shallow 
water,  near  the  shore,  or  in  deep  water. 
The  rocks  tell  the  extent  of  the  oceans 
in  which  they  were  deposited.  This 
enables  us  to  determine  the  size  of  the 
continents,  also,  we  may  know  their 
general  outlines  and  their  relations  to 
each  other.  The  rocks  enable  us  to 
tell  whether  the  continents  were 
mountainous  at  any  given  period  or 
whether  they  were  low-lying.     Many 


marks  are  found  in  rocks,  which  help 
to  interpret  their  history  and  to  tell 
the  place  of  their  formation.  Ripple 
marks,  rain-drop  impressions,  sun- 
cracks,  rill  marks,  tracks  of  animals, 
etc.,  are  among  the  tell-tale  evidences 
that  rocks,  which  contain  them,  were 
formed  in  shallow  water  or  on  exposed 
tidal  flats,  near  the  shores  of  conti- 
nents. 

The  structures,  which  rocks  have, 
also,  aids  in  understanding  the  changes 
which  have  taken  place  since  they 
were  formed.  The  folding,  the  crys- 
tallization, the  erosion  which  they 
have  undergone  all  help  to  tell  this 
long  story  of  change  and  endurance. 
The  folds  in  rocks  may  indicate  that 
they  were  once  a  part  of  a  great  moun- 
tain chain,  which  has  now  disappeared. 
The  worn  condition  of  the  rocks  may 
enable  the  geologist  to  estimate  how 
high  they  were  once  uplifted  and  how 
much  they  have  been  cut  down  by 
erosion. 
Animal  remains  shut  up  in  rocks 

In  many  respects  the  most  impor- 
tant story  the  rocks  have  to  tell  us 
is  gleaned  from  those  remains  of 
animals,  which  lived  long  ago,  and 
are  known  to  us  as  fossils.  They  help 
to  an  understanding  of  the  globe  be- 
cause their  form  and  their  nature  re- 
veal the  conditions  under  which  they 
lived  and  died.  The  animals  and 
plants  found  in  the  earlier  rocks  arc 
utterly  different  from  those  now  liv- 
ing, while  those  in  later  rocks  are 
scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  many 
now  living.  x\nimals  have  slowly 
changed  from  period  to  period  and 
they  thus  indicate  the  passage  of  time. 
In  the  rocks  of  each  period,  too,  there 
are  fossils  which  are  peculiar  to  those 
rocks  and  this  aids  geologists  greatly 
in  determining  just  when  the  rocks 
were  formed.  Unfortunately  the  rocks 
have  not  yet  taught  us  all  we  may  hope 
to  learn  regarding  the  history  of  life. 


THE   CHANGING   EARTH   FROM   AGE    TO  AGE 


The  history  of  the  earth  for  milhons 
of  years  is  written  in  its  rocks,  and 
men  are  able  to  read  what  took  place, 
and  to  give  us,  in  pictures  like  these, 
a  vivid  panorama  of  the  earth's  long 
wonder-story.  We  can  see  also  just 
how  that  story  came  to  be  written  in 
the  rocks.  A  million  years  ago,  a 
little  stream  trickled  down  a  moun- 
tain-side, carrying  with  It  grains  of 
sand  and  stones,  which  fell  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  In  the  sea  swam 
a  great  and  wonderful  creature  called 
an  Ichthyosaurus. 


The  ichthyosaurus  wa.s  a  reptile 
that  lived  in  the  sea,  and  its  name 
means  "flsh-lizard."  It  had  a  great 
head  with  powerful  jaws  and  teeth, 
and  its  body  had  four  limbs  like  pad- 
dles which  enabled  it  to  swim  about. 
One  day  the  great  creature  died,  or 
probably  It  was  killed  In  battle  with 
another  strange  monster,  and  its 
body  fell  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea 
among  the  shells  and  seaweed. 
Meanwhile,  the  stones  and  sand 
brought  down  by  the  stream  con- 
tinued to  fall  upon  the  bed  of  the  sea. 


As  the  URCS  pa.s.sed,  tlie  .stream 
gradually  wore  away  a  wider  and 
deeper  bed  for  itself,  and  became  a 
big  river;  and  the  rains  falling  upon 
the  mountain  loosened  the  soil  and 
formed  hundreds  of  tiny  streamlets. 
These  all  ran  into  the  main  stream, 
and  each  did  its  part  in  wearing  away 
the  mountain.  As  the  river  became 
wider,  so  it  brought  down  more  and 
more  earth  and  stones,  which  fell  in 
a  never-ceasing  shower  upon  the  bed 
of  the  sea,  until  at  last  the  great 
reptile's  body  was  buried. 


82 


THE    WOxNDER-STORY    TOLD     IN    THE     ROCKS 


Higher  and  higher  rose  tlie  ocean- 
hed  as  the  mud  from  the  mountain 
continued  to  fall  upon  it,  and  the 
lower  layers  became  pressed  Into 
hard  rock  by  the  weight  on  top.  One 
(lay  an  elephant  going  to  the  river  to 
(Link  broke  off  his  tusk,  and  this  was 
carried  down  by  the  river  and  sank 
In  the  sea.  Another  day  a  bird  was 
drowned,  and  this,  too,  fell  upon  the 
ocean-bed.  Dead  fishes  and  shells 
also  sank,  and  all  were  buried  by  the 
never-ceasing  shower  of  mud  and 
earth  and  sand  and  stones. 


All  througU  these  ages  the  rain  and 
river  were  wearing  the  mountain 
away.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of 
years  after  the  ichthyosaurus  died, 
men  began  to  live  on  the  earth,  and 
one  day  a  man  who  had  made  a  boat 
out  of  a  hollow  tree-trunk  took  his 
wife  and  went  out  to  fish.  Trying  to 
spear  a  big  fish,  the  head  of  his  har- 
poon broke  off  and  fell  to  the  bottom  of 
the  sea.  It  was  too  far  down  for  the 
man  to  recover  it,  and  in  course  of 
time  this  also  was  buried  in  the 
mud. 


The  bottom  of  the  sea  crept  higher 
and  higher,  till  at  last  it  became  dry 
land.  Then  one  day  men  began  to 
dig,  and  the  world's  wonderful  story 
was  revealed  as  we  read  it  here.  First 
the  spear-head  was  found,  then  the 
tusk,  the  bird's  skeleton,  the  shells, 
the  fish,  and  at  last  the  skeleton  of 
the  great  sea  reptile,  all  turned  to 
stone  and  became  fossils,  a  word  that 
means  something  dug  up.  It  is 
hard  to  realize  that  these  fossils 
found  in  the  rocks  were  once  living, 
moving  animals. 


38 


54 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  record  of  life  as  preserved  in  the 
rocks,  ill  the  form  of  fossils,  is  very 
imperfect,  yet  if  we  consider  how  many 
conditions  are  necessary  for  a  fossil 
to  be  formed  and  preserved,  we  shall 
wonder  that  so  many  exist  at  all. 
The  bodies  of  many  animals  are  entire- 
ly soft,  having  no  hard  parts;  snch 
animals  decay  before  they  become 
fossilized.  In  those  cases  where  ani- 
mals have  bones  or  shells,  which 
might  be  fossilized,  it  often  happens 
that  they  may  decay  or  be  destroyed, 
otherwise,  before  they  have  a  chance 
to  be  preserved.  Even  if  the  fossils 
are  once  formed  it  often  happens  that 
they  are  obliterated  by  different 
things.  Water  may  move  throngh 
the  rocks  and  slowly  bnt  surely  dis- 
solve the  fossil,  heat  or  pressure  may 
distort  and  finally  destroy  all  traces 
of  life  in  the  rocks.  Many  millions 
of  fossils  have  thus  been  destroyed 
and  left  no  trace  of  their  existence. 
Another  reason  why  the  rock  record  is 
imperfect,  aside  from  the  lack  of  a 
life  record,  is  that  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  rocks  have  been  studied  as  yet. 
Water  and  land  areas 

To  begin  with,  only  about  two- 
sevenths  of  the  earth's  surface  is  at 
present  above  the  ocean.  All  that 
we  have  access  to  is  that  found  on 
this  comparatively  small  area,  which 
may  not  be  altogether  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  the  globe  so  far  as  the 
history  of  life  is  concerned.  Even 
on  the  land  surface,  only  small  areas 
here  and  there  have  been  carefully 
studied,  more  especially  western 
Europe,  the  eastern  portions  of  the 
United  States,  Canada  and  small 
regions  elsewhere.  We  have  not  yet 
even  commenced  to  study  thoroughly 
one-thousandth  part  of  the  land  sur- 
face of  the  globe. 

The  really  marvelous  thing  is  that 
so  little  inquiry  has  produced  such 
great  results.     During  the  past  fifty 


years  thousands  of  new  animal  forms 
have  been  discovered  in  the  rocks, 
their  nature  and  their  characteristics 
have  been  determined,  so  that  we 
know  how  they  looked  in  life,  what 
their  habits  were,  how  and  where 
they  lived.  Not  a  day  passes  that 
new  fossils  are  not  found  and  recorded, 
in  a  few  centuries  man  will  know  the 
life  of  the  past  much  more  fully  than 
he  does  at  present. 

It  is  often  hard  for  us  to  realize  that 
the  fossils  which  are  found  in  the 
rocks  were  once  living,  moving  ani- 
mals, yet,  as  Professor  Huxley  once 
said,  "We  have  no  more  ground  for 
doubting  that  these  creatures  really 
lived  and  died  at  or  near  the  places 
in  which  we  find  them,  than  we  have 
for  doubt  about  a  shell  on  the  seashore. 
The  evidence  is  as  good  in  one  case 
as  the  other." 

Now  that  we  have  found  out  some- 
thing   about    fossils,    we    must    learu 
what  they  teach  us  about  themselves 
and  their  surroundings. 
What  fossils  teach 

This  part  of  geology  has  its  own 
special  name,  palaeontology,  and  men 
often  devote  their  whole  lives  to  a 
study  of  a  small  portion  of  it.  It  is 
found  that  life  began  far  back  in  time 
with  the  earliest  sedimentary  rocks 
and  that  it  has  continued  on  the  globe 
from  that  time  to  this  without  any 
interruption.  At  first  there  were  no 
animals  with  backbones,  all  were 
invertebrates  and  all  lived  in  the 
water.  As  the  ages  passed  away 
animals  came  to  have  backbones, 
finally  limbs  were  developed,  they 
gained  lungs,  and  began  to  live  on 
the  land.  In  the  meantime  they  be- 
came more  complex  and  better  fitted 
for  a  varied  life.  Most  of  the  simpler 
animals  of  the  earlier  ages  reproduced 
their  kind  by  laying  eggs,  but  the 
higher  animals  bring  forth  their  young 
alive,    they    suckle    them    and    give 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


35 


them  a  great  deal  of  care.  Thus  the 
higher  animals  are  better  fitted  to 
live  than  the  earlier  ones,  and  they 
have  become  the  important  life  of  the 
globe,  because  of  this  fitness. 

Some  very  large  and  strange-looking 
animals  have  lived  and  then  have 
become  extinct.  We  only  know  them 
by  their  bones  or  teeth  that  are  found 
in  the  rocks.  Geologists  make  draw- 
ings of  these  animals  and  thus  restore 
these  monsters  of  old.  These  pic- 
tures, which  portray  their  supposed 
appearance  when  living,  are  based  on 
a  careful  study  of  their  skeletons. 
There  were  once  great  reptiles  walking 
about  the  earth,  swimming  in  the  sea, 
or  flying  in  the  air,  the  latter  real 
flying  dragons.  Some  of  these  huge 
reptiles,  the  dinosaurs,  were  among 
the  largest  animals  that  ever  lived; 
they  must  have  been  very  strange- 
looking  and  alarming  sort  of  animals. 

How  ANIMALS    IN     PAST    AGES    DIFFERED 
FROM  THOSE  OF  TODAY 

These  animals,  however,  were  mere- 
ly big;  they  had  very  small  brains 
and  little  intelligence.  They  were 
stupid,  sluggish  creatures,  and  in 
spite  of  their  large  size  and  great 
strength,  they  gradually  died  off  and 
became  extinct.  Thus  animal  life 
tried  the  method  of  mere  bigness, 
tried  it  persistently  and  thoroughly, 
and  it  failed.  When  these  great 
reptiles  were  masters  of  the  earth, 
there  were,  at  the  same  time,  little 
animals  not  larger  than  rats  or  mice, 
who  made  a  great  contrast  to  the 
dinosaurs,  not  only  in  size  but  in 
appearance,  in  quickness  of  motion 
and  in  endurance. 

Unlike  these  reptiles,  which  were 
covered  with  armor-like  plates  or  with 
scales,  these  small  animals  were  cov- 
ered with  hair,  unlike  the  reptiles  they 
were  warm-blooded,  they  cared  ten- 
derly for  their  young,  unlike  the 
reptiles  they  had  large  brains  in  pro- 


portion to  the  size  of  their  bodies, 
which  enabled  them  to  act  more  in- 
telligently. These  animals,  the  mam- 
mals, with  the  larger  brains,  higher 
intelligence,  better  motherhood,  have 
become  dominant  on  the  earth  and 
have  superseded  the  larger  and 
stronger  reptiles.  The  earth  is  pos- 
sessed by  those  who  have  intelligence 
and  who  care  much  for  family  rela- 
tions. 

We  have  seen  that  animals  steadily 
advance  from  the  simpler,  cruder 
forms  of  early  periods  to  the  better 
and  more  familiar  creatures  of  today. 
This  is  most  strikingly  shown  in  the 
case  of  mammals,  since  we  are  better 
acquainted  with  them  than  with 
most  of  the  lower  animals.  There  has 
been  a  steady  advance  of  the  animal 
as  a  whole  and  also  in  its  different 
parts.  This  is  true  of  the  brain, 
which  is  small  and  quite  smooth  in 
early  mammals,  but  becomes  much 
larger  and  more  convoluted  in  later 
animals.  In  the  same  way  the  teeth 
and  tooth  structure  becomes  more 
complex  as  time  passes.  The  early 
mammals  tended  to  have  small  and 
rather  conical  teeth,  which  have  been 
replaced  by  the  larger,  more  compli- 
cated teeth  of  modern  time,  such  as 
the  molars,  with  their  large  grinding 
surfaces,  their  cusps  and  crests.  The 
foot  structure  also  changes  as  we  pass 
from  early  to  later  time,  the  number  of 
toes  becomes  less  on  the  whole;  primi- 
tive mammals  probably  had  five  toes, 
but  these  have  become  reduced  in 
number  in  modern  life,  to  one  usable 
toe  in  the  case  of  horses,  and  of  two 
in  the  case  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 
The  foot  structure  has  also  become 
more  compact,  the  various  joints 
better  fitted  to  each  other  and  more 
securely  bound  together. 
Distribution  of  animals 

Through  all  of  tlie  past  ages,  ani- 
mal life  has  moved  back  and  forth 


36  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

over  all  lands,  it  has  migrated  far  and  of  food  causes   many   to  starve,   the 

it   has  peopled  widely   separated   re-  coming  on  of  extreme  climates  makes 

gions.     Hence  it  is  true  that  animals  trouble  for  animals.     Severe  cold  or 

which  are  found  in  the  rocks  of  any  excessive    heat    may    destroy    certain 

given  region  may  not  have  originated  types  of  animals,  very  arid  climates 

there,  but  may  have  come,  by  migra-  with  their  accompanying   scarcity  of 

tion,  from  some  far  away  point.  water,  are  exceedingly  destructive  to 

Animals  have  a  natural  impulse  to  animals,  which  are  unable  to  migrate, 
wander  and  may  move  about  on  that  Animals  are  often  handicapped  by 

account,    but    other   causes    serve   to  unfavorable  bodily  structures,  as  small 

drive  them  forth  from  their  ancestral  brains,  poor  teeth,  inferior  foot  struc- 

abodes.     Some    of    these    important  tures,    and    these    act    ad\'ersely    on 

causes  are:    lack  of  food,   change  of  length   of  life,   they   cause   the  early 

climate,    presence   of    numerous    ene-  destruction  of  animals  possessing  them, 

mies  and  the  like.     Horses  and  camels  Changes   in   the  nature   of  food,   the 

were   both    originally    American    ani-  disappearance  of  food  which  animals 

mals,    but   migrated   to   Asia   in   late  like,  may  help  to  cause  the  extinction 

geological    time,     where    early     man  of  animals.     In  the  case  of  herbivorou.*^ 

found  them  and  domesticated  them,  animals  such  as  the  bison  or  the  an 

The  various  ele])hants,  which  were  so  telope,  the  appearance  of  large  packs 

numerous   in   North   America   during  of  wolves  would  mean  the  destruction 

the  ice  age  and  just  before,  migrated  of  many,  for  as  the  herd  diminishes, 

originally    from    Africa,    in   all   prob-  the   survivors   are   unable   to   protect 

ability.  their  young.     These  and  other  factors 

Many  features  have  acted  as  bar-  have  acted,  in  the  long  distant  past, 

riers  to  thwart  the  advance  of  animals  to  destroy  whole  families  of  mammals, 

or  to  swing  it  aside  in  one  direction  or  As  rapidly  as  they  disappeared,  how- 

another;    mountains,  deserts,  forests,  ever,  their  place  was  taken  by  others 

rivers,   act   as   barriers   to   some   ani-  and  the  stream  of  life  went  on  with- 

mals,  while  they  may  be  favorable  to  out  a  break. 

other  animals.     Changes  in  the  con-  how    we    know   the    beginnings    of 
tinents,    caused   by   elevation   or   de-  animal  life 

pression.     and    temperature    changes  It  is  not  possible  to  trace  life  back 

are    the    most    potent    influences    in  to  the  beginning  in  any  one  locality, 

regulating  animal  migrations.  because  the  whole  series  of  rocks  are 

What   causes   the    extinction    of  never  represented  in  their  entirety  at 

ANIMALS  any    one    place.     Rocks    of    different 

Animals    become    extinct    through  ages  are  found  at  different  places  and 

various  causes,  a  group  of  quadrupeds  it  is  necessary  to  go  from  one  part  of 

will  have  a  life  history  of  a  certain  the  earth  to  another  to  study  all  of 

lengtli.  then  they  die  out  and  a  better  the  rocks  and  the  fossils,  which  they 

fitted  group  of  animals  takes  its  place,  contain. 

Many  factors  lead  to  the  destruc-  A  vivid  way  of  getting  an  idea  of 
tion  of  animals  now  and  they  have  rocks  and  their  contents  is  to  put  down 
also  probably  acted  in  the  past.  In  in  order  some  of  the  things  we  should 
the  case  of  the  mammals,  for  example,  come  across  if  we  began  to  dig  down 
diseases,  especially  skin  disease,  are  from  the  youngest  rocks,  through  the 
an  important  means,  various  insects  whole  series  to  the  oldest.  If  we  be- 
cause wholesale  destitution;    scarcity  gan  in  the  northern  states,  we  would 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


37 


be  likely  to  come  upon  beds  of  gravel 
or  of  clay,  the  so-called  glacial  drift. 
Some  of  these  beds  might  contain 
bones  of  large  animals,  most  of  them 
now  extinct,  such  as  the  mastodon, 
the  mammoth,  the  sabre-tooth  tiger, 
the  rhinoceros.  The  skulls  and  teeth 
of  mastodons  and  elephants  are  fre- 
quently found  in  peat-bogs  and  about 
springs  in  the  northern  United  States. 
Below  the  drift  are  the  rocks  of  the 
Cenozoic  era;  these  are  especially 
well  developed  in  the  western  states, 
if  we  should  pass  down  through  them 
we  would  find  animals  resembling  our 
modern  horses,  wolves,  bears,  squir- 
rels, etc.,  and  yet  differing  from  them. 
P'or  instance,  these  more  ancient 
horses  were  not  as  large  as  those  at 
present  and  they  had  several  toes  on 
each  foot,  instead  of  one,  as  now. 
The  animals  were  more  generalized 
then  than  they  are  at  present,  that  is, 
characteristics  which  are  found  in 
several  different  kinds  of  animals 
now,  were  all  combined  in  one  animal 
then.  For  example,  some  of  the  dogs 
combined  features  of  the  fox  with  that 
of  the  dog,  some  were  like  bears  and 
were  a  sort  of  bear-dog.  Some  ani- 
mals combined  the  characteristics  of 
horse  and  antelope,  or  of  elephant  and 
rhinoceros,  or  of  giraffe  and  camel, 
while  some  of  the  early  Cenozoic  ani- 
mals combined  the  characters  of 
hoofed  and  clawed  animals. 

If,  now,  we  proceed  lower  into  the 
rocks  to  those  of  the  next  era,  the 
Mesozoic,  we  shall  find  few  of  the 
mammals,  but  many  reptiles,  many 
fishes  related  to  our  modern  fishes, 
yet  unlike  them,  many  curious  mol- 
lusks  that  have  no  living  representa- 
tives. 

Below  the  rocks  of  the  Mesozoic 
we  come  to  the  rocks  of  the  Palaeozoic 
era.  These  rocks  are  best  represented 
in  the  eastern  states  of  our  country; 
should   we   explore  them,   we   would 


find  coal  beds,  in  many  localities,  with 
many  representatives  of  the  plants 
which  formed  the  coal.  We  would 
readily  recognize  the  ferns,  which  had 
a  large  part  in  forming  the  coal,  but 
much  of  the  vegetation  would  be  very 
strange  to  us,  it  is  so  unlike  anything 
we  have  in  our  modern  forests.  As 
we  proceed  further  down,  we  would 
find  remains  of  fishes,  we  would  find 
many  shells,  most  of  them  unlike  mod- 
ern forms;  some  of  them  we  might  be 
able  to  recognize  by  their  general 
resemblances,  but  most  of  them  would 
be  utterly  strange  to  us.  Such  ani- 
mals as  the  trilobites  and  the  ortho- 
ceratites  are  examples  of  these  strange 
animals,    all   long   ago   extinct. 

Finally  we  would  come  down  to 
rocks,  which  yield  no  evidence  of  life 
and  indeed  correspond  to  a  time  when 
there  was  no  life  on  the  globe,  at  least 
of  a  kind  that  could  be  fossilized. 
Still  lower  down  we  should  arrive  at 
the  granites  and  other  igneous  rocks, 
which  from  their  very  nature  preclude 
life.  Here  we  have  arrived  at  a  time, 
which  existed  before  life  was  found  on 
the  earth,  we  are  at  the  very  basement 
of  the  great  rock  series. 
The  value  of  rocks  to  man 

The  rocks  are  of  value  to  mankind 
not  only  because  they  reveal  to  him 
the  history  of  the  earth,  but  because 
they  are  of  great  service  to  him.  They 
hold  many  minerals  and  metals,  which 
man  must  have;  they  contain  the 
ground  water,  so  essential  to  the  wel- 
fare of  plant  and  animal  life  and  to 
the  maintenance  of  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  rocks  furnish  abundant  and 
valuable  building  material,  they  supply 
ballast  for  railroads,  material  for  roads, 
for  concrete  construction,  etc.  The 
soil  is  supplied  from  rocks  and  so  in 
numerous  ways  man  has  come  to 
depend  absolutely  upon  rocks  for  his 
life  and  for  furnishing  the  means  for 
his  industries. 


THE     FIRE    BURNING     INSIDE    THE    EARTH 


I'hii  earth,  being  a  Hi'eat  ball,  has  a  I'uro,  just  a.s  an  apple  ha.s  a  eure;  but  the  cure  of  the  earth  is  made  up  of  vast 
quantities  of  burning  materials  and  Kases.  This  central  fire,  just  like  au^•  other  lire,  must  find  a  chinme^•,  and  there  are 
many  mountains  in  the  world  through  which  the  tire  forces  its  way.  We  call  them  volcanoes,  and  they  are  the  chimneys 
of  the  central  fire.  But  it  is  not  always  smoke  they  pour  out,  as  Vesuvius,  the  great  volcano  of  Italy,  is  pouring  out  smoke 
in  this  fine  photo;  imderground  rivers  sometimes  burst  into  the  burning  materials  at  the  bottom  of  the  volcanoes,  and  so 
cause  great  explosions  of  the  most  disastrous  kind.  At  times  volcanoes  burst  with  great  violence,  and  Vesuvius  has  destroyed 
whole  cities,  one  of  them,  Pompeii,  overwhelmed  just  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  having  been  dug  out  of  the  earth. 

38 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY  39 
THE      EARTH'S       CHANGING      FACE 

PERHAPS  the  mountains  are  the  to  understand  how  great  are  the  chang- 

objects  that  would  most  strike  es   they  can  produce.     When  it  was 

an    observer,    apart    from    the  first  taught  that  long  lines  of  inland 

question  of  life — mountains  and  val-  cliffs    and    mighty    valleys   had   been 

leys  and  inland  cliffs   and  what  are  formed,  not  suddenly,  but  by  the  slow 

called  canyons.     On  the  seashore  we  working  of  agencies  which  are  still  at 

can  watch  the  sea  doing  its  work  upon  work,  like  wind  and  water,  the  students 

the  cliff s  almost  any  day ;  but  we  know  of  the  subject  thought  it  impossible 

that  there  are  cliffs  far  from  the  sea,  that  this  could  be,  but  now  no  one 

and  mighty  valleys  which  look  as  if  questions   it.     The   discovery   of   the 

they  had  been  suddenly  scooped  out  truth  was  the  work  of  the  greatest  of 

by  some  tremendous  deluge  of  water,  all  geologists,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  who, 

So  first  let  us  study  these  great  ups  like    many    other    great    men,    was 

and  downs  on  the  dry  land.  abused  during  his  lifetime,  but  whom 

Probably  we  are  only  just  beginning  all  students  of  the  earth  will  always 

to   get   a   real   understanding   of   the  honor. 

making  of  mountains.     At  any  rate,  There  was  a  time,  we  know,  when 

we  may  be  sure  that  the  process  was  all  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 

a  gradual  one.     We  may  also  be  sure  North  America  were  under  ice;    in- 

that  the  cooling  and  shrinking  of  the  deed,  that  has  been  true  throughout 

interior  of  the  earth  is  one  of  the  great  more  than  one  period  of  history.     No 

underlying  causes   in   the  making  of  one  yet  understands  the  real  cause  of 

mountains.     The  view  which  is  gen-  the  Ice  Ages,  and  it  will  be  best  not  to 

erally  held,  though  we  are  beginning  attempt  to  explain  them.     Probably, 

to  suspect  that  it  is  probably  not  the  in  a  very  few  years,  we  shall  learn  how 

whole  truth,  is  that  mountain  ranges  they  came  about.     But,  at  any  rate, 

are  formed  by  the  crumpling  of  the  we  must  know,   when  we  study  the 

earth's  crust  as  it  tries  to  fit  itself  to  mountains,  that  there  were  Ice  Ages; 

the  shrinking  interior.  and  it  is  specially  interesting  to  know 

Then,  we  are  now  beginning  to  be-  that  the  Ice  Ages  were  quite  recent, 

lieve    that    the    marvelous    element,  comparatively  speaking, 

radium,   which  is  found  everywhere,  How  mountains  and  boulders  tell 

may  possibly,  by  the  power  which  it  us  of  the  story  of  the  earth 

produces  from  inside  itself,  have  had  a  Charles  Darwin  says:    "The  ruins 

share  in  the  building  of  the  mountains,  of  a  house  burned  by  fire  do  not  tell 

But  it  is  impossible  to  say  more  about  their  tale  more  plainly  than  do  the 

that  yet.     Let  us  turn  to  the  places  mountains  of  Scotland  and  Wales,  with 

where  the  dry  land,  instead  of  being  their  scored  flanks,  polished  surfaces, 

piled  up,  is  scooped  out.     Until  the  and    perched    boulders,    of    the    icy 

first  half  of  the  nineteenth   century,  streams  with  which  their  valleys  were 

men  always  supposed  that  valleys  had  lately     filled."     In     riiany     parts     of 

been  made  suddenly  by  some  mighty  Europe   we  can  study   the  action  of 

disturbance,  like  a  great  deluge.  When  ice  upon  the  mountains  even  at  this 

we  do   not   see   the  slow   steps  of  a  day.     A  stream  of  ice  flowing  down  a 

movement,    and    when    they    act   for  valley  from  an  ice-covered  mountain 

such  long  ages  that  the  mind  cannot  is  called  a  glacier.     In  very  cold  parts 

appreciate  the  length  of  them,  we  fail  of  the  world  we  can  find  glaciers  run 


UO 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


right  down  to  the  level  of  the  sea;  but 
elsewhere,  as  for  instance,  in  Switzer- 
land, of  course  we  can  only  find  the  ice 
at  a  much  higher  level,  say,  four  or  five 
thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  In  Greenland,  as  the  ice  of  a 
glacier  breaks  at  sea-level,  it  forms 
icebergs;  in  Switzerland,  when  the 
ice  of  a  glacier  breaks,  it  may  tumble 
down  the  mountain,  and  cause  what  is 
called  an  avalanche. 

When  we  talk  of  a  stream  of  ice, 
people  may  say:  How  can  ice  flow, 
and  at  what  rate  does  it  flow?  Well, 
we  may  say  that  the  rate  of  flow  is  a 
few  feet  each  day,  and  the  central 
part  of  the  glacier  moves  more  quickly 
than  the  sides  because  they  are  held 
back  by  the  friction  of  the  rocks  be- 
tween which  it  flows. 

The  wonderful  reason  why  a  river 
of  ice  flows  forever  onward 

The  same  is  true  of  any  river,  and 
we  can  also  see  exactly  the  same  when 
we  watch  the  blood  flowing  through  a 
blood-vessel.  The  reason  why  the  ice 
flows,  as  it  does,  is  now  understood. 
The  weight  of  the  ice  makes  it  fall, 
and  it  is  of  course  pressed  upon  by 
snow  from  above;  but  the  glacier 
could  not  flow  as  it  does  were  it  not 
for  the  fact  that  when  ice  is  pressed 
very  hard  it  is  melted,  and  then,  when 
the  pressure  is  removed,  it  freezes 
again. 

So,  as  the  glacier  moves  down,  any 
obstruction  in  its  way  causes  part  of 
it  to  melt,  and  so  flow  over;  and  then, 
when  the  obstruction  is  passed,  the 
ice  freezes  again.  This  curious  prop- 
erty of  ice  can  be  shown  with  a  block 
of  ice  and  a  piece  of  wire,  which  can 
be  pulled  right  through  the  ice  and 
yet  leave  a  solid  block  behind.  The 
pressure  of  the  wire  causes  the  ice  to 
melt,  and  then,  after  the  wire  has 
passed,  the  ice  freezes  again.  The  ice 
that  forms  the  glacier  comes  from  the 
snow  on  the  mountain  heights.     As 


this  snow  is  squeezed  and  pressed,  it 

turns  into  ice. 

Mountains,  earthquakes,  volcanoes 

The  rocks  of  the  earth  suffer  many 
changes  and  accidents  after  they  are 
once  laid  down;  these  changes  produce 
a  marked  effect  upon  the  surface  fea- 
tures of  the  earth,  or  what  we  may  call 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Sometimes  the 
rocks  are  folded  into  great  mountain 
chains,  which  cause  the  face  of  mother 
earth  to  be  severely  wrinkled;  some- 
times large  areas  are  directly  uplifted, 
forming  plateaus  or  what  may  be 
termed  large  swellings  on  the  earth's 
face.  Sometimes  great  fissures  trav- 
erse the  earth,  lying  more  or  less 
parallel  to  each  other,  while  other  sets 
of  fissures  or  cracks  run  across  them, 
more  or  less  at  right  angles  to  the  first 
set  of  cracks. 

This  divides  the  crust  up  into  great 
crustal  blocks.  When  earth  move- 
ments take  place,  these  blocks  may 
move  differently,  they  slide  one  on  the 
other,  some  sinking  faster  than  others, 
some  becoming  tilted  over,  some,  pos- 
sibly, becoming  pushed  up  over  others. 
These  various  movements  cause  great 
disturbances  in  the  rocks;  they  may 
break  apart  on  either  side  of  a  fissure, 
one  side  settling  down,  the  rock  layers 
become  mismatched,  one  layer  of  rock, 
perhaps  joining  another  of  a  different 
sort.  When  men  are  mining  coal,  gold 
and  other  minerals  under  the  ground, 
it  is  very  annoying  to  come  to  places 
like  this,  where  breaks  or  "faults" 
occur.  The  coal  bed  or  the  gold  vein 
has  been  snapped  short  off  by  the  fault 
and  has  disappeared;  it  may  be  that 
it  has  been  carried  down  by  the  settling 
rocks  several  thousand  feet.  It  be- 
comes a  matter  of  careful  study  to 
determine  where  the  vein  has  gone, 
how  far  down  it  is,  whether  it  will  pay 
to  dig  down  to  reach  it.  Beds  of  rock 
with  a  small  fault  are  shown  on 
page  43. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


U 


When  these  faults  occur,  great 
massive  rock  blocks  may  drop  all  at 
once,  this  sudden  movement  produces 
a  jarring  of  the  crust,  which  may  be 
felt  as  an  earthquake.  If  the  moving 
mass  of  rock  happens  to  be  large,  or  if 
it  drops  quite  a  distance,  then  the 
earthquake  shock  is  very  severe  and  it 
causes  great  destruction  of  life  and 
property,  though  generally  only  over 
a  very  limited  extent  of  territory. 
Sometimes  the  rock  masses  move  on 
each  other  horizontally  instead  of  verti- 
cally, this  was  the  case  in  the  great 
San  Francisco  earthquake  of  1906. 
These  sudden  movements  and  dis- 
turbances may  result  in  a  sudden 
elevation  or  depression  of  the  land 
over  an  area  of  notable  size. 

These  rapid  movements  associated 
with  earthquakes  are  very  different 
from  the  slow  earth  movements, 
already  mentioned.  These  cjuick 
movements  may  cause  marked  changes 
locally,  on  the  earth's  face  in  a  few 
moments.  On  the  other  hand  the 
slow  movements  go  on  steadily  and 
with  such  slight  changes,  from  year 
to  year,  that  we  do  not  notice  them 
nor  their  effects,  v  The  sudden  move- 
ments generally  produce  changes  only 
over  a  relatively  small  area,  while  the 
slow  movements  affect  large  regions, 
even  whole  continents,  or  the  slow 
movement  may  express  itself  in  the 
form  of  mountain  making  and  cause 
the  uplift  of  such  great  systems  as  the 
Rocky  Mountains  or  the  Andes,  which 
involve  the  crumpling  of  a  third  of  the 
earth's  circumference. 
What  causes  the  faults 

Though  these  two  movements  ex- 
press themselves  in  such  different  ways, 
yet  probably  the  same  general  under- 
lying cause  produces  them  both;  this 
cause  is,  probably,  the  constant  shrink- 
ing of  the  globe  and  the  effort  of  the 
crust  to  adjust  itself  to  the  constantly 
withdrawing  interior.       It  is  this  loss 


of  heat  which  is  the  fundamental  cause 
of  all  kinds  of  crust  movements,  how- 
ever they  may  reveal  themselves. 
The  interior  of  the  earth,  though  very 
hot,  apparently,  is  not  molten;  it  is 
solid  and  seems  to  be  very  rigid,  as 
much  so  as  if  it  were  composed  of  steel. 
This  hot  interior,  however,  constantly 
radiates  its  heat  out,  through  the  crust, 
into  space.  As  this  heat  is  lost  and  the 
interior  becomes  cooler  it  is  inevitable 
that  it  should  shrink  and  become 
smaller.  The  outer  part  of  the  earth, 
which  we  call  the  crust,  is  supported 
by  this  interior  and  as  it  withdraws, 
the  crust  must  follow  it,  for  its  support 
is  taken  away  from  it.  The  crust 
sinks  down  in  its  effort  to  follow  the 
retreating  interior;  as  the  crust  moves 
downward  it  must  occupy  a  smaller 
space  than  it  originally  did.  As  the 
crust  cannot  be  compressed  very 
much,  the  only  course  open  to  it  is  to 
become  wrinkled  and  to  allow  certain 
areas  to  be  pushed  up  until  the  crust 
fits  down  on  the  interior  compactly. 

We  have  all  noticed  how  an  apple 
behaves  when  it  is  baked  or  allowed 
to  dry,  it  loses  water  from  the  inside, 
which  causes  the  interior  to  become 
smaller,  the  skin  of  the  apple  accom- 
modates itself  to  the  reduced  inside 
and  as  a  result  it  becomes  much  wrin- 
kled. It  is  probable  that  mountain 
ranges,  in  part,  are  produced  by  this 
wrinkling,  as  well  as  other  great 
features  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
All  parts  of  the  surface  are  in  process  of 
this  shrinking,  but  the  wrinkling  of  the 
crust  does  not  appear  everywhere, 
but  only  in  those  portions  of  the  crust 
which  are  weakest.  It  is  the  weaker 
portions  of  the  crust  that  give  way  and 
show  folds,  depressions  and  other  evi- 
dences of  change.  These  weaker  parts 
of  the  crust  are  commonly  near  the 
oceans  and  it  is  in  the  neighborhood 
of  sea  coasts  that  this  wrinkling  take,'- 
place  ordinarily. 


HOW    LAVA    COMES    OUT    OF   THE    EARTH 


The  pictures  on  tliis  |):ige  sliow  us  at  a  glance  one  of  the  causes  of  volcanic  eruptions  and  earthquakes.  It  is  as  though 
we  were  behind  the  scenes  and  could  see  the  machinery  by  which  Nature  iierforms  her  most  awful  spectacle.  This  volcano 
is  asleep,  but  processes  are  going  on  that  will  sooner  or  later  cause  a  catastrophe. 


d*^- 


f.i  re  w^E'vi- 


Water  is  always  trickling  through  the  earths  crust  from  the  surface,  the  heat  inside  the  earth  turns  it  into  steam. 
•M  last  the  steam  pressure  becomes  so  great  that  there  ii  a  mighty  explosion.  The  rocks  are  rent  asunder,  and  the  molten 
lava  from  the  interior  of  the  e.arth,  with  great  force  is  hurled  forth  in  a  Hery  stream.  The  rending  of  the  rocks,  ton, 
causes  au  earthijuake.     This  is  prutnihly  how  the  eruption  of  Mount  I'elee  was  caused. 


M 


THE    SPLITTING    OF    THE    EARTH'S    CRUST 


inlBrior  Of  white-hot  rrolten  tsva 


I'he  interior  of  the  earth  is  quite  solid  for  the  most  part,  but  there  are  large  pools  of  liquid  lava,  here  and  there.  As 
the  molten  matter  inside  the  earth  gets  cooler,  the  crust  shrinks  and  crumples  up,  just  as  the  peel  of  an  orange  shrivels 
when  the  orange  gets  dry.     By  this  wrinkling  the  mountain  ranges  are  formed,  as  shown  here. 


We  usually  think  of  the  ground  as  being  the  one  solid  and  lirm  thing  that  we  know,  until  some  terrible  earthquake, 
like  that  at  San  Francisco  or  Messina,  reminds  us  that  even  the  ground  is  not  stable.  When  the  earth's  crust  at  any  point 
wrinkles  so  much  that  it  is  unable  to  bear  the  strain  longer,  the  rocks  split,  as  shown  here,  and  the  shock  sends  a  shiver 
through  the  earth  for  hundreds  of  miles,  causing  buildings  to  shatter  and  fall. 


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It  is  true  also  that  all  portions  of  the 
crust  do  not  sink  with  the  same  rapid- 
ity, some  areas,  apparently  have  always 
become  depressed  more  rapidly  than 
others,  until  now  they  are  great  per- 
manent depressions,  which  we  desig- 
nate as  ocean  basins  or  sea  basins,  and 
occupied  by  great  bodies  of  water. 
The  continents  have  not  gone  down 
as  rapidly  and  they  stand  up  above  the 
ocean,  therefore,  as  protuberances,  foni)- 
ing  the  familiar  land  masses  and  islands. 

These  great  crustal  changes  have 
ever  been  going  on,  in  some  periods, 
apparently,  more  actively  than  at  other 
times,  but  they  are  always  taking 
place.  They  are  going  on  day  by  day, 
now  in  our  own  lifetime,  and  for  aught 
that  we  know  with  as  much  effective- 
ness as  ever  in  the  past.  If  there  is 
any  one  idea,  which  we  should  bear  in 
mind  regarding  the  science  of  geology, 
it  is  that  geology  is  not  simply  a  record 
of  past  events  and  processes  that  have 
now  come  to  an  end,  but  that  the  forces 
which  have  formed  the  world,  in  the 
past,  are  still  at  w^ork.  We  are  living 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  a  certain 
stage  of  its  existence,  just  as  creatures 
which  lived  on  the  earth  millions  of 
years  ago,  lived  on  the  earth  in  another 
stage  of  its  existence,  but  the  activities 
of  the  globe  are  much  the  same  now 
as  they  were  then. 

Portions  of  our  country  have  been 
re])eatedly  covered  by  the  ocean, 
sometimes,  indeed  it  has  extended  quite 
across  the  continent.  The  crustal 
movements,  which  thus  allowed  the 
ocean  to  creep  over  the  land,  may  come 
again  and  the  sea  may  once  more  come 
up  over  the  country.  There  is  nothing 
permanent  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
its  expression  is  ever  varying,  and  this 
is  especially  true  of  the  boundaries 
l^etween  continents  and  oceans,  they 
are,  indeed,  very  evanescent  features; 
the  changes,  which  have  gone  on  in 
ages  past,  are  to  continue  their  work. 


Age  of  the  earth 

It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that 
the  earth,  in  all  probability,  is  destined 
to  exist  for  a  great  many  millions  of 
years,  in  the  future,  and  that  there 
will  be  ample  time  for  many  changes 
to  be  carried  out. 

Probably,  men  will  be  on  the  earth 
tlu-ough  all  of  these  long  years  to  come; 
the  j)eople,  who  live  here  in  North 
America  then,  will  live  on  the  same 
continent  as  we  do  now,  but  it  will  have 
a  different  form,  another  outline  and 
its  surface  will  not  be  as  it  is  now.  It 
is  perfectly  possible  that  mountains 
may  exist  where  now  there  are  plains, 
and,  on  the  contrary,  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  West  may  be  worn  dow^n 
to  inconsiderable  hills  and  lowly 
ridges.  When  we  look  at  a  map  of  the 
world,  we  are  looking  at  the  arrange- 
ment of  land  and  sea,  as  they  happen 
to  be  at  the  present  time,  not  as  they 
were  five  million  years  ago,  or  as  they 
are  to  be  in  tlie  distant  future. 
Land  and  water  areas  interchange 

There  are  many  evidences  that  some 
of  the  continents  have  been  much 
larger  than  they  are  now  and  that 
there  were  great  prolongations  of  the 
continent,  in  some  cases,  which  tied 
one  continent  to  another.  These  old 
connections  or  "Land  Bridges,"  as 
they  are  termed,  were  of  great  impor- 
tance in  enabling  animals  to  pass  from 
one  continent  to  another.  A  map  of 
Asia  shows  the  Malay  peninsula  as 
such  an  arm  stretching  toward  Aus- 
tralia, a  great  broken  chain  of  islands 
connecting  it  with  the  great  island 
continent. 

Careful  study  of  the  region  has  con- 
vinced geologists  that  there  was  once, 
far  in  the  geological  past,  practically 
continuous  land  connections  between 
Australia  and  Asia.  Over  this  land 
bridge  migrated  the  kangaroo  and 
other  peculiar  animals,  now  so  char- 
acteristic of  that  island  land.     Shortly 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


45 


after  their  migration  there,  this  land 
bridge  was  broken  and  the  sea  over- 
whelmed portions  of  it;  this  strange 
animal  life  was  left  shut  up  there, 
where  it  has  remained  ever  since,  un- 
molested by  enemies,  which  have  de- 
stroyed that  kind  of  life  elsewhere. 
America  and  Europe  once  connected 

Land  bridges  generally  follow  the 
borders  of  ocean  basins,  they  do  not 
extend  across  the  deeper  portions  of 
the  ocean;  thus  a  land  bridge  has 
connected  America  and  Europe,  prob- 
ably by  way  of  Greenland  and  Iceland. 
It  seems  to  be  true,  also,  that  if  such  a 
land  connection  is  once  established, 
although  it  may  be  overwhelmed  by 
the  ocean  at  some  periods,  yet  it  is 
likely  to  be  re-established  and  appear 
again  and  again.  The  land  bridge 
between  Europe  and  America  has  been 
of  that  character,  apparently;  North 
America  and  Asia  have  been  repeatedly 
connected  by  a  land  bridge  across  what 
is  now  the  shallow  Bering's  Strait. 

There  are  evidences,  too,  that 
during  the  Mesozoic  era,  a  land  bridge 
extended  from  South  America  to 
Antarctica,  and  that  another  bridge 
extended  from  Antarctica  to  Australia, 
so  that  animals  might  migrate  from 
Australia  into  South  America.  These 
land  connections  are  generally  narrow, 
this  is  well  shown  in  the  case  of  the 
isthmus  between  North  and  South 
America. 

It  does  not  require  a  great  amount 
of  change  to  obliterate  these  nar- 
row connections;  through  much  of 
the  middle  portion  of  geological  time 
and  even  later,  the  sea  covered  portions 
of  Central  America  and  the  two  conti- 
nents of  the  Americas  were  separated. 
Geologists  have  discovered  evidences 
of  many  land  connections  in  different 
portions  of  the  globe  and  existing  in 
different  geological  periods. 

In  the  course  of  these  land  move- 
ments it  has  happened,  at  times,  that 


the    continents,    in    certain    portions, 
have  been  lifted  high  above  sea  level. 

This  was  the  case  with  the  northern 
part  of  North  America  during  the  later 
Cenozoic  era,  just  before  the  Great  Ice 
Age.  This  remarkable  elevation  made 
a  continuous  continent,  far  toward  the 
poles,  joining  Greenland  to  the  main- 
land and  obliterating  Hudson  Bay, 
probably.  Such  a  great  uplift  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  climate  and  it 
was,  doubtless,  an  indirect  cause  of  the 
glacial  period,  which  did  so  much  to 
alter  the  face  of  nature  in  Canada  and 
the  northern  United  States. 
The  lost  continent 

From  the  time  of  ancient  Greek 
writers  there  has  been  a  story  told 
about  a  lost  Atlantis,  a  continent, 
which  these  early  writers  located  in 
the  west,  and  which  was  engulfed, 
supposedly,  by  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

Stories  of  other  lost  continents  are 
current,  it  may  well  be  doubted 
whether  there  have  been  continents 
rising  out  of  the  deep  ocean  basins  as 
they  exist  today.  There  have  been 
the  minor  prolongations  or  land  bridges 
already  described,  but  no  large,  lost 
continents.  It  seems  probable  that  the 
ocean  basins  have  for  ages  been  ocean 
basins  and  that  the  continents,  like- 
wise, have  been  land  masses  for  long 
periods.  It  is  true  that  the  ocean  has 
often  invaded  the  land,  seriously,  but 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
ocean,  thus  lying  on  the  continents,  is 
always  quite  shallow  and  has  no  such 
great  depth  as  mid-ocean  has. 

Continents  and  deep  sea  basins  do 
not  change  places  with  each  other,  in 
spite  of  the  great  earth  movements, 
the  ocean  basins  have  too  great  a  depth 
to  pass  into  a  continental  stage.  The 
average  depth  of  the  ocean  is  about 
13,000  feet,  nearly  two  and  one-half 
miles,  and  this  depth  is  so  great  it  is 
not  at  all  likely  that  continents  have 
ever  risen  within  such  deep  basins. 


HOW     WE     LOOK     AT     ANOTHER     W^  O  R  L  T) 


Of  all  the  worlds  in  the  sky,  the  moon  is  the  nearest  to  us.  It  is  only  240,000  miles  away,  ant  when  we  look  at  it 
through  a  huge  telescope  such  as  this,  the  moon  seems  to  come  down  quite  close  and  appear  as  near  as  does  the  small  section 
of  this  picture.  So  large  is  the  moon  through  a  big  telescope  that  we  can  study  only  a  small  part  at  a  time,  and  we  are 
able  to  make  a  more  complete  map  ot  the  moon  than  we  can  of  some  parts  of  the  earth. 

46 


The  earth  we  live  on  is  only  one  of  many  worlds  that  fly  through  space.  If  we 
are  to  understand  our  own  world,  we  must  learn  about  the  worlds  in  the  skies,  which 
we  can  see  but  cannot  visit.  In  these  pages  we  begin  the  study  of  astronomy,  the 
science  of  the  stars.  Though  men  have  been  "star-gazing"  for  many  ages,  it  was  not 
until  about  three  hundred  years  ago  that  astronomy  really  began  as  a  true  science — 
just  about  the  time  when  all  true  science  really  began.  A  Danish  monk  and  two 
Italians,  one  of  whom  was  also  a  monk,  were  the  real  founders  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
universe;  and  the  greatest  name  after  theirs  is  that  of  Isaac  Newton.  These  men 
have  taught  us  that  our  own  earth,  and  the  sun  it  moves  round  every  year,  are  only 
a  tiny  part  of  the  great  universe,  which  contains  millions  of  such  suns  and  planets, 
in  all  stages  of  their  history.  And  now,  armed  with  the  telescope,  which  brings  the 
stars  nearer  to  our  sight,  and  the  spectroscope  which  interprets  the  light  of  the  stars, 
and  the  law  of  gravitation  found  by  Newton,  men  are  learning  more  and  more 
about  these  worlds  in  the  skies. 

WORLDS        IN        THE        SKIES 

IT  IS  always  true  that  if  we  are  most  of  us  have  no  idea  how  useful  it 

really  to  understand  anything  we  is.     So  it  comes  about  that  we  find 

must  study   not   only   the   thing  proof  of  astronomical  knowledge  long 

itself,  but  also  what  is  around  it.     We  ages    ago,    even    thousands    of    years 

cannot  understand  a  part  of  any  great  before  the  birth  of   Christ.     This  is 

whole,    until    we    understand    some-  specially  true  of  the  East,  more  espe- 

thing,   at  least,  of  that  whole.     We  cially  of  Western  Asia  and  Egypt, 

cannot    even     understand    ourselves  The  names  of  most  of  the  sciences, 

unless  we  study  the  conditions  of  our  we  know,  end  in  ology,  and  we  might 

lives,  our  parents  and  schools,  what  expect  the  name  of  the  science  of  the 

we  read,  the  air  we  breathe,  the  things  stars — using  the  word  stars  to  include 

we  hear  people  say  and  so  on.     And  in  all  the  bright  objects  in  the  heavens — 

the  case  of  the  earth  we  can  never  to  be  astrology. 

hope  to  understand  it  unless  we  study  the  alchemists  and  astrologers 
the  great  world  of  which  it  is  really  a  who  degan  the  study  of 
very  tiny  part.  This  study  is  known  ^"^  earth 
as  astronomy — the  word  means  the  We  use  the  word  astronomy,  how- 
law  of  the  stars — and  it  is  in  many  ever,  to  distinguish  this  real  science 
ways,  though  not  in  all,  the  most  from  an  unreal  science  which  came 
marvelous  of  all  the  sciences.  before  it,  and  which  was  called  astrol- 
Astronomy  is  probably  the  oldest  ogy.  If  we  turn  to  the  great  science 
of  the  sciences.  Men  were  always  of  chemistry  we  find  exactly  the  same 
interested  in  the  weather,  in  changes  thing.  Before  what  we  now  call 
of  climate,  and  in  the  sun,  which  plain-  chemistry  came  into  existence  there 
ly  has  so  much  to  do  with  what  hap-  was  an  unreal  science  called  alchemy 
pens  in  the  sky  around  us.  The  sun  — which  is  really  the  same  word.  The 
and  moon  were  closely  watched  by  alchemists  were  searching  for  the 
men,  probably  before  anything  else  philosopher's  stone  that  was  to  turn 
at  all.  Also  the  stars  are  far  more  everything  into  gold,  and  for  the  elixir 
brilliant  when  they  are  seen  through  of  life  that  was  to  turn  or  keep  every- 
the  clear  air  of  warmer  countries  than  body  young.  The  alchemists  were 
ours,  such  as  Arabia  and  Egypt;  and  wrong  in  looking  for  these  things,  and 
as  they  seem  to  be  fixed  they  can  they  were  wrong  practically  always  in 
guide  men  on  the  sea  and  on  land,  the  way  in  which  they  interpreted  the 
Thus,  astronomy  was  useful  from  the  results  of  their  experiments.  But  we 
first,   as   it   is   useful   today,    though  could  not  have  modern  chemistry  if 

47 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


there  had  been  no  alchemists.  They 
were  eager  and  patient  men  who  made 
numberless  experiments  and  noted 
numberless  facts.  They  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  chemistry,  and  though  they 
were  wrong  in  their  objects,  and  wrong 
in  their  attempts  to  understand  what 
they  noticed,  yet  we  profit  in  a  thou- 
sand ways  by  their  discoveries  today. 
And  just  as  every  modern  chemist 
is  indebted  to  the  alchemists,  so  every 
modern  astronomer  is  indebted  to  the 
astrologers.  We  could  not  have  had 
our  modern  astronomy  but  for  them. 
They,  too,  like  the  alchemists,  were 
eager  and  patient  men,  and  they  ob- 
served thousands  of  facts  about  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

The  strange   things  men   thought 
long  ago  about  the  stars 

They  were  wrong  in  the  way  in 
which  they  interpreted  those  facts, 
but  a  fact  is  a  fact  forever,  and  since 
it  is  part  of  truth,  is  a  part  of  true 
science;  nor  does  it  matter,  in  the 
long  run,  that  the  man  who  observed 
it  misunderstood  it — whether  sincerely 
or  dishonestly.  We  find  in  the  early 
history  of  every  race  and  nation  that 
we  can  trace  a  kind  of  astrology — that 
is  to  say,  a  study  of  the  stars  in  the 
belief  that  they  controlled  the  fates 
of  men,  Egypt  and  Persia,  Arabia 
and  Greece,  the  Chinese  and  the  Hin- 
doos all  contributed  to  astrology,  and 
so  when  civilization  began  in  Europe 
it  took  over  these  ideas  from  the  first. 
They  flourished  for  thousands  of  years, 
and  even  today  we  can  buy  almanacs 
which  pretend  to  predict  what  will 
happen  on  the  earth  by  studying  the 
stars.  The  astrologers  took  those  of 
the  planets  that  they  knew,  and  con- 
nected human  characters  with  them. 
Venus  had  something  to  do  with  love, 
they  thought;  Mars  with  war,  and  so 
on.  They  divided  up  the  sky  into 
various  parts,  and  supposed  that 
when    a    certain    planet    entered     a 


certain  part  of  the  sky  corres- 
ponding results  would  occur  for 
human  beings,  especially  for  anyone 
who  was  born  just  at  the  moment 
when  that  particular  part  of  the  sky 
happened  to  be  going  to  rise  above  the 
horizon. 

Of  all  the  astronomical  discoveries, 
one  stands  out  as  that  which,  beyond 
all  others,  destroyed  astrology,  and 
that  was  the  discovery  by  Copernicus 
that  the  sun  and  not  the  earth  is  the 
center  of  the  solar  system.  We  must 
remember,  too,  that  in  this  case,  as  in 
every  other,  people  will  believe  the 
false  unless  they  know  the  true.  So  in 
our  own  time  and  in  the  future,  wher- 
ever there  are  people  who  do  not  know 
anything  about  astronomy,  they  will 
believe  what  astrologers  tell  them. 

We  have  already  learned  that  as- 
tronomy was  useful  from  the  first,  and 
we  should  particularly  notice  the 
difference  between  the  real  use  of  real 
knowledge  and  the  sham  use  of  sham 
knowledge.  The  astrologists  declared 
that  the  study  of  the  stars  was  useful 
because  it  enabled  them  to  predict 
what  would  happen  to  men — which  is 
a  thing  that  men  always  want  to  know. 

How  THE  STARS    GUIDED  THE   TRAVELER 
IN  THE  EARLY  DAYS  OF  THE  WORLD 

Sometimes  they  happened  to  be 
right,  as  anyone  may  happen  to  be 
who  makes  a  prophecy,  especially  if 
he  takes  care  that  it  is  a  likely  one. 
But  usually  they  were  wrong,  and  so 
they  were  not  merely  useless,  but 
worse  than  useless.  Yet  all  through 
the  time  of  astrology  there  was  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  real  astronomy  known, 
and  this  was  usefid  then  as  it  is  now. 
Especially  was  it  so  because  observa- 
tion of  the  position  of  the  stars  guided 
travelers,  whether  on  the  sea  or  on 
the  land.  Traveling  has  always  been 
important,  but  there  were  no  good 
maps  in  those  days,  and  the  compass 
was  only  known  in  China.     The  skies 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


49 


are  almost  always  bright,  however, 
in  Egypt  and  Arabia  and  Greece,  and 
so  the  stars  could  always  be  seen  at 
night  to  help  the  traveler  to  his  goal. 
Every  ship  that  crosses  the  sea  is 
indebted  to  astronomy  today,  and 
always  will  be. 

But  the  thing  we  should  notice  par- 
ticularly is  the  difference  between  the 
sham  knowledge  and  the  real  knowl- 
edge— the  worse  than  useless  and  the 
very  useful.  They  both  depended 
upon  facts  and  upon  the  same  facts — 
that  such  and  such  stars  could  be 
seen  at  such  and  such  places  at  such 
and  such  times.  But  the  sham  knowl- 
edge with  its  bad  consequences  de- 
pended upon  a  false  interpretation  of 
true  facts,  while  the  useful  knowledge 
depended  upon  a  true  interpretation 
of  the  true  facts. 

How     MANKIND   WAS    CHEATED   AND   LED 
ASTRAY  FOR  THOUSANDS  OF  YEARS 

The  great  lesson  which  w^e  have  to 
learn  from  this  applies  to  all  knowl- 
edge of  every  kind;  whether  we  are 
studying  stars  or  disease  or  the  rocks 
or  history  or  anything  else,  there  are 
always  tw^o  things  which  it  is  our 
business  to  find  out.  First  come  the 
facts,  and  then  comes  the  meaning  of 
the  facts.  We  must  have  the  facts 
first,  and  we  get  these  either  by  simply 
observing — as  when  men  look  at  the 
stars,  or  by  making  experiments — as 
we  do  in  chemistry.  The  facts  are 
facts  whether  we  understand  them  or 
not,  and  in  any  case  we  must  have  the 
facts  first.  After  that  comes  the  busi- 
ness of  trying  to  understand  what  the 
facts  mean,  and  if  you  do  not  know 
what  they  mean  it  is  much  better  to 
say  so  and  to  go  on  looking  for  more 
facts,  rather  than  to  pretend  you  know 
what  they  mean. 

We  thank  and  praise  the  astrologers 
for  finding  many  facts,  but  we  cannot 
thank  them,  and  are,  indeed,  bound  to 
blame  them,  because  they  pretended  to 


understand  them  when  they  did  not, 
and  because  for  thousands  of  years 
they  cheated  mankind  with  their  pre- 
tended explanations.  The  astrono- 
mers of  today  ask  money  from  man- 
kind as  the  astrologers  did,  but  they 
do  not  ask  it  in  return  for  sham  prophe- 
cies as  to  what  will  happen  to  you  and 
me,  but  they  ask  it  for  telescopes  and 
observatories,  so  that  they  may  learn 
more  about  the  wonderful  world  in 
which  we  live. 

Brave  men  who  suffered  for  believ- 
ing WHAT  men  now  believe 

Our  more  definite  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  real  star-science  begins  with 
the  Greeks,  and  w^e  know  that  some 
Greek  astronomers  had  discovered  the 
true  shape  of  the  earth,  the  fact  of  its 
spinning  and  its  revolution  round  the 
sun.  Then  these  truths  were  denied 
and  despised,  and  for  many  centuries 
men  went  back  to  the  old  view  that 
the  earth  is  motionless  and  flat,  and 
that  the  sun  goes  round  it,  as  it  cer- 
tainly seems  to  do. 

But  in  the  sixteenth  century  there 
arose  a  great  man,  a  monk,  called 
Nicolas  Koppernik,  of  Denmark, 
whose  name  we  now  know  in  its  Latin 
form  of  Copernicus,  and  he  proved 
again  the  truth  that  had  been  lost 
for  nearly  2000  years,  that  the  earth 
goes  round  the  sun,  and  that  the  other 
planets,  such  as  Mars  and  Venus  and 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  do  so  too. 

His  great  follower,  the  Italian, 
Galileo,  invented  the  telescope.  With 
it  he  completed  the  proof  of  the  view 
held  by  Copernicus.  He  found  that 
Venus  has  phases  like  the  moon, 
showing  that  it  goes  round  the  sun 
in  a  path  inside  the  path  of  the  earth, 
and  he  found  four  of  Jupiter's  moons, 
showing  that  it  was  like  the  earth, 
which  also  has  a  moon.  And  so  we 
learned  to  think  of  the  sun  and  it^ 
family,  the  solar  system,  about  which 
we  have  already  read  a  little  in  this 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


book.  Galileo  was  over  and  ,  over 
again  stopped  and  silenced  by  the 
Inquisition.  He  was  made,  under 
threat  of  torture  or  death,  to  declare 
that  his  discoveries  were  false.  He 
was  forbidden  to  write  any  more,  and 
the  poor  old  man,  alone  in  the  world — 
for  he  had  lost  his  beloved  daughter — 
died  miserable,  alone  and  despised. 
But  his  glorious  name  will  be  revered 
and  honored  by  all  men  as  long  as 
mankind  endures. 

About  the  same  time  there  lived  a 
man,  also  a  monk,  like  Copernicus,  of 
Denmark,  who  saw  farther  and  deeper 
than  either  Copernicus  or  Galileo, 
though  he  was  not  an  actual  discoverer 
with  his  own  eyes.  He  was  an  Italian, 
named  Giordano  Bruno;  and  if  you 
think  of  him  as  if  his  name  were 
George  Brown,  you  will  realize  that 
anyone,  anywhere  at  any  time,  may 
make  his  name  immortal.  Bruno  or, 
Mr.  Brown,  as  we  should  call  him  now, 
was  the  first  man  to  realize  the  true 
nature  of  the  mighty  universe  in 
which  we  live,  and  so  his  work  is  of 
lasting  interest  to  all  men. 

We  saw  what  Galileo's  earthly  re- 
ward was;  but  Galileo  sacrificed  him- 
self at  least  in  some  degree,  by  denying 
what  he  knew  to  be  true;  and  so  we 
cannot  say  of  him  that  he  was  so 
completely  a  martyr  for  the  truth  as 
he  might  have  been.  Martyr  really 
means  loitness,  but  we  use  the  word 
to  mean  a  witness  who  pays  for  his 
witness  by  his  life.  Bruno  was  at- 
tacked, as  Galileo  was,  soon  after- 
wards. He,  too,  recanted,  or  took 
back  what  he  had  said,  for  a  time; 
but  afterwards  something  within  him 
made  him  ashamed  of  doing  so.  He 
boldly  declared  again  what  he  be- 
lieved, which  is  what  we  all  believe 
now;  and  the  Inquisition  burned  him 
in  the  Campo  di  Flora — the  Field  of 
Flowers — in  Rome,  in  the  year  1600, 
on  a  spot  where,  three  hundred  years 


afterwards,    in    1900,    a    statue    was 
erected  to  his  immortal  memory. 

How  ISAAC  NEWTON  CARRIED    FORWARD 
THE  TRUTH  THAT  BRUNO  DIED  FOR 

Before  we  learn  what  Bruno  taught 
the  world,  there  is  one  other  name 
which  we  must  learn  in  the  history  of 
astronomy.  It  is  that  of  an  English- 
man, Isaac  Newton,  who  discovered 
the  law  of  gravitation,  by  which  the 
universe  is  balanced.  This  he  did 
when  he  was  23  years  old.  When  he 
published  his  discovery  people  said 
that  he  was  wicked,  and  was  trying  to 
take  away  from  the  glory  of  God; 
but  now  all  men  honor  him,  and  see 
that  the  more  we  learn  about  Nature 
the  more  we  learn  about  the  wonder 
and  power  of  its  Great  Author, 

The  FIRST   MAN   TO   UNDERSTAND    THAT 
ALL  THE  STARS  ARE  SUNS 

When  Bruno  read  and  thought  over 
the  work  of  Copernicus,  there  came 
into  his  deep  mind  the  true  view  of 
what  our  universe  really  is.  The  first 
great  truth  he  saw  was  that  the  sun — 
our  sun — must  really  be  one  of  the 
stars;  and  with  that  great  idea  in  his 
mind  he  began  to  think  of  the  other 
stars.  So  he  saw  that  if  the  sun  is  a 
star  the  stars  are  suns. 

Consider  how  tremendous  is  the 
meaning  of  that  sentence,  and  espe- 
cially of  its  conclusion:  the  stars  arc 
suns.  Men  had  thought  of  the  earth 
as  the  center  of  all  things,  the  sun  as 
its  attendant,  daily  moving  round  it, 
and  the  stars  as  little  points  of  light — 
mere  trifles,  giving  no  useful  light,  and 
meaning  nothing,  unless  that  some- 
body would  meet  with  an  accident  in  a 
certain  year,  or  that  someone  else 
would  win  a  victory,  if  certain  stars 
could  be  seen  at  certain  times.  And 
then  Bruno  came  and  taught  that  these 
little  points  of  light  were  suns,  like  our 
own,  perhaps  vastly  bigger  and  more 
important,  and  that  probably  there 
were  planets  circling  round  them  with 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


51 


living  creatures,  pei'haps  as  intelligent 
as  men,  or  even  more  intelligent  than 
men,  upon  them.  This  is  the  most 
humbling  discovery  to  the  pride  of 
human  beings  that  men  have  e^'er 
made,  and  it  is  also  the  grandest. 
Men  saw  only  one  side  of  it  then,  and 
perhaps  we  should  not  wonder  that 
they  burned  Bruno. 

The  earth  is  as  a  grain  of  dust  in  a 
mighty  mass  of  worlds 

The  universe,  then,  consists  chiefly 
of  a  vast  multitude  of  stars,  of  which 
we  can  reckon  not  less  than  one  hun- 
dred millions  already.  Of  these  our 
sun  is  just  one,  and  certainly  neither 
the  biggest  nor  the  brightest,  though 
infinitely  more  important  to  us  than 
all  the  others  put  together.  Around 
any  number  of  these  stars  there  may  be 
planets,  perhaps  with  moons,  circling 
as  we  do  round  our  particular  sun. 
And  the  whole  of  our  earth  is  but  as 
a  grain  of  dust  compared  with  the 
whole  mighty  mass  of  worlds  which  we 
can  see  on  any  fine  night  from  the 
earth's  surface. 

As  to  the  size  of  the  visible  uni- 
verse, we  learn  similar  lessons.  The 
earth  is  quite  small,  compared  with 
Jupiter,  the  giant  planet,  and  Jupiter 
is  small  compared  with  the  sun.  But 
if  the  whole  space  surrounded  by  the 
path  of  the  outermost  planet,  Nep- 
tune, from  the  sun  outwards,  were  one 
solid  mass,  a  mighty  ball  in  which 
sun  and  earth  and  Jupiter  and  all 
would  be  lost  like  drops  of  water  in  a 
lake — even  then  this  great  globe  would 
be  nothing  in  size  compared  with 
many  of  the  objects  we  see  in  the  sky, 
and  the  distance  from  boundary  to 
boundary  of  it  would  be  nothing  com- 
pared with  the  distance  from  it  to 
the  nearest  star. 

In  looking  at  the  sky,  then,  we  must 
always  remember  the  meaning  of 
these  tremendous  distances  between 
stars  and  stars,  and  we  must  not  be 


deceived,  as  so  many  men  have  been 
deceived,  by  the  apparently  equal 
distance  of  a  planet  and  a  star  beside 
it. 

The  light  that  has  been  traveling 

SINCE    the      SPANISH      ARMADA    WAS 
DESTROYED. 

It  is  not  merely  that  the  planets — 
which  belong  to  our  little  system — 
are  nearer  than  the  stars,  but  that, 
compared  with  the  stars,  they  are  at 
our  very  doors,  while  the  stars  are 
almost  infinitely  far  away.  Some- 
thing happened  to  a  star  which  we 
noticed  a  few  years  ago,  and  much 
attention  was  paid  to  it.  Yet  we 
reckon  that  whatever  it  was  really 
happened  before  the  Pilgrims  landed 
on  Plymouth  Rock,  and  the  light  that 
then  left  the  star  reached  our  eyes 
only  a  few  years  ago. 

Thus  to  the  eye  of  the  astronomer 
the  bright  points  in  the  sky  are  of  two 
utterly  different  kinds.  All  but  seven 
of  them — among  these  scores  of  mil- 
lions— are  suns,  vastly  far  away,  and 
many  of  them  vastly  bigger  than  our 
sun. 

But  seven  of  these  bright  points, 
together  with  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
and  the  moons  of  the  other  planets 
that  have  moons,  and  a  number  of 
very  tiny  planets,  perhaps  as  small  as 
an  American  county,  that  can  only  be 
seen  through  a  telescope,  are  parts  of 
the  solar  system;  they  belong  to  us, 
they  are  close  neighbors  of  ours,  and 
have  nothing  to  do  with  any  of  the 
stars  among  which  they  seem  to  lie. 

Now  let  us  make  a  list  of  the  various 
things  that  make  up  the  universe,  and 
that  astronomers  study.  First,  we 
shall  note  down  the  things  that  make 
up  our  system;  we  shall  think  of  it  as 
a  kind  of  sample  of  what  makes  up 
millions  of  other  systems  in  the  sky — 
only  that  they  are  so  far  away  that 
we  can  only  see  the  suns — or  stars — 
of  those  systems. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  things  that  make  up  our   part 
OF  the  universe,  the  solar  system 

Our  system  consists  of  the  sun; 
the  eight  large  planets  of  which  our 
earth  is  one;  the  moons  of  those 
planets;  the  minor  or  lesser  planets, 
which  all  revolve  round  the  sun  in  a 
sort  of  heap,  in  a  path  outside  the 
path  of  Mars  and  inside  the  path  of 
Jupiter;  a  large  number  of  tiny  things 
like  stones  and  pebbles  and  pieces  of 
rock,  much  too  small  for  us  to  see, 
except  when  they  are  caught  in  our 
atmosphere  and  made  bright,  when  we 
call  them  meteorites,  or  "shooting 
stars";  and  a  few  curious  things  called 
comets,  which  also  move  round  the  sun 
and  belong  to  our  system.  We  ought 
really  to  learn  this  list.  It  is  much 
easier  to  learn  than  a  list  of  dead  kings, 
most  of  whom  could  not  read,  and  it  is 
quite  as  imjjortant.  The  pebbles,  the 
comets,  and  the  minor  planets  are  the 
things  you  are  likeliest  to  forget.  The 
names  of  the  major  planets  are  given 
on  page  18,  and  we  certainly  should 
learn  them  and  their  order  outwards 
from  the  sun. 

Again  we  must  remind  ourselves 
that  several  of  these  things  may  be 
seen  in  the  sky,  either  with  the  naked 
eye  or  through  a  telescope,  just  as  if 
they  were  stars,  but  they  are  really 
just  about  as  far  from  the  stars  as  we 
are,  and  belong  to  us.  When  as- 
tronomers discover  a  new  minor  planet 
— and  there  are  hvmdreds  of  them 
known — they  cannot  tell  whether  they 
are  dealing  with  a  tiny  little  planet, 
perhaps  smaller  than  Rhode  Island, 
or  a  star  that  may  be  vastly  bigger 
than  the  sun,  until  they  find  that  it 
moves  or  wanders  among  the  stars,  and 
so  is  a  planet,  or  wanderer. 

The  great  DIFFICULTY  OF  understand- 
ing THINGS  SO  FAR  AWAY 

The  difficulty  people  have  in  learn- 
ing how  utterly  different  Venus  is 
from  a  star  like  Sirius  is  a  difficulty 


that  even  astronomers  have  to  reckon 
with,  so  great  is  the  influence  of  dis- 
tance in  deceiving  us  as  to  the 
comparative  importance  of  things. 
We  mvist  learn  from  astronomy  that 
a  very  tiny  thing  may  be  taken  for 
a  very  big  thing,  if  only  it  happens  to 
be  near  enough. 

We  can  never  know  any  other  of 
the  millions  of  solar  systems  as  we 
know  our  own,  but  whenever  we  look 
at  a  star  we  must  think  of  it  as  Bruno 
thought  of  it,  and  remember  that  it  is 
probably  the  sun  to  other  planets,  and 
perhaps  to  intelligent  beings  not  very 
unlike  ourselves.  But  in  the  universe, 
outside  the  little  limits  of  our  solar 
system,  there  are  many  other  things 
beside  stars,  and  we  know  what  these 
various  things  are.  Then,  when  we 
have  got  firm  hold  of  the  right  idea 
of  the  universe  and  what  it  is  made  of, 
we  shall  be  ready  to  study  some  of 
these  wonderfid  things  more  closely. 

We  discover  in  the  heavens,  apart 
from  our  small  system,  many  bright 
stars.  Without  seeing  them,  but  in 
other  ways,  such  as  by  noticing  how 
they  disturb  the  bright  stars,  we  dis- 
cover also  many  dark  stars;  stars  that 
have  grown  cold  and  "gone  out." 
The  COUNTLESS  number  of    stars  IN 

THE  sky  and  their   MANY  KINDS 

A  well  -  known  astronomer,  Sir 
Robert  Ball,  has  said  that  to  look  at 
the  bright  stars—the  stars  we  can  see 
— and  say,  "These  are  all  the  stars," 
would  be  like  counting  all  the  red-hot 
horse-shoes  in  a  country  and  saying, 
"These  are  all  the  horse-shoes."  The 
bright  stars  are  probably  very  few 
compared  with  the  dark  ones.  Bright 
stars  and  dark  are  of  many  different 
kinds,  but  we  shall  read  about  them 
later.  Here  we  must  remember  both 
of  them  as  helping  to  make  up  the 
mighty  population  of  the  skies.  And 
after  them  we  must  put  down  the 
names  of  the  nebvkr.     Nebula  means 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


53 


cloud,  and  nebulce  means  clouds.  The 
nebulae  are  things  which  look  hke 
tiny  clouds  among  the  stars.  We 
have  already  learned  that  the  solar 
system  was  made  from  a  nebula;  and 
we  believe  that  all  the  stars,  and  the 
systems  of  which  they  are  the  suns, 
were  also  made  from  nebulae. 

There  are  many  stars  in  the  heav- 
ens which  seem  to  be  still  only  half- 
made — still  more  "star-mist"  than 
star — and  these  we  call  nebulous  stars. 
There  is  a  great  nebula  in  Orion,  in 
which  six  stars  can  be  seen  to  have 


sun  as  regularly  as  the  earth  does. 
A  comet  is  quite  a  small  thing,  really, 
and  requires  to  be  near  to  be  seen. 
Even  the  comets  that  belong  to  the 
solar  system  can  only  be  seen  occa- 
sionally when  they  come  compara- 
tively near  to  the  sun.  The  comets  in 
outer  space  cannot  be  seen.  But  we 
know  that  they  are  there,  since  some 
of  them  occasionally  visit  us.  After 
rushing  through  space  for  the  vast 
distances  that  stretch  between  star 
and  star,  they  may  visit  our  star,  the 
sun,  and  after  rushing  round  it  may 


THE  LONG  AND  LONELY  JOURNEY  OF  A  COMET.  WITH  ITS  TAIL  MILLIONS  OF  MILES  LONG 


-/- P«h,.of_a_  Comet. '..ir- 


^'-^?4o/  a  P}a?5^'"' 


This  picture  shows  the  path  of  a  comet  round  the  sun.  At  one  time  the  comet  comes  quite  close  to  the  sun  and  just 
misses  running  into  it;  then  passing  round  the  sun,  it  travels  far  beyond  all  the  planets,  millions  of  miles  into  space,  until 
it  comes  to  the  sun  again.  The  circle  shows  how  the  earth  goes  round  the  sun,  and  it  is  when  a  comet  comes  close  to  the 
earth's  path  that  we  see  it. 


already  condensed.  We  can  see  Orion 
for  ourselves  in  the  early  winter 
evenings  in  the  south.  To  our  naked 
eyes  the  nebula  looks  like  a  star — the 
middle  star  of  three  forming  the  dagger 
of  the  huntsman  which  the  ancients 
thought  Orion  looked  like. 

It  is  almost  certain  that  there  are 
dark  nebulae  as  well  as  bright  ones, 
and  that  we  must  therefore  remember 
both  kinds  as  we  remember  both 
kinds  of  stars. 

The  mysterious  journey  of  a  comet 
through  space 

There  are  also  in  the  heavens  many 

comets  besides  those  that  belong  to 

the  solar  system,   and  go  round  the 


fly  away  again  into  space  and  be  seen 
no  more — by  us.  Astronomers  know 
that  these  comets  do  not  belong  to  the 
solar  system,  and  will  never  return, 
as  the  paths  they  pursue  are  not 
closed  paths,  like  a  circle  O  or  an 
ellipse  0>  but  open  ones,  like  thisD, 
which  carry  the  comet  through  space, 
perhaps  never  visiting  the  same  star 
twice,  until  its  history  ends  in  its 
breaking  up  into  little  parts  like  the 
stones  we  call  meteorites. 

The  most  brilliant  of  all  comets 
in  the  memory  of  living  men  was  that 
of  1858,  known  by  the  name  of  its 
discoverer,  Donati.  Its  tail  was  over 
fifty  million  miles  in  length 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE     MOON,    THE     LAMP    OF    NIGHT 


FOR  many  millions  of  years  the 
earth  has  been  attended  by  a 
satellite — which  means  attend- 
ant— called  the  moon.  In  all  ages  men 
have  admired  the  moon,  and  in  the 
history  of  almost  all  nations  there  are 
records  that  the  moon  has  actually 
been  worshiped.  It  is,  of  course,  the 
most  brilliant  body  in  the  whole 
heavens,  after  the  sun,  so  far  as  our 
view  of  things  is  concerned;  and,  just 
as  the  sun  is  the  king  of  day,  so  the 
moon  is  the  queen  of  night,  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  beauty  has  been  cele- 
brated by  thousands  of  poets.  The 
whiteness  of  the  moon's  light  has  al- 
ways been  for  poets  an  emblem  of 
purity,  though  this  light,  as  we  know, 
does  not  originate  in  the  moon,  but  is 
merely  reflected  sunlight. 

The  time  has  gone  when  men 
thought  that  everything  in  the  world 
existed  only  for  their  use,  nor  do  we 
now  credit  the  moon  with  the  power  of 
causing  lunacy,  which  really  means 
moon-acy.  But  we  know  that  the 
moon  has  very  important  influences 
upon  the  earth.  The  most  obvious 
of  these  influences  is  the  light  which 
the  moon  sends  us,  which  at  night 
may  sometimes  be  quite  useful.  We 
have  already  seen  how  little  of  the 
sun's  light  the  earth  catches,  and  the 
moon,  being  smaller  than  the  earth, 
catches  much  less.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  it  would  require  600,000 
full  moons,  all  shining  together,  to 
light  the  earth  as  brilliantly  as  the 
sun  lights  it  now. 

The  sun  is  always  shining,  and  the 
side  of  the  moon  which  is  exposed  to 
it  is  always  lighted  by  it,  except  for 
a  few  minutes  now  and  again,  when  the 
earth  gets  between  the  sun  and  the 
moon.  The  proof  of  the  fact  that  the 
moon  gives  out  no  light  of  its  own  is 
to  be  found  in  the  changes  that  the 


moon  goes  through  every  month. 
These  changes,  which  are  shown  in 
the  illustration,  can  have  only  one 
meaning — which  is,  that  all  the  light 
we  see  the  moon  by  is  reflected  sun- 
light. The  moon  is  practically  a 
sphere  and  therefore  any  source  of 
light  like  the  sun  can  light  up  only 
one  half  at  any  time;  and  if  the  sun's 
light  is  falling  on  the  half  which  is 
curved  away  from  us,  then  we  see  no 
moon  at  all. 

The  only  exception  to  this  is  that 
sometimes  we  can  see  what  people 
call  "the  old  moon  in  the  young  moon's 
arms."  We  see,  perhaps,  a  beautiful 
bright  crescent,  and  then  the  rest  of 
the  moon  very  faintly  shown.  The 
bright  crescent  we  see  by  reflected 
sunlight,  and  the  rest  of  the  moon's 
face  by  reflected  earth-light.  This  is 
one  of  the  facts  which  prove  that  the 
earth,  seen  from  somewhere  else,  would 
look  bright.  It  reflects  sunlight 
enough,  indeed,  to  light  up  the  face 
of  the  moon  at  times  sufficiently  for 
us  to  see  it  by. 

The  brightness  of  the  moon  depends 
on  its  nearness.  In  all  the  heavens 
there  are  only  a  very  few  bodies  that 
we  can  see  which  are  smaller  than  the 
moon,  but  the  moon  has  the  great 
advantage  of  being  very  much  nearer 
us  than  anything  else.  Its  distance 
from  the  earth  is  only  about  240,000 
miles — less  than  ten  times  the  dis- 
tance round  the  earth.  Compared 
with  the  distance  of  the  sun  or  of 
Mars,  this  is,  of  course,  very  small 
indeed.  It  gives  us  the  great  advan- 
tage that  we  can  study  the  moon 
with  our  telescopes  more  closely  than 
any  other  body  in  the  heavens. 
Why  the  moon  cooled  down  and  died 

so   QUICKLY 

The  moon,  however,  is  very  tiny 
and  the  whole  face  of  it,   which  we 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


55 


see,  is  only  about  twice  the  size  of 
Europe.  If  you  look  at  Europe  on  the 
map  of  the  earth,  you  will  see  that  it 
does  not  amount  to  much.  The  dis- 
tance through  the  moon,  or  its  diam- 
eter, is  only  a  little  more  than  a  quarter 
that  of  the  earth,  and  "if  the  earth 
were  cut  into  fifty  pieces,  all  equally 
large,  then  one  of  these  pieces  rolled 
into  a  globe  would  equal  the  size  of 
the  moon."  But  the  surface  of  the 
moon  is  about  one-thirteenth  that  of 
the  earth.  These  figures  are  extremely 
important  and  interesting.  They 
show  us  that  when  the  moon  is  com- 
pared with  the  earth,  it  has  a  far  big- 
ger surface  in  proportion  to  its  size. 
It  is  only  one-fiftieth  of  the  size,  but 
instead  of  having  a  surface  only  one- 
fiftieth  the  size  of  the  earth's  its  sur- 
face is  one-thirteenth  that  of  the 
earth.  That  is  why  the  moon  has 
cooled  so  very  much  more  quickly  than 
the  earth  has  done,  and  this  rapid 
cooling  of  the  moon  accounts  for  two 
things:  first,  its  cold  and  lifeless  state 
today;  and  second,  the  character  of 
the  moon's  surface,  which  shows  that 
its  life,  so  to  speak,  was  "a  short  and 
merry  one."  The  cooling  crust  of  the 
moon  shrank  down  upon  its  interior 
so  quickly  that  the  most  violent  things 
happened,  the  marks  of  which  remain 
long  ages  afterwards  on  the  surface 
of  the  moon  for  us  to  study. 

The  side  of  the  moon  that  men  have 
never  seen 

The  fact  that  the  distance  across 
the  moon  looks  to  us  always  about 
the  same  indicates  that  the  moon's 
distance  from  the  earth  varies  very 
little,  and  that  is  so.  The  reason  is, 
of  course,  that  the  moon  travels 
round  the  earth  in  a  path  which  is 
very  nearly,  but  not  quite,  a  circle. 
It  moves  once  round  the  earth  in 
about  twenty-seven  days  and  a  third. 
This  time  makes  the  real  month, 
which  we  call  the  lunar  month.     There 


are  twelve  months  in  the  year  accord- 
ing to  the  calendar,  but  that  has  only 
been  made  so  for  convenience.  Really 
there  are  thirteen  and  a  little  bit 
more;  in  other  words,  while  the  earth 
goes  round  the  sun  once,  the  moon 
goes  round  the  earth  a  little  more  than 
thirteen  times. 

But,  as  the  moon  goes  round  the 
earth,  we  find  that  it  keeps  the  same 
side  towards  us.  Indeed,  we  have 
never  seen,  and  never  can  see,  more 
than  the  same  one  half  of  the  moon's 
surface,  or  just  a  trifle  more  than  half. 
The  reason  is  that  the  moon  is  slowly 
spinning  upon  itself  as  it  moves 
round  the  earth,  and  it  makes  one 
complete  spin  on  its  axis  in  just  the 
same  time  as  it  takes  to  go  once  round 
the  earth.  In  other  words,  the  moon's 
24-hour  day  is  a  month  long. 

Anyone  living  upon  the  moon,  then, 
would  have  day  and  night  as  we  have 
day  and  night  upon  the  earth,  and  for 
the  same  reason — because  the  moon 
is  spinning.  But,  as  the  moon's  spin 
is  very  slow,  the  bright  part  of  his 
day  would  last  about  two  weeks,  and 
the  dark  part  of  it,  corresponding  to 
our  night,  would  last  another  two 
weeks. 

A  WORLD  THAT  WE    KNOW  BETTER  THAN 
WE  KNOW  AFRICA 

Of  course,  we  should  like  to  see  the 
other  side  of  the  moon,  but  we  may 
be  quite  sure  that  if  we  could  it  would 
be  very  much  the  same  as  the  side 
we  can  see.  We  have  now  mapped 
out  the  visible  half  of  the  moon  very 
carefully  with  drawings  and  photo- 
graphs. As  Sir  Robert  Ball  has  said, 
"astronomers  know  the  surface  of  the 
moon  better  than  geographers  know 
the  interior  of  Africa.  Every  spot 
on  the  face  of  the  moon  which  is  as 
large  as  an  English  parish  has  been 
mapped,  and  all  the  more  important 
objects  have  been  named."  This,  we 
must  remember,  however,  applies  only 


56 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


to  one-half  of  the  moon's  surface.  Of 
the  other  we  know  nothing.  When  we 
look  at  a  map  of  the  moon,  or  when  we 
look  at  the  moon  through  a  telescope, 
we  do  not  see  at  all  anything  like  the 
face  we  all  know  so  well,  but  we  see 
at  once  what  it  was  that  made  the 
appearance  of  a  face. 

The  moon's  surface  is  richly  covered 
with  markings,  the  largest  of  which 
are  great  dark  spaces,  which  are  the 
markings  we  see  with  our  naked  eyes. 


These  spaces,  though  they  contain 
no  water,  were  called  "seas"  by  the 
old  astronomers.  We  also  see  great 
ridges,  which  are  mountain  ranges,  and 
large  rings,  which  are  thought  to  be 
the  remains  of  volcanoes. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  many  of 
the  things  we  see  project  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  moon,  and  that  they  are  light- 
ed from  some  source  outside  them,  for 
we  can  see  their  great  shadows.  When 
the  moon  is  quite  full,  and  the  sun  is 


A  PHOTOGRAPH  OF  THE  MOON:  A  DEAD  WORLD  LIT  UP  BY  THE  SUN 


This  is  a  picture-map  of  tlie  moon,  whicli  is  really  a  dead  world,  as  the  earth  would  be  if  there  were  not  one  living 
thing  upon  it.  The  moon  travels  round  the  earth  as  the  earth  travels  round  the  sun.  It  is  not  light  in  itself;  what  we 
see  is  the  light  of  the  sun  upon  it,  as  we  see  the  light  of  a  candle  thrown  upon  a  wall.  We  see  really  one-halt  of  an  enormous 
globe  like  a  small  earth,  lit  up  in  the  sunshine,  spinning  in  space  like  a  fireball,  yet  weighing  millions  of  tons. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY  57 

striking  directly  upon  it  as  we  see  it,  great  plain,  perhaps  with  a  mountain 

these  shadows  are  absent,  and,  indeed,  peak  in  its  center,  perhaps  not.     One 

though  the  moon  is  then  beautiful  to  of  the  most  splendid  of  these  craters 

the  naked  eye,  the  astronomer  cannot  is  named  after  Copernicus,  and  many 

learn  from  it  nearly  so  much  as  he  can  other    astronomers    have    had    their 

at  other  times.     If  we  want  to  see  a  names  given  to  the  larger  craters  that 

lunar  mountain  at  its  best,  we  must  mark  the  surface  of  the  moon, 

watch  it  when  it  is  not  far  from  the  things  that  happened  before  there 
edge  between  light  and  darkness.     The        were  human  beings  on  the  earth 
sun's   rays   are   then   falling   upon   it  According    to    many    astronomers, 

slantwise,    and   we   can   see   its  form,  there    are    still    occasional    traces    of 

the  shadows  it  throws,  and  learn  from  things  going  on  upon  the  moon.     For 

them  the  size  of  it.  instance,    we    believe    that    a    small 

The  shadows  thrown  by  the  moun-  crater  has  been  found  that  was  not 

tains  of  the  moon  are  extremely  dense  there  before.     However,  even  if  there 

and  sharp.     The  reason  is  that  the  were    no    doubt    that    small    changes 

moon  has  no  air.     The  shadows  thrown  still  occur  on  the  surface  of  the  moon, 

on  the  earth  are  neither  so  black  nor  so  we  are  certain  that  nothing  which  now 

sharp  as  they  would  be  if  there  were  no  occurs  there  can  compare  for  a  moment 

air,  for  the  air  spreads  the  light  about,  with    the    tremendous    events    which 

and   throws   a   certain   amount   even  created  the  moon's  surface  as  we  now 

upon  the  blackest  part  of  the  blackest  see  it.     So  far  as  we  can  judge,  these 

shadow.     Now,  it  is  not  difficult  in  events  must  have  occurred  not  merely 

the  case  of  the  earth  to  find  out  how  long   before   there   were   any   human 

high  a  thing  is  if  we  can  measure  the  beings  upon  the  earth  to  witness  them, 

length  of  its  shadow.     We  should  do  but  at  a  time  when  the  earth  was  so 

this    at    noonday,    when    the    sun    is  hot  that  no  life  of  any  kind  upon  its 

highest  in  the  sky,   and  then,  if  we  surface  had  yet  become  possible, 
know  how  high  the  sun  was  on  the  day  In  any  case,  the  facts  of  the  moon's 

in  question,  we  can  calculate  from  the  surface  clearly   show  quite  what  we 

length  of  the  shadow  what  the  height  should  expect  when  we  remember  how 

of  the  object  is.     Indeed,  if,   in  our  quickly  a  small  body  cools  compared 

latitude,   we  make  the  measurement  with  a  large  one.     There  is  one  crater 

on  certain  days  in  the  year,  the  length  upon  the  moon  which  is  nearly  eighty 

of   the   shadow   is   the   same   as    the  miles  across,  and  the  moon's  craters 

height  of  the  thing  we  are  measuring,  and  mountains  are  not  to  be  found  here 

It  is  not  a  very  difficult  matter  to  find  and  there  merely,  but  cover  it  almost 

out  the  number  of  miles  that  a  shadow  everywhere.       Indeed,      we      require 

on  the  moon  extends,  and  we  can  also  some  other  explanation  of  the  reason 

find    out    how    high    the    sun    would  why  such  tremendous  heapings  up  of 

appear  to  anyone  looking  at  it  from  matter  have  been  possible  upon  the 

that  part  of  the  moon.     So  we  can  moon,  and  that  explanation  is  again 

measure  the  height  of  mountain  peaks  to  be  found  in  the  moon's  small  size, 
and  crater  edges  in  the  moon.     We       a  man  on  the  moon  could  jump  across 
find  craters  fifty,  sixty,  and  more  miles  the  street 

wide.     Some  of  these  have  walls  of         The    force    of    gravitation    on    the 

the  most  tremendous  height — 10,000  moon's  surface  is  very  different  from 

feet,   for   instance.     In   other   places,  the  force  of  gravitation  on  the  earth's 

instead   of   a   deep  crater,  Ave  find  a  sm-face.     It  is  only  one-sixth  as  great. 


THE    EARTH   AS    VIEWED    FROM    THE    MOON 


This  picture  shows  us  what  the  earth  would  look  like  it  we  could  see  it  from  the  moon.  The  light  ol  the  sun  falliUM 
upon  the  earth  must  make  it  shine  like  the  moon  when  seen,  it  it  is  seen  from  the  other  planets.  No  beings  dependent 
upon  air  for  their  life  could  live  on  the  moon  for  the  moon  is  an  airless  world.  People  on  the  moon  could  not  speak  because 
sound  does  not  exist  without  air;  the  largest  cannon  ball  that  could  be  fired  it  it  could  be  made  to  reach  the  moon,  would 
fall  like  a  pin  upon  velvet.  The  moon  might  be  Oiled  with  lovely  flowers  but  they  would  give  off  no  perfume,  birds  might 
sing  from  every  branch,  but  not  a  note  would  be  heard.  For  the  moon  is  a  silent  world  where  sound  and  speech  and  smell 
cannot  exist. 


68 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKV 


59 


A  man  who  on  the  earth  can  jump  six 
feet  high,  as  some  can,  could  jump 
thirty-six  feet  high  on  the  moon. 
This  means  that  the  explosive  force 
of  the  volcanoes  on  the  moon,  hurling 
upwards  all  the  substances  which 
reached  them  from  the  interior  of  the 
moon,  would  be  resisted  by  a  feebler 
force  of  gravitation,  so  much  less  than 
we  are  familiar  with  on  the  earth  that 
we  can  begin  to  understand  how  some 
of  the  great  features  of  the  moon's 
surface  can  have  been  formed. 

Why  there  are  no  such  changes  on 
the  moon  as  on  the  earth 

Air  and  water,  as  we  know,  are  al- 
ways smoothing  away  the  prominences 
on  the  earth,  rubl^ing  them  down 
and  rounding  their  edges;  but  when  a 
great  mass  of  lava  was  thrown  up  by 
a  volcano  on  the  moon,  and  hardened 
as  it  cooled,  it  took  a  shape  which 
ages  could  not  change,  for  there  was 
nothing  to  cause  the  change.  There 
is  only  one  fact  about  the  moon  which 
can  contribute  much  to  any  changes 
upon  its  surface  now.  As  the  moon 
has  no  blanket  of  air,  it  is  very  much 
exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  During 
the  moon's  day  which  is  as  long  as  27 
of  our  days,  the  surface  must  become 
intensely  hot,  but  during  the  moon's 
night,  which  is  as  long  as  27  of  our 
nights,  there  is  nothing  to  keep  in  the 
heat  which  it  has  received  during  the 
day,  so  that  the  heat  is  radiated 
freely,  and  the  moon  must  become 
colder  than  any  part  of  the  earth  ever 
is.  So,  the  surface  of  the  moon  must 
shrink  very  much  with  cold  and  ex- 
pand with  heat  each  night  and  day. 

THE  PATH  OF  THE  MOON  ROUND  THE 
EARTH 

That  is  all  we  can  say  now 
about  this  very  difficult  but  very  inter- 
esting question.  If  it  were  true  that 
this  was  the  origin  of  the  moon,  we 
should  expect  to  find  the  moon  spin- 


ning upon  itself  and  revolving  round 
the  earth,  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
earth  spins  on  its  axis  and  revolves 
round  the  sun;  and  so  we  do.  But  the 
path  of  the  moon  round  the  earth  is 
not  quite  on  the  same  level,  or  in  the 
same  plane,  as  astronomers  say,  as  the 
path  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  In  a 
picture  on  a  flat  page — like,  for 
instance,  one  of  the  pictures  of  this 
part — it  looks  as  if  the  moon  were 
traveling  round  the  earth  on  the  same 
level  as  the  earth  is  traveling  round 
the  sun.  If  this  were  so,  of  course 
we  could  not  see  a  full  moon,  for  then 
the  earth  would  be  in  the  way  of  the 
sun's  light,  and  instead  of  a  full  moon 
we  should  have  an  eclipse  of  the  moon 
every  month.  Also  the  moon  would 
eclipse  the  sun  every  month.  But  if 
we  think  of  the  moon's  path  round 
the  earth  as  being  tilted  a  little  at 
an  angle  to  the  earth's  path  round  the 
sun,  we  shall  understand  how  it  is 
that  we  are  able  to  see  a  full  moon, 
and  we  shall  also  understand  that,  at 
certain  regular  intervals,  when  the  path 
in  which  the  moon  moves  crosses  the 
path  in  which  the  earth  moves,  there 
may  be  an  eclipse. 

WHAT  THE  EARTH  WOULD  LOOK  LIKE  TO 
A  MAN  ON  THE  MOON 

If  intelligent  beings  lived  upon  the 
moon,  our  earth  would  appear  to  them 
a  most  magnificent  object,  looking  in 
the  sky  many  times  larger  than  the 
moon  does  to  us,  equally  bright  as  a 
whole,  but  often  hidden  partly  by 
clouds,  as  the  moon  never  is.  This 
large  earth  would  eclipse  the  sun,  but 
the  size  of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the 
the  moon  would  be  very  much  larger 
than  that  of  the  sun,  and  so  an  eclipse 
of  the  sun  by  the  earth,  as  seen  from 
the  moon,  would  blot  out  not  only  the 
body  of  the  sun,  but  also  its  promi- 
nences and  the  corona,  and  would  only 
leave  all  round  a  faint  glow  of  light. 


GO  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

STARS      AND      CONSTELLATIONS 

THE  beginning  of  the  study  of  together,  and  these  groups,  we  know, 

the  stars  was  made  very  long  are  called  constellations.     From  night 

ago,  ages  even  before  the  in-  to  night,  or  year  to  year,   the  stars 

vention  of  the  telescope  or  any  kind  making  up  a  constellation  remain  in 

of   instrument,    Avhen   men   had   only  the  same  positions  beside  one  another; 

a  pair  of  eyes  and  a  good  brain  behind  and  so,  if  six  form  a  sort  of  coronet, 

them.     The  Assyrians  and  Egyptians,  men  call  them  the  crown,  and  so  on. 

the  Chaldeans  and  the  Greeks,  had  no  The  proper  name  for  these  six  is  the 

telescopes  and  few  observatories,  but  Northern  Crown  or  Corona  Borealis, 

they  learned  practically  everything  that  and  you  can  find  it  in  the  accompany- 

was  known  about  the  stars  until  almost  ing  picture — or,  much  better,  in  the 

our  own  times.     For,  after  all,  anyone  sky.     Borealis  is  derived  from  Boreas, 

with  eyes,  who  cares  to  use  his  eyes,  the  god  who  was  supposed  to  blow  the 

can  study  the  stars  and  learn  a  great  north  wind.     But  it  is  most  important 

deal  about  them.  for  us  to  understand  now  what  could 

The  first  thing  men  learned  was  that  not  be  understood  long  ago. 

a  few  of  the  bright  points  in  the  sky.  How  men  thought  they  were  living 

like    stars,    move    about    or    wander  in  a  ball,  with  the  stars  stuck  on  it 
among  the  other  stars.     These  wan-  When  we  look  at  the  sky  it  seems 

derers,  or  planets,  we  now  understand;  to  be  a  sort  of  dome  or  bowl  upside 

and  we  keep  the  name  "stars"  for  all  down — someone   has   called    it    "that 

the  rest,  which  for  many  ages  were  inverted  bowl  we  call  the  sky" — with 

called  the  fixed  stars,  in  order  to  dis-  all  the  stars  stuck  on  it,  at  the  same 

tinguish    them    from    the    wandering  level  or  distance  from  our  eyes ;  so  that 

stars.     There  are  good  reasons  why  what  we  see  as  a  group  of  stars  would 

we  should  drop  the  word  fixed.     It  is  really  be  a  group  of  stars,  or  a  constel- 

not  necessary,  as  we  can  call  the  wan-  lation.       And    astronomers    actually 

dering  stars  planets,  and  not  stars  at  thought  that  the  stars  were  attached 

all ;  and  it  is  not  true,  for  we  know  that  to  a  mighty  sphere,  inside  of  which  we 

many  of  the  "fixed"  stars  move,  and  were,  and  that  the  movements  of  the 

we  have  reason  to  believe  that  they  sky  as  a  whole  were  due  to  this  great 

are  all  of  them  moving.  sphere  or  hollow  ball  moving  round  and 

If  we  watch  these  stars,   however,  carrying  all  the  stars  together  with  it. 

every  clear  night  for  the  whole  span  The  planets,  moving  separately,  had 

of  our  lives,  we  notice  no  movement;  to    have   other   supposed    spheres    or 

and  this  is  true  of  most  of  them,  even  bowls  invented  for  them,  and  we  may 

though  they  are  watched  for  genera-  guess  how  complicated  and  impossible 

tions  or  centuries.     They  seem  to  keep  the  whole  thing  grew,  for  it  was  wrong 

the  same  positions  compared  with  one  from  the  first.     It  is  as  if  you  looked 

another,  though  the  whole  sky  seems  across  your  room  and  thought  that 

to    have    moved    at    different    times  everything  was  on  the  same  level — 

of  the  year  or  at  different  times  of  the  at  the  same  distance  from  your  eye. 

night.     The  winter  sky,  for  instance,  A  funny  notion  you  would  have  of 

seen  from  our  part  of  the  world,  is  much  what  your  room  really  is!     But  actu- 

more  interesting  than  the  summer  sky.  ally  you  see  the  room  i?i  perspective. 

Thus  it  happens  that  men's   eyes  and  you  know  that  things  which  lie 

naturally    came    to    group    the    stars  side  by  side  in  your  field  of  view  may 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


61 


be,  one  quite  near  and  the  other  at 
the  far  end  of  the  room. 

The  immense  depths  in  the  sky  that 
we  cannot  realize 

Unfortunately,  we  cannot  see  the 
sky  in  perspective.  If  we  could — if 
we  could  get  any  notion  at  all  with  our 
eyes  of  the  depths  of  space — much 
more  than  half  of  all  the  mistakes  of 
astronomers  could  never  have  been 
made.  Any  boy  could  have  corrected 
them  the  first  time  he  was  out  on  a 
fine  night. 

Nevertheless,  of  course  we  must 
learn  the  principal  constellations,  for 
they  are  the  landmarks  of  the  sky — 
or  skymarks,  if  you  like — and  they  are 
always  referred  to  when  we  want  to 
say  where  to  find  a  comet  or  a  planet 
at  any  particular  time.  And  here  we 
may  learn  a  very  interesting  thing. 
The  "fixed"  stars  are  not  fixed,  and 
therefore,  as  they  move,  the  constella- 
tions ought  to  change.  And  so  they 
do.  The  first  astonishing  fact  about 
these  changes  is  that,  on  the  whole, 
they  are  so  slight.  We  have  names 
and  records  going  back  for  ages;  but, 
in  general,  the  face  of  the  sky  is  very 
much  what  it  was  when  the  study  of 
the  stars  began. 

The  CHANGES    that  TAKE  PLACE  SO  FAR 
AWAY  THAT  WE  CANNOT  SEE  THEM 

Yet  we  now  know  that  many  of 
these  stars  are  moving  perhaps  ten  or 
even  a  hundred  miles  every  second. 
This  can  only  mean  that  the  distances 
of  the  stars  are  enormous;  for,  of 
course,  the  nearer  things  are  to  our 
eyes,  the  greater  is  the  visible  effect 
of  their  movement,  and  vice  versa. 

But  the  second  fact  is  that,  though 
the  changes  seem  so  small,  considering 
how  long  the  stars  have  been  watched 
by  mankind,  yet  there  are  changes. 
For  one  thing,  we  know  certain  con- 
stellations, or  groups  of  stars,  which 
the  ancients  did  not  name,  and  which 
have   received   names   near   our   own 


time.  Knowing  how  carefully  the  old 
astronomers  watched,  and  how  ready 
they  were  to  give  names,  we  may 
reasonably  believe  that  the  reason  why 
they  took  no  notice  of  these  "new" 
constellations,  as  they  are  called,  is 
that  they  were  not  there  to  be  seen. 
The  stars  making  them  have  moved 
in  the  sky,  and  the  "new"  constella- 
tions are  therefore  really  new  in  the 
sense  that,  a  few  thousand  years  ago, 
the  stars  making  them  did  not  look 
like  a  group  of  stars,  or  a  constellation, 
to  the  eye,  as  they  do  now. 

Some  of  the  names  given  to  the  con- 
stellations, suggesting  that  they  look 
like  things  we  know,  may  seem  very 
absurd.  Here,  too,  the  fact  that  the 
stars  are  not  really  fixed  may  help  to 
explain.  It  may  be  that,  when  the 
name  was  given,  the  stars  were  in 
positions  that  made  the  constellations 
look  more  like  their  names  than  some 
of  them  do  now. 

The   NORTHERN  AND   THE  SOUTHERN 
HALVES  OF  THE  SKY 

If  we  consider  how  the  earth  turns 
in  space,  we  shall  understand  that  only 
the  northern  half  or  so  of  the  sky  can 
ever  be  seen  from  most  of  the  United 
States.  As  it  happens,  this  includes 
the  more  interesting  and  wonderful 
stars,  though  perhaps  we  may  think 
so  only  because  the  great  astronomers 
have  all  lived  on  the  northern  half  of 
the  earth,  and  there  is  scarcely  more 
than  one  first-class  observatory — that 
of  Cape  Colony — on  the  southern  half 
of  the  earth  yet;  so  that  we  really  do 
not  know  nearly  so  much  as  we  should 
about  the  southern  sky. 

But  everyone  who  lives  in  our  part 
of  the  world  should  know,  at  any  rate ; 
a  few  of  the  finest  constellations  and 
stars  that  can  be  seen  from  here  with- 
out the  use  of  any  machinery  except 
that  by  which  the  Greeks  made  such 
great  discoveries  in  astronomy — a  pair 
of  eyes  and  a  mind.     The  pictures  show 


G2 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


us  what  we  really  ought  to  know,  and 
here  are  mentioned  the  principal  stars 
that  are  shown.  But  the  pictures  do 
not  show  one  thing  which  would  inter- 
fere with  their  clearness,  and  that  is 
the  northern  half  of  the  Milky  Way, 
the  great  belt  of  stars  which  runs  right 
across  the  entire  sky,  all  the  way 
round. 

The  queer    names   the   ancient  as- 
tronomers GAVE  TO  THE  STARS 

We  all  should  know  the  seven  stars 
that  form  the  tail  and  part  of  the  body 
of  the  Great  Bear.  These  seven  stars 
are  also  called  the  Big  Dipper.  When 
we  see  them  we  can  always  find  the 
Pole  Star,  by  following  up  the  line 
made  by  the  "pointers,"  Dubhe  and 
Merak.  Look  straight  at  the  Pole 
Star  and  that  is  the  north.  Now  go 
back  to  the  Great  Bear,  and  follow  the 
course  of  his  tail  downwards  and  back- 
wards, until  you  come  to  the  magnifi- 
cent star  Arcturus.  This  is  one  of  the 
brightest  stars,  which  are  called  "first 
magnitude"  stars.  Magn  ilude  is  Latin 
for  bigness.  Arcturns  is  one  of  the  most 
rapidly  moving  of  all  the  flying  stars, 
and  is  believed  to  travel  about  one 
hundred  miles  every  second. 

Another  easily-seen  constellation 
looks  very  like  a  big  W,  '.'.■,  in  the  sky, 
and  is  called  Cassiopeia,  the  lady  in 
the  chair.     It  can  never  be  mistaken. 

A  beautiful  white  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  is  Vega,  in  the  Lyre,  lying 
beside  the  Milky  Way.  It  is  specially 
interesting,  not  merely  because  it  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  stars  in  the 
sky,  but  because  careful  study  showh 
that  it  is  in  the  direction  of  this  star 
that  the  sun,  and  we  with  it,  are  now 
moving,  at  the  rate  of  about  twelve 
miles  in  every  second  of  time. 

Quite  near  to  Cassiopeia  is  Perseus. 
This  can  often  be  seen  as  a  great  L 
below  the  great  W,  and  it  is  interesting 
because  one  of  its  stars  is  the  celebrated 
double  star  Algol,  which  is  really  two 


stars,  one  bright  and  the  other  dark. 
They  revolve  round  one  another,  so 
that  every  few  days  the  dark  one 
partly  eclipses  the  bright  one,  and  so 
Algol  gets  brighter  and  less  bright 
every  few  days  from  age  to  age. 

The  fine  spectacle  we  can  see  in  the 
sky  on  a  february  night 

The  map  of  the  stars  in  winter, 
shows  the  magnificent  spectacle  that 
we  may  see — and  should  look  for — any 
fine  evening  in  February  and  there- 
abouts. Below  the  L  of  Perseus,  not 
to  the  left  like  Capella  but  to  the  right, 
and  lower  than  Capella  are  the  Pleiades. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  sky  like  this 
wonderful  group  of  stars.  It  is  a 
true  constellation,  for  the  stars  making 
it  are  really  together.  With  the  un- 
aided eye  we  can  see  about  seven  if 
we  are  fortunate;  with  a  glass  we  can 
see  many  more.  With  a  telescope  and 
a  camera  we  can  print  the  images  of 
about  thirty  thousand  stars  in  this 
mighty  group:  stars  and  nebulae  too. 
In  no  other  ])art  of  the  sky  is  there  such 
a  tremendous  amount  of  matter  gather- 
ed together  as  in  the  Pleiades.  Now 
run  your  eye  down,  and  to  the  left  from 
the  Pleiades,  and  you  come  to  the 
wonderful  red  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude called  Aldebaran.  Go  on  in  the 
same  line,  and  you  reach  the  greatest 
and  most  splendid  of  the  constellations, 
Orion.  The  map  clearly  shows  how 
the  stars  of  Orion  make  the  figure  of  a 
great  huntsman,  with  three  fine  stars 
in  his  belt,  and  three  smaller  ones 
forming  the  blade  of  his  dagger.  The 
middle  one  of  these  three  last  is  really 
the  most  wonderful  thing  in  the  sky — 
it  is  not  a  star,  but  the  Great  Nebula 
of  Orion,  out  of  which  at  least  six  fine 
stars  have  already  been  formed,  and 
doubtless  many  more  will  be  formed, 
throughout  the  countless  ages  to  come. 
Now  look  downwards  and  to  the  left 
from  Orion,  and  you  will  see  Sirius, 
the  brightest  star  in  the  whole  sky — 


THE    MAP    OF    THE    STARS     IN     SPRING 


To  read  these  star-maps,  stand  facing  the  south  and  hold  the  map  above  tde  head  with  the  top  pointing  north. 
As  we  look  up  at  the  sky  at  night  and  see  the  stars  shining,  we  notice  that  most  of  them  are  clustered  together  la 
groups.  These  groups  are  called  constellations,  a  word  that  means  simply  "stars  together."  Some  of  these  constellations 
have  curious  names,  because  the  people  of  ancient  times  named  them  after  their  gods,  or  after  things  which  the  stars  were 
thought  to  resemble.  As  we  look  at  these  groups  of  stars,  it  is  impossible  for  us  now  to  see  any  resemblance  to  the  things, 
but  some  modern  astronomers  suggest  that  perhaps  the  positions  of  many  of  the  stars,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  have  changed 
during  the  centuries,  and  that  the  groups  did  at  one  time  somewhat  resemble  the  creatures  named.  In  these  maps  we  see 
the  outlines  of  the  constellations  as  ancient  people  drew  them. 

63. 


MAP    OF    THE    CONSTELLATIONS    IN    SUMMER 


The  grouping  of  the  stars  into  constellations  supposed  to  represent  animals  and  other  things  has  been  continued  by 
modern  astronomers  because  it  has  proved  convenient  for  so  long  and  any  change  now  would  cause  confusion.  One  of 
the  names  for  a  group  of  stars,  the  Plow,  Is  a  good  and  useful  one  because  the  seven  bright  stars  that  form  the  tail  and 
back  of  the  Great  Bear  as  seen  in  this  picture,  really  have  the  shape  of  a  plow  and  we  can  easily  find  the  Plow  In  the 
sky.  After  giving  them  names,  the  ancients  built  up  many  fairy  tales  round  the  constellations,  which  professed  to  tell 
how  the  stars  came  to  be  there.  The  Great  Bear  is  the  most  easily  seen  of  all  the  constellations  and  two  of  its  stars  point 
almost  in  a  straight  line  to  the  Pole  Star  which  is  always  to  the  north  of  us. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


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66  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

"the  leader  of  the  heavenly  host."  method,  nor  by  the  simple  use  of  our 
We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that,  eyes,  nor  by  any  other  means  of  the 
if  we  could  see  all  the  stars  in  a  line  at  kind,  can  we  ever  learn  what  is  the 
equal  distances  from  your  eyes,  Sirius  brightness  of  the  stars.  We  can  learn 
would  be  the  biggest.  Sirius,  like  how  bright  they  appear  to  us,  we  can 
Algol  and  thousands  of  other  stars,  is  learn  the  comparative  intensity  of  the 
really  a  double  star.  Its  companion  light  from  them  when  it  reaches  us; 
is  dark,  but  never  gets  between  Sirius  but  that  is  a  very  different  thing.  The 
and  us,  so  that  the  brightness  of  Sirius  little  moon,  shining  by  reflected  sun- 
does  not  change.  light,  is  vastly  more  bright  than 
The  wonderful  sight  you  can  see  Sirius,  which  is  probably  far  brighter, 
ABOUT  BEDTIME  really,  than  a  hundred  suns.     The  dis- 

Now  we  have  come  down  the  right  tance  makes  this  difference, 

side  of  this  map,  which  really  shows  us  What  we  can  see  and  learn,  then, 

all  the  greatest  glories  of  the  sky,  but  by  these  means,  is  only  the  apparent 

there  are  three  splendid  stars  in  it  still  brightness  of  the  stars.     Yet  the  star 

which   must  be  mentioned,   and  can  that  seems  to  us  the  brightest  in  the 

easily  be  recognized.     These  are  Castor  sky,  which  is  Sirius,  might  be  really  the 

and  Pollux,  in  the  heads  of  the  twins  or  faintest,  and  might  shine  brightly  only 

Gemini,  and  Procyon  in  the  Little  Dog.  because  it  happened  to  be  much  nearer 

If  you  learn  these  few  stars  and  look  than   any   of  the  others.     Therefore, 

out  for  them  when  there  is  a  chance,  we  can  only  learn  anything  about  the 

they  will  be  easily  remembered,   and  real  brightness  of  the  stars  by  taking 

will  always  make  the  sky  on  a  fine  into  account  their  distance, 

night  vastly  more  interesting  than  it  Their  distance  is  the  first  great  prob- 

would  otherwise  be.  lem  of  the  stars.     All  over  the  world 

We  might  think  at  first  that  there  astronomers  are  working  at  it,  and  now 

was   nothing   to   find   out   about   the  we  do  know  the  distances,  in  a  very 

brightness  of  the  stars.     Anyone  with  general  way,  of  a  fair  number  of  stars, 

eyes  in  his  head  can  see  that  Sirius  This  is  how  they  are  found, 

is  brighter  than  Arcturus,   and  that  how  men    found  out  the    distance 

Arcturus  is  brighter  than  any  of  the  of  the  stars 

stars  in  the  Pleiades.     Also  it  is  not  If  a  thing  is  very  near  your  head,  and 

difficult  to  think  of  ways  of  measuring  you  change  the  position  of  your  head, 

these    differences.     For    instance,    we  the    apparent   position   of    the    thing 

may  compare  the  length   of  time   it  changes.     Even  if  you  look  at  it  first 

takes   for   various   stars   to   print   an  out  of  one  eye,  and  then  out  of  the 

image  of  themselves  on  a  particular  other,  its  apparent  position  changes; 

kind    of   photographic    plate.     If    we  and  if  you  know  the  distance  between 

assume — though  we  really  may  not —  your  two  eyes,  you  can  in  this  way 

that  the  light  of  all  the  stars  is  the  measure  the  distance  of  the  thing  you 

same  in  quality,  so  far  as  its  affecting  are  looking  at.     Now,  in  the  case  of  a 

a  photographic  plate  is  concerned,  then  thing  like  the  moon,  or  a  planet,  we 

we  have  here  a  means  of  measuring  the  can  change  our  position  of  sight  by 

comparative  brightness  of  the  stars.  simply  noticing  where  it  appears  to  be 

Why  we  cannot  understand  the  real  when  seen  first  from  one  part  of  the 

BRIGHTNESS  OF  THE  STARS  earth,  and  then  from  another,  perhaps 

But,  when  we  come  to  think  of  it,  hundreds  of  miles  away.     This  base- 

we    shall    see    that    neither    by    this  line  of  a  few  hundreds  of  miles  is  quite 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


67 


enough  in  such  cases,  just  as  the  base- 
line no  longer  than  the  distance  be- 
tween your  two  ej^es  is  enough  for  a 
pencil  held  in  front  of  you.  But  the 
stars,  even  the  nearest  of  them,  are  so 
far  away  that  any  base-line  taken  on 
our  little  earth  is  far  too  short. 

What,  then,  can  we  do,  for  we  cannot 
leave  the  earth?  We  can  use  the  move- 
ment of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  W'e 
can  look  at  the  star  on  a  certain  night, 
and  then  look  at  it  again  six  months 
later,  when  the  earth  is  on  the  other 
side  of  the  sun.  This  gives  us  a  base- 
line about  186,000,000  of  miles  long- 
twice  the  earth's  distance  from  the  sun 
— and  that  is  just  long  enough  to  allow 
us  to  notice  a  measurable  difference 
in  the  apparent  position  of  some  stars, 
and  so  we  can  measure  their  distance. 
But  there  are  many  cases  in  which  we 
notice  ??o  difference  even  when  we  use 
this  tremendous  base-line.  Such  stars 
are  unimaginable  distances  away. 

How   MEN   CAN     TELL  THE   "WEIGHT"   OF 
STARS  THAT  ARE  OUT  OF  SIGHT 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  we  can 
weigh  the  stars,  but  weight  is  not  the 
right  word  to  use  here.  By  the  weight 
of  a  thing,  such  as  this  book,  we  mean 
simply  the  amount  of  pull  due  to 
gravitation  between  it  and  the  earth. 
If  the  earth  were  suddenly  to  become 
nothing,  the  book  would  lose  nearly  all 
its  weight,  and  have  left  only  that  due 
to  the  pull  of  the  sun.  But  the  amount 
of  stuff  in  the  book  would  be,  of  course, 
the  same  as  before.  This  amount  of 
matter  we  call  its  mass,  and  it  is  the 
mass  of  the  stars  that  we  can  meas- 
ure, or  at  least  trv  to  measure.  Their 
"weight"  means  nothing,  though  if  we 
knew  their  mass  we  can  say  what  their 
weight  or  gravitation  pull  would  be  at 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

We  can  measure  the  mass  of  a  star 
sometimes  when  it  has  another  star 
near  it,  for  we  can  notice  how  its  move- 
ment  is   affected.     For   instance,   we 


know  an  almost  endless  number  of 
double  stars  in  the  heavens — a  pair  of 
stars  revolving  round  each  other. 
They  move  in  accordance  with  their 
gravitation  pull  for  each  other,  and 
that  depends  on  their  mass,  so  that  we 
can  measure  it.  Thus  we  can  even 
measure  the  mass  of  stars  we  cannot 
see,  which  is  a  great  triumph  for 
astronomy. 

HOW   MEN   TRY   TO   FIND   OUT   THE   SIZE 
OF  THE  STARS 

But  we  are  not  completely  baffled, 
for  if  we  can  learn  certain  other  facts 
about  a  star,  then  we  can  at  least 
guess  its  probable  size.  If,  for  instance, 
we  know  its  distance,  if  we  know  its 
brightness,  and,  still  more,  if  we  know 
the  amount  of  material  in  it,  then  we 
shall  not  be  far  from  being  able  to 
guess  what  its  probable  size  must  be. 
But  these  things  are  very  difficult  to 
find,  and  the  results  are  not  very 
certain  or  precise;  so  the  most  we  can 
say  is  that  probably  this  star,  or  that, 
must  be  so  many  times  as  big  as  the 
sun— and  that  is  usually  the  case — 
since  it  gives  out  so  much  more  light. 

The  last  point  about  the  stars  which 
we  must  mention  here  is  their  number. 
To  find  this,  we  need  more  than  the  eye 
helped  by  the  largest  telescope.  W^e 
must  use  a  photographic  plate,  which 
can  see  more  stars  than  the  eye,  simply 
because  the  substances  in  the  plate  are 
more  readily  affected  by  the  light  of  the 
stars  than  are  the  substances  in  the 
screen  or  retina  of  the  human  eye. 
The  number  of  stars  thus  to  be  found 
is  about  one  hundred  millions. 

How    MANY    STARS    ARE    THERE? 

Also  we  do  7wt  find  that,  with  im- 
proved telescopes  and  cameras,  the 
number  of  the  stars  increases,  as  we 
should  expect  it  to  do  if  their  number 
were  really  endless.  On  the  contrary, 
we  have  good  reason  to  believe  that 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  number  of  both 
the  visible  and  invisible  stars. 


68 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


HEAT  AND  LIGHT-THE  SUN'S  GIFT  TO  THE  EARTH 


WE  ARE  all  familiar  with  the 
fact  that  the  light  and  heat 
which  we  enjoy  from  day  to 
day  comes  directly  or  indirectly  from 
the  sun.  When  we  burn  coal  or  wood 
we  liberate  the  imprisoned  sunlight 
which  fell  upon  the  earth  long  ages 
ago.  Each  day  brings  a  new  gift  of 
life — giving  and  life-sustaining  warmth 
and  light  directly  from  the  center  of 
our  solar  system.  But  the  question 
which  must  often  have  presented  it- 
self to  the  reader  is — how  does  this 
light  and  heat  reach  the  earth  and 
what  is  their  real  nature. 

Now  it  was  once  thought  that  light 
consisted  of  tiny  particles  shot  off  at 
great  speed  from  luminous  bodies 
such  as  the  sun  and  that  the  striking 
of  these  particles,  or  corpuscles  as 
they  were  called,  upon  our  eyes  gave 
rise  to  the  sensation  of  sight.  As  the 
result  of  many  experiments  and  much 
study  this  explanation  was  long  ago 
found  to  be  untrue  and  we  now  know 
light  to  be  of  an  entirely  different 
nature.  Our  ancestors  also  held  in- 
correct notions  as  to  the  nature  of 
heat.  They  supposed  heat  to  be  a 
subtle  and  weightless  fluid  called 
caloric  which  might  enter  into  and  pass 
out  of  bodies.     Today  scientific  knowl- 


edge has  so  far  advanced  that  we  know 
that  heat  is  not  a  substance  at  all. 

The  modern  theory  concerning  the 
nature  of  heat  and  light  is  that,  under 
some  conditions  at  least,  they  are  one 
and  the  same  thing  and  that  they  have 
a  common  origin  or  beginning.  We 
have  read  in  the  chapter  describing 
the  sun  that  it  is  made  up  of  many 
substances  such  as  iron,  sodium,  car- 
bon, copper,  etc.,  and  that  these  ele- 
ments are  at  a  very  high  temperature. 
We  also  learned  in  our  study  about 
chemistry  that  a  substance  such  as 
carbon,  for  example,  is  made  up  of 
very  minute  particles  called  atoms. 
It  is  now  thought  that  these  atoms  are 
in  turn  made  up  of  still  smaller  parts 
known  as  electrons.  The  nature  of 
these  electrons  will  be  spoken  of  when 
we  come  to  study  about  electricity. 

When  a  substance  is  very  hot  the 
atoms,  and  the  electrons  which  go  to 
make  up  the  atoms,  are  in  very  rapid 
but  regular  vibratory  motion.  Some 
of  the  electrons  may  be  vibrating  much 
more  rapidly  than  others. 

Now  there  exists  everywhere  in  the 
universe  a  strange  and  invisible  some- 
thing which  we  call  ether.  It  is 
probably  not  a  gas  or  liquid  or  solid 
but  is  something  quite  different  from 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


69 


ordinary  matter.  It  not  only  fills  all 
space,  extending  out  beyond  the  sun 
and  the  most  remote  star,  but  is  in 
everything,  that  is,  the  particles  of 
matter  which  go  to  make  up  this  book 
are  embedded  in  it.  Though  the 
ether  is  invisible  yet  we  kno\\^  that 
such  a  thing  exists  because  of  its  effect 
in  the  world,  just  as  we  know  that 
wind  exists,  not  because  we  see  the 
wind  itself,  but  because  we  can  ob- 
serve its  effect.  Though  we  do  not 
know  very  much  about  the  ether,  we 
do  know  that  it  has  certain  charac- 
teristics, or,  as  we  may  say,  properties, 
which  make  possible  the  transmission 
of  a  disturbance  through  it.  Imagine 
a  mass  of  gelatine  such  as  we  eat  for 
dessert  at  dinner.  If  we  touch  one 
side  of  the  gelatine  with  a  spoon  a 
tremor  or  wave  motion  passes  through 
the  entire  substance.  This  is  similar 
to  the  behavior  of  ether  when  dis- 
turbed in  certain  ways. 

We  will  remember  from  our  study 
of  sound  that  a  vibrating  piano 
string  generates  a  disturbance  in  the 
air  which  we  call  sound  waves.  Let 
the  piano  represent  an  atom  of  some 
element  in  the  sun,  and  the  strings 
some  of  the  electrons  that  go  to  make 
up  the  atom.  The  vibrating  electrons 
in  the  sun  being  surrounded  by  the 
all-pervading  ether  give  rise,  because 
of  their  motion,  to  disturbances  in 
this  strange  medium.  These  distur- 
bances, or  ether  waves,  travel  out- 
ward in  all  directions  carrying  some 
of  the  energy  of  the  motion  of  the 
electrons  with  them.  In  the  case  of 
the  piano  we  may  cause  a  number  of 
the  strings  to  vibrate  at  the  same  time 
— bass  notes  and  notes  of  higher  pitch 
— the  former  giving  rise  to  long  air 
waves  and  the  latter  short  waves.  In 
much  the  same  manner  some  of  the 
electrons  in  an  atom  may  be  vibrating 
slowly  and  others  rapidly.  Hence  both 
long  and  short  ether  waves  may  pro- 


ceed simultaneously  from  the  same 
atom.  However  the  longest  of  these 
ether  waves  are  very  short  when  com- 
pared with  sound  and  water  waves. 
The  sound  which  we  recognize  as 
middle  C  on  the  piano  is  about  four 
feet  in  length  while  a  wave  of  average 
length  in  the  ether  would  be  about  as 
long  as  a  thin  piece  of  tissue  paper  is 
thick. 

Another  striking  thing  about  these 
ether  disturbances  is  that  out  in  free 
space,  that  is,  beyond  our  atmosphere, 
the  long  and  short  waves  travel  with 
the  same  speed.  The  actual  velocity 
of  the  waves  in  the  ether  is  enormous. 
The  sun  is  something  like  ninety  three 
million  miles  from  the  earth,  an  ether 
wave  starting  at  the  sun  will  arrive 
at  the  earth  eight  and  one-half  min- 
utes later.  This  means  that  such 
waves  have  a  velocity  of  186,000  miles 
per  second.  We  are  amazed  with  the 
magnitude  of  such  a  velocity  when  we 
remember  that  a  bullet  travels  at  the 
rate  of  approximately  half  a  mile  a 
second ;  sound  in  air  travels  at  the  rate 
of  one-fifth  of  a  mile  a  second,  while 
an  ether  wave  could  travel  one  million 
miles  a  second. 

It  was  suggested  above  that  these 
waves,  as  in  the  case  of  sound  and 
water  waves,  possess  energy,  that  is, 
they  are  capable  of  exerting  a  force 
and  hence  doing  work.  Because  these 
waves  are  being  sent  out  continually 
from  the  sun,  or  as  we  say,  being 
radiated,  and  because  they  possess 
energy  these  disturbances  in  the  ether 
are  spoken  of  as  radiant  energy.  And 
so  we  see  that  the  energy  from  the  sun 
comes  to  the  earth  in  the  form  of  this 
radiant  energy  which  is  no  more  or 
less  than  a  series  of  wave  motions  in 
the  ether. 

So  far  in  our  story  we  have  not  said 
anything  directly  about  the  nature  of 
light  or  heat,  and  perhaps  we  have 
asked    ourselves    the    question,    what 


70  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

have   these   ether   waves  to   do  with  glass  are  very  close  together  and  have  a 

light  and  heat.     As  we  shall  presently  very  strong  attraction  for  one  another, 
see  it  was  necessary  to  know  something  We  naturally  wonder  what  force  or 

about  these  waves  coming  from  the  agency  keeps  the  molecules  in  motion 

far-away  sun  before  we  could  easily  and  whether  they  always  move  with 

and    clearly    understand    what    is    to  the  same  speed.     Here  is  where  our 

follow.  long  ether  waves  play  a  part.     When 

Now  this  radiant  energy  from  the  these  waves  coming  from  the  sun 
sun  passes  through  our  atmosphere  strike  upon  material  substances  such 
and  the  waves  strike  the  earth  and  as  wood  or  water  or  earth  they  cause 
all  bodies  upon  it.  The  shortest  of  the  molecules  composing  these  sub- 
these  ether  waves  are  capable  of  affect-  stances  to  vibrate  more  rapidly  than 
ing  certain  parts  of  the  body  in  a  they  commonly  do.  If  these  waves  of 
most  wonderful  and  beautiful  way.  radiant  energy  fall  upon  a  piece  of 
Where  certain  of  the  shortest  of  these  iron,  for  example,  for  a  long  time  the 
ether  waves  pass  into  our  eyes  and  molecules  of  iron  are  caused  to  move 
strike  the  retina  we  sense  green,  and  very,  very  rapidly.  Now  a  body  that 
still  longer  waves  give  us  a  sensation  is  moving  rapidly  possesses  more 
of  red.  The  retina  is  not  sensitive  energy  than  one  that  moves  slowly, 
to  the  longest  waves  but  we  fortunate-  This  is  illustrated  by  the  greater  de- 
ly  have  other  means  of  recognizing  struction  wrought  by  a  projectile 
their  presence,  and  we  shall  read  about  moving  at  a  high  velocity  as  compared 
these  long  waves  in  the  paragraphs  with  the  results  of  one  having  the 
which  are  to  follow.  For  the  present  same  weight  but  moving  slowly.  We 
the  important  fact  to  be  remembered  have  seen  that  our  ether  waves  possess 
is  that  the  short  ether  waves,  that  is,  energy.  In  the  case  we  are  studying 
those  capable  of  affecting  our  eyes,  the  molecules  which  are  given  greater 
constitute  what  we  know  as  light,  motion  by  the  impinging  waves  re- 
Light  then  is  a  wave  motion.  ceive   energy   from   these   waves   and 

And  now  to  learn  something  more  hence  possess  more  energy  as  a  result 

about   the  longest  waves   that  come  of   their   increased   motion.     We   say 

from  the  sun.     In  order  that  the  facts  the  substance  is  being  heated.     The 

about  these  waves  may  become  plain  energy    of   the    moving   molecules    is 

to  us  we  must  realize  a  certain  very  what    we    know    as     heat.       If    the 

important  and  strange  fact  in  nature,  molecular    motion    becomes    less    the 

The  book  in  our  hand  may  be  held  body    possesses    less    energy,    or,    in 

perfectly  still  but  do  we  realize  that  other  words,  it  has  less  heat.     We  are 

the  molecules  which  go  to  make  up  to  look  upon  these  long  ether  waves, 

the    paper    of    the    book    are    always  then,  not  as  heat  but  rather  as  that 

moving  about?     They  never  get  very  which  gives  rise  to  molecular  motion 

far  from  one  another  but  nevertheless  and  the  energy  of  this  molecular  mo- 

they  are  always  in  more  or  less  rapid  tion  is  heat. 

vibration,  and  this  is  true  about  the         The  molecular  motion  which  bodies 

molecules    of    all    substances    about  have  when  ether  waves  are  not  falling 

which  we  have  any  knowledge.     The  directly  upon  them  is  due  to  the  fact 

reason  that  the  molecules  do  not  fly  that     radiant    energy    has    at    some 

off  into  space  and  separate  from  one  former   time   reached   the    substance, 

another  is  that  the  molecules  of  any  and  to  other  reasons  which  will   be 

substance  such  as  paper  or  wood  or  explained  later. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY  71 
AIR,      WATER     AND      FIRE 

THE  Greeks,  when  they  spoke  of  answer  this  question  quite  positively, 

the  earth,  probably  meant  all  for   there   is    scarcely    anything   that 

solid  matter.     Of  course,  they  chemists  have  more  carefully  studied 

knew  as  well  as  we  do  that  this  solid  than  the  air.     It  is  not  an  element,  but 

matter  composing  the  earth  under  our  a  simple  mixture  of  a  number  of  elements 

feet  shows  itself  in  many  forms,  such  as  which  can  be  sorted  out  of  it,  just  as 

gold  and   silver  and   iron   and   sand,  you   might   mix   gold   and   silver   by 

But    still,    all    these    have    a    certain  melting    them    together,     and     then 

resemblance;  they  all  look  much  more  might  separate  them  from  each  other 

like  each  other  than  like  such  a  very  afterwards.     The  air  is  a  mixture  of 

different  thing  as  air;  and  so  they  were  different  elements  in  the  gaseous  state, 

all   grouped   together   under   the   one  Now,  we  should  be  particular  to  notice 

heading  of  "earth."  the  word  mixture,  because  it  has  an 

Of  course,  there  are  living  creatures  exact  meaning,  and  because,  when  we 

on  the  earth,   such,   for  instance,   as  come  to  say  what  we  must  say  about 

trees,    and    trees    make   the   material  water,  we  shall  find  that  though  water 

called    wood,    which    is    different    in  is  also  not  an  element,  and  though  it 

many  ways  from  the  earth  we  pick  contains  two  elements,  yet  it  is  not  a 

up  in  the   garden.     But  the   Greeks  mixture  of  those  two  elements,  but  is 

recognized,    quite    rightly,    that    all  something  else. 

living  things  are  made  out  of  the  sub-  The  case  of  water,  and  thousands  of 

stance  of  the  earth;  that  the  earth  is  other  things,  is  rather  more  difficult, 

their  mother,   as   they   said.     And   so  and  that  is  why  we  have  purposely 

they  still  continued  to  include  all  solid  taken  the  air  first,   because  scarcely 

things,   not  excepting    the    bodies    of  anything  could  be  more  simple  than 

living  creatures,  as  made  of  the  one  air.      The  most  simple  kind   of   stuff, 

element  earth.     We  now  know,  how-  of  course,  is  one  that  is  simply  made 

ever,  that  the  solid  ground  under  our  of  one  element,  such  as  gold,  or  silver, 

feet,   and  the  living  creatures  which  or    iron.     Nothing    could    be    more 

grow  from  it,  are  made  up  of  many  straightforward  than  that.     But,  after 

different  elements,  which  no  force,  no  all,  the  case  of  the  air  is  not  much  more 

kind     of     treatment,     however     long  difficult,    for    anyone    who    has    ever 

continued,  will  change  into  each  other  added  milk  to  tea,  or  seen  a  plum- 

or  will  split  up  into  different  things,  pudding,  knows  what  a  mixture  is. 

and  we  know  that  these  are  the  real  If  you  take  a  little  sugar  and  a  little 

elements.  rice,  and  mix  them  together,  there  you 

Now  let  us  consider  the  next  thing  have  a  simple  mixture, 

that  the  Greeks  called  an  element —  What    happens     when    two    things 

the  air.     We  have  already  learned  that  make  another  quite  different 

it  is  real  matter,  though  we  cannot  The  point  about  the  mixture  of  sugar 

see  it;  but  is  it  really  an  element,  as  and  rice  is  this:  that,  however  perfectly 

the  Greeks  thought — that  is  to  say,  they    are   mixed,    the    sugar   remains 

is  it  made  of  only  one  thing,  which  is  sugar  and  the  rice  remains  rice.     They 

one   and   the   same   everywhere,    and  are  mixed,   but  they  are  not  changed. 

which,  whatever  is  done  to  it,  cannot  After  all,  it  is  no  more  than  if  you  had 

be  changed  into  anything  else  or  split  one   grain   of   rice   and   one   grain   of 

up    into    simpler    things.'*     We    can  sugar,  and  put  them  side  by  side.     The 


72 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


grain  of  rice  is  still  a  grain  of  rice,  and 
the  grain  of  sugar  is  still  a  grain  of  sugar. 
That  may  seem  simple,  but  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  we  should 
understand  it,  because,  as  we  shall  see, 
two  elements  can  be  made,  in  certain 
circumstances,  to  unite  in  a  special  way 
which  is  very  much  more  than  mixture, 
and  to  produce  something  which  is 
absolutely  different  from  either  of 
them,  just  as  much  as  if  when  you 
mixed  sugar  and  ground  rice  they 
both  disappeared,  and  you  found 
yourself  with  a  lot  of  water  in  the  cup 
instead.  That  would  be  more  than 
a  mixture,  would  it  not.f*  Something 
must  have  happened  very  different 
from  simply  pouring  two  things  out 
of  two  bags  into  one  cup,  and  that  is 
all  you  need  do  to  make  a  mixture. 

What  a  mixture  is  and  what  a  mix- 
ture IS  NOT 

Now,  the  air  is  simply  a  mixture  of 
elements.  It  is  as  if  you  took  a 
quantity  of  one  element  in  the  form 
of  a  gas,  made  of  tiny  little  specks 
called  atoms — which  we  shall  talk  about 
soon — something  like  the  grains  of 
sugar  or  rice,  and  then  to  that  you 
added  a  quantity  of  another  element 
in  the  form  of  a  gas,  so  that  the  tiny 
grains  or  atoms  of  which  it  was  made 
just  mixed  with  the  atoms  of  the  first 
element.  It  is  as  if  you  had  black 
marbles  in  one  pocket  and  white 
marbles  in  another,  and  you  took  them 
out  and  put  them  into  a  different 
pocket  together.  The  black  marbles 
would  still  be  black,  and  the  white 
marbles  white,  and  you  would  simply 
have  a  mixture  of  black  marbles  and 
white  marbles. 

Now,  this  simple  fact,  that  the  air  is 
just  a  mixture  of  gases,  took  men  an 
exceedingly  long  time  to  find  out,  and 
it  took  them  still  longer  to  believe; and 
even  now,  though  people  know  that 
there  are  different  kinds  of  stuff  in  the 
air,  they  are  very  often  slow  to  under- 


stand that  these  kinds  of  stuff  are 
simply  mixed,  and  nothing  more.  And 
even  in  careless  books,  sometimes,  you 
will  find  the  facts  wrongly  stated,  so  as 
to  suggest  that  the  air  is  not  merely  a 
mixture  of  gases,  but  something  quite 
different,  which  we  may  as  well  know 
the  name  of  now;  it  is  called  a  com- 
pound. But  that  is  not  so;  the  air  is 
not  a  compound. 

There  are  two  elements  which  make 
up  nearly  the  whole  of  the  air;  their 
names  are  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  and 
they  are  not  really  combined,  but 
mixed,  like  the  marbles  in  one's  pocket. 
Oxygen  and  nitrogen  can  be  combined 
in  various  ways,  but  in  these  cases  they 
make  something  c^uite  different — 
which  is  not  oxygen,  not  nitrogen,  and 
certainly  not  air.  The  best-known 
thing  which  is  made  out  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  when  they  are  combined  as  a 
compound  is  called  laughing-gas, 
which  the  dentist  gives  us  so  that  we 
shall  feel  no  pain  when  we  have  a 
tooth  drawn. 

Oxygen  has  been  named  first,  though 
the  air  is  not  an  equal  mixture  of  these 
two  elements,  and  though,  indeed, 
there  is  far  more  nitrogen  than  oxygen 
in  it;  but  the  oxygen  is  far  more  im- 
portant, though  there  is  less  of  it. 
Just  about  one-fifth  of  all  the  air  con- 
sists of  oxygen,  and  just  about  four- 
fifths  consists  of  nitrogen.  Of  course, 
these  are  only  rough  proportions, 
because,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  a 
tiny  quantity  of  many  other  elements 
in  the  air  helping  to  make  up  the 
mixture. 

The  lazy  element  that  keeps  by  it- 
self, EVEN  IN  A  CROWD 

But  though  these  elements  are  very 
interesting,  yet  they  do  not  do  any- 
thing in  particular,  and  so  they  do 
not  matter  much  to  us.  Only  one 
of  them — perhaps  the  best  known — 
is  called  argon,  which  means  lazy, 
because,  though,  of  course,  it  will  mix 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


73 


with  anything,  it  has  never  yet 
been  made  to  combine  with  anything, 
but  always  keeps  by  itself,  so  to  say, 
even  when  it  is  in  a  crowd.  That  is 
why  it  is  called  lazy. 

Though  about  four-fifths  of  the 
entire  air  is  made  of  nitrogen,  yet  this 
element,  as  it  exists  in  the  air,  is  also 
not  very  important  in  itself,  for  it 
does  practically  nothing.  Very  differ- 
ent is  the  nitrogen  that  exists  in  the 
earth,  where  it  is  also  found,  for  in 
the  earth  it  helps  to  build  up  the  bodies 
of  animals  and  plants,  and  without 
it  there  could  be  no  life. 

But  practically  all  that  the  nitrogen 
in  the  air  does  is  merely  to  dilute  or 
weaken  the  oxygen,  just  as  you  dilute 
strong  medicine  by  adding  a  lot  of 
water  to  it.  If  all  the  air,  instead  of 
only  one-fifth  part  of  it,  were  made  of 
oxygen,  we  should  scarcely  know  our- 
selves. 
We  could  not  live  without  oxygen, 

NOR  COULD  we  LIVE  WITH  TOO  MUCH 

Oxygen  as  we  have  learned  is  the 
element  which  all  animals  and  plants 
breathe  in  order  to  keep  alive.  With- 
out oxygen  they  would  all  die  at  once. 
And  this  is  true  even  of  the  fishes  of  the 
sea,  which  breathe  oxj^gen  from  the 
air  that  has  dissolved  in  the  water. 
This  is  quite  different,  as  we  shall  see, 
from  the  oxygen  that  goes  to  maJie 
the  water,  which  the  fishes  cannot  use. 
If  all  the  air  were  made  of  oxygen  we 
should  get  too  much  of  it  into  our 
blood,  and  we  should  be  probably  very 
excited,  and  never  rest,  and  live  too 
fast.  We  should  do  what  a  fire  does 
if  you  blow  pure  oxygen  into  it.  It 
burns  up  vigorously.  It  is  quite  easy 
to  sift  the  oxygen  out  of  the  air,  and 
collect  it,  and  when  men  want  an  in- 
tensely hot  flame  they  make  something 
burn  with  this  pure  oxygen  instead  of 
with  ordinary  air.  Also,  sometimes 
when  people  are  ill,  and  cannot  get 
enough  oxygen  from  the  ordinary  air, 


they  are  given  pure  oxygen  instead  to 
breathe  for  a  time,  and  this  often 
helps  them  greatly. 

Well,  that  is  all  we  need  read  about 
air  at  present.  It  is  mainly  a  mixture 
of  two  elements  in  the  form  of  gases, 
but  it  is  an  unequal  mixture,  about 
four-fifths  of  it  consisting  of  the  ele- 
ment nitrogen,  and  about  one-fifth  of 
the  element  oxygen.  There  are  also 
tiny  quantities  of  various  other  ele- 
ments which  go  to  make  it  up. 

And  now  we  come  to  the  fourth  of 
the  things  which  the  Greeks  thought 
were  elements,  and  that  is  ivater.  This 
is,  of  course,  one  of  the  most  wonderful, 
interesting,  and  important  things  in 
the  world,  though  it  is  so  common. 
It  is  to  be  found  everywhere.  There 
is  a  vast  quantity  of  it  in  the  air  in  the 
form  of  a  gas  or  water- vapor;  enormous 
quantities  of  it  occur  in  the  form  of  ice 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  two  Poles 
of  the  earth — the  North  Pole  and  the 
South  Pole.  In  its  liquid  form  it 
covers  three-fifths  of  the  entire  surface 
of  the  globe.  Fully  three-fourths  of 
the  entire  substance  of  our  own  bodies 
consists  of  it,  and  this  is  practically 
true  of  all  living  creatures. 

There  could  be  no  life  without  water. 
Most  of  the  changes  that  occur  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  are  due  to  the 
action  of  water.  There  are  very  few 
forms  of  matter,  indeed,  which  will  not 
dissolve  in  water  to  some  extent;  and 
this  applies  not  only  to  solid  things 
like  sugar,  and  to  liquid  things,  but 
also  to  gases. 

Water  is  made  up  of  simpler  things 
that  are  not  water 

One  of  the  most  important  questions 

about  the  planet  Mars  is  as  to  the 

presence  of  water  there ;  and  one  of  the 

most  important  facts  about  the  moon 

— a  fact  which  explains  why  the  moon 

is  lifeless,  and  why  scarcely  anything 

ever  happens  on  its  surface — is  that 

there  is  no  water  on  it. 


7^  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

For  many  ages  men  believed  that  agination,  for,  of  course,  they  are  far 
water  was  an  element.  There  was  no  too  small  for  us  to  do  it  in  reality — 
reason  to  believe  that  water  could  ever  and  find  out  what  it  is  made  of.  This 
be  split  up  into  anything  simpler,  is,  of  course,  really  impossible  so  far 
But  we  now  know  that  water  is  not  an  as  one  molecule  is  concerned.  How- 
element,  and  few  more  important  dis-  ever  it  is  possible  for  the  chemist  to 
coveries  have  ever  been  made  than  this,  take   apart   a   large   number   of   such 

The  truth  is  that  water  is  made  up  of  molecules  at  once  and  hence  we  are 

simpler  things  which  are  not  water,  absolutely  sure  of  what  we  should  find 

Now,  the  first  thing  that  will  occur  to  if  we  were  able  to  take  one  molecule 

you  is  perhaps  that  water,  like  the  air,  of  water  and  pull  it  to  pieces, 

is  a  mixture.     Obviously,  it  is  not  a  Now,  let  us  imagine  that  we  have 

mixture  of  gases,  for  a  mere  mixture  this    molecule    before    us.     The    first 

of  gases  would  itself  be  gaseous,  as  the  thing  we  find  is  that  it  consists  of  three 

air  is;  but  perhaps  it  is  a  mixture  of  pieces.     Every     molecule     of     water, 

liquid  things,  just  as  milk  is.     But  this  everywhere   and   always,   whether   in 

is  not  so.     Water  is  neither  an  element  your  body,  or  in  the  air,  or  in  the  sea, 

nor  a  mixture,  but  is  what  is  called  a  or  in  the  form  of  ice,  or  in  the  air  of  the 

compound,  and  as  most  of  the  things  of  planet  Mars,  consists  of  these  three 

which   the   earth   is    made   are   com-  pieces  joined  together.     Otherwise  it 

pounds,  we  must  be  sure  we  understand  would  not  be  water,  and  nothing  else 

what   this   means   before   we   go   any  is  water,  however  much  it  may   look 

further.  like  water.     That  is  one  of  the  things 

The  atoms  which  form  molecules  we  are  absolutely  certain  of. 

If  you  take  a  heap  of  sand,  you  Further,  because  water  is  always 
know  that  it  is  made  up  of  tiny  grains,  made  of  molecules  consisting  of  these 
each  of  which  is  itself  a  grain  of  sand,  three  parts,  all  water  everywhere,  on 
Now,  in  exactly  the  same  way,  if  you  the  earth,  or  on  Mars,  or  on  a  planet 
take  a  tumbler  of  water,  it  is  made  up  belonging  to  some  other  sun  than  ours 
of  tiny  little  parts  or  particles,  each  of  a  million  million  miles  away,  always 
which  is  a  particle  of  water;  and  the  behaves  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
whole  bulk  of  the  water  is  made  up  of  a  all  other  samples  of  water.  It  has 
number  of  these  as  the  heap  of  sand  is  its  laws,  which  depend  upon  its 
made  up  of  grains  of  sand.  These  par-  nature;  and  as  its  nature  is  the  same 
tides  of  water  are  so  small  that,  if  you  everywhere,  so  its  laws  are  the  same 
could  imagine  a  row  of  them,  it  would  everywhere.  We  can  watch  the  snow- 
certainly  need  many  millions  of  mil-  caps  of  Mars  melting  under  the  influ- 
lions  of  them  to  stretch  out  as  far  as  ence  of  the  sun's  heat,  just  as  snow 
an  inch.  melts  on  the  earth. 

Now,  there  is  a  special  name  for  Everywhere  in  the  universe,  water 

these  tiny  parts  or  particles  of  any-  under  the  same  conditions  will  boil  in 

thing,   and  as  this  name  is  used  all  the  same  way,  will  melt  in  the  same 

over  the  world  in  describing  them,  we  way,  will  freeze  in  the  same  way,  will 

must  learn  it.     The  word  is  molecule —  dissolve    the    same    amounts    of    the 

pronounced  molly-cule — and  it  is  the  same  things,  will  form  drops  in  the 

Latin  name  for  a  little  mass.     Now  if  same  way,  will  have  exactly  the  same 

we  want  to  find  out  what  water  really  properties  of  every  kind;  simply  be- 

is,  the  best  way  for  us  would  be  to  cause  whenever  and  wherever  you  find 

take  one  of  these  molecules — in  im-  water  it  is  one  and  the  same  thing. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


75 


Now,  what  are  the  three  parts  of 
which  the  molecule  of  water  is  always 
made?  This  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
most  important  molecule  of  any  kind 
that  we  know  in  the  universe,  and  as 
it  is  also  one  of  the  simplest,  it  is  a 
good  one  to  begin  with.  The  picture  be- 
low is  an  imaginary  picture  of  the  way 
in  which  a  molecule  of  water  is  made. 
What  a  molecule  of  water   would 

LOOK  like  if  you  COULD  SEE  IT 

We  say  an  imaginary  picture  be- 
cause, though  we  have  drawn  the  three 
parts  as  if  they  were  round,  we  really 
know  nothing  about  that,  since  we 
have  never  seen  them.  We  do  know 
that   they   exist,    and   that   by   some 


The  tiniest  part  of  water  is  made  up  of  three  parts  like 
the  left  picture,  called  a  molecule;  the  large  picture  shows 
how  these  together  form  a  drop  of  water. 


force  or  other  they  are  held  together. 
We  also  know,  by  the  way,  that  this 
force  is  extremely  strong,  because  it 
takes  great  trouble  and  eflFort  to  break 
up  a  molecule  of  water;  that  being  the 
reason  why  for  so  many  ages  men 
thought  that  water  was  an  element. 

The  diagram  represents  a  single  part, 
or  molecule,  or  unit  of  water.  A  lot  of 
water — like  a  tumbler  of  water  or  the 
Atlantic  Ocean — is  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  these  molecules  taken  together. 
But  a  single  molecule  is  the  smallest 
possible  portion  of  water  that  can 
exist.  If  you  break  it  up  so  that  its 
three  parts  do  not  hang  together,  then 
it  is  no  longer  water  at  all,  but  is 
simply  a  mixture  of  the  two  kinds  of 
stuff  which  make  up  water.  This  we 
must  be  quite  clear  about,  for  it  is  the 


difference  between  a  compound  and  a 
mixture,  and  that  is  one  of  the  most 
important  differences  in  the  world. 

How  TO  make  one  o  catch  hold  OF 

TWO  H's 

If  you  had  in  a  jar — and  this  is 
quite  easy — a  number  of  the  kind  of 
things  marked  H  in  the  picture,  and 
also  a  number  of  the  kind  of  things 
marked  O,  and  even  supposing  that 
you  had  twice  as  many  of  the  H  as  of 
the  O,  so  that  the  proportion  between 
the  two  was  the  same  as  it  is  in  water, 
yet  that  jar  would  not  contain  water, 
but  only  a  mixture  of  the  stuff  called 
H  and  the  stuff  called  O.  That  mix- 
ture would  not  be  water,  and  would 
not  look  like  water ;  and  the  astonishing 
thing  is  that,  even  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  room,  this  mixture 
would  not  be  liquid  at  all,  but  just  a 
mixture  of  gases,  and  by  looking  at 
it  you  could  not  possibly  tell  it  from 
that  other  mixture  of  gases  which  we 
call  air.  In  a  little  while  we  shall  see 
how  it  would  be  possible  to  do  some- 
thing with  this  mixture  of  H  and  O  so 
as  to  make  every  O  catch  hold  of  two 
H's  and  form  a  molecule  of  water; 
and  then,  instead  of  the  mixture  of 
gases  that  we  had  before,  we  should 
have  a  tiny  drop  of  water,  and  this 
water  would  actually  be  made  out  of 
that  mixture  of  gases. 

Now,  that  is  what  water  is — a  com- 
pound made  out  of  the  two  gases 
which  up  to  now  we  have  called  by 
the  first  letters  of  their  names,  H  and 
O. 

Now,  what  do  H  and  O  stand  for? 
First  of  all  let  us  take  O,  because  we 
have  heard  more  about  it  already. 
O  stands  simply  for  the  gaseous  ele- 
ment oxygen,  which  we  talked  about 
in  connection  with  the  air. 

Each  molecule  of  water  has    two 
hydrogen  atoms  and  one  of  oxygen 

H  stands  for  another  gas,  called 
hydrogen,   and   hydrogen   is   really   a 


76 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


very  good  name  for  it,  and  tells  us 
what  it  is,  for  the  word  simply  means 
the  thing  that  produces  water,  and  H, 
or  hydrogen,  is  simply  the  gas  with 
which  oxygen  produces  water.  Only 
it  will  not  do  for  them  to  be  merely 
mixed,  but  they  must  be  covihined,  and 
they  must  be  combined  in  the  special 
way  shown  in  the  picture — two  H's 
for  one  O.  There  is  another  way  in 
which  hydrogen  and  oxygen  can 
combine,  in  which  there  are  two  H's 
for  two  O's,  so  that  each  molecule  of 
this  other  substance  consist  of  four 
parts  instead  of  three.  But  this  other 
substance  is  not  water;  it  is  not  even 
a  special  kind  of  water,  but  is  some- 
thing quite  different. 

Now,  there  is  another  word  which 
we  must  learn  here.  The  tiny  specks 
of  H  or  of  O  which  go  together,  two 
of  the  first  to  one  of  the  second,  in 
order  to  form  a  molecule  of  water  are 
called  atoms,  and  so  we  can  say  now  that 
water  is  made  of  molecules,  and  each 
molecule  contains  two  atoms  of  hydrogen 
and  one  of  oxygen. 

In  the  drawing  the  O  has  been  made 
large  and  the  H  quite  small,  for  the 
reason  that  each  oxygen  atom 
really  weighs  as  heavy  as  sixteen 
hydrogen  atoms.  Therefore,  though 
there  are  two  hydrogen  atoms  to  one 
oxygen  atom  in  every  molecule  of 
water,  oxygen  forms  eight-ninths  of 
all  water,  which  is  made  up  of  one  part 
of  hydrogen  and  eight  parts  of  oxygen. 

So  when  we  speak  of  an  element  like 
oxygen  or  gold,  we  simply  mean  some- 
thing consisting  of  a  number  of  atoms 
all  of  the  same  kind.  When  we  speak 
of  a  compound,  such  as  water,  we  mean 
something  made  of  molecules  which 
themselves  are  made  up  of  atoms  of  at 
least  two  kinds ;  and  when  we  speak  of 
a  mixture,  we  simply  mean  that  two 
or  more  kinds  of  atoms,  such  as  oxygen 
and  nitrogen,  have  got  mixed  up 
together. 


Now,  atoms  are  most  important 
things,  for  it  is  their  properties  that 
give  the  elements  their  properties. 
Gold  is  gold  because  it  is  made  of 
atoms  of  gold;  and  oxygen  is  oxygen 
because  it  is  made  of  atoms  of  oxygen. 
And,  just  as  we  saw  that  all  the  mole- 
cules of  water  are  the  same  everywhere, 
and  that  all  water  everywhere  is  made 
of  the  same  kind  of  molecules,  so  also 
we  must  know  that  all  the  atoms  of  any 
particular  element  are  the  same. 
There  are  atoms  of  oxygen  in  this  page 
before  you,  and  in  your  eye,  and  in  the 
sun,  and  in  water,   though  in  water 


The  pictures  show  how  atoms  mix.  The  dark  balls  are 
lil\e  atoms  of  an  element,  such  as  oxygen.  The  light  balls 
are  like  atoms  of  another  element,  such  as  hydrogen. 
When  the  two  mix,  we  get  a  mixture  of  elements,  as  in  the 
third  picture.  The  air  is  such  a  mixture.  Oxygen  and 
hydrogen  make  such  a  mixture,  but  that  is  not  water. 


they  are  combined  with  hydrogen. 
But  all  atoms  of  oxygen  everywhere  are 
all  the  same,  and  we  can  know  them 
because  they  are  the  same. 

Finally,  let  us  remember  the  way  in 
which  water  can  be  made.  If  we  take 
the  right  proportions  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen — that  is,  eight  times  as  much 
oxygen  as  hydrogen,  so  as  to  give  us 
two  hydrogen  atoms  for  every  one  of 
oxygen — and  if  we  let  them  mix  in  a 
jar,  and  if  then  we  pass  a  spark  of 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


77 


electricity  through  them,  the  atoms  of 
the  two  gases  will  rush  towards  each 
other,  each  atom  of  oxygen  taking  two 
of  hydrogen;  and  the  two  gases  will 
totally  disappear,  leaving  in  place  of 
them  a  tiny  drop  of  water. 

When  these  two  gases  are  once  united 
to  form  water  it  is  with  great  diffi- 
culty that  they  are  again  separated. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
same  agency  which  caused  two  gases 
to  combine,  in  the  above  experiment, 
may  be  utilized  to  separate  water  into 
its  constituent  parts.  If  we  send  an 
electric  current  through  some  water, 
to  which  has  been  added  a  small 
amount  of  acid,  we  shall  find  that  gas 
will  bubble  off  from  both  the  wires 
that  conduct  the  current  into  the 
liquid.  If  wc  examine  these  gases 
carefully  we  shall  find  gas  is  being 
produced  twice  as  rapidly  at  one  wire 
than  at  the  other  and  a  simple  test  will 
prove  that  this  gas  is  hydrogen.  The 
gas  being  evolved  at  the  other  terminal 
is  found  to  be  oxygen,  and  as  these 
gases  are  produced  the  quantity  of 
water  diminishes.  The  electric  cur- 
rent has  separated  the  water  into  its 
elemental  parts. 

This  however  is  not  the  only  method 
by  which  the  decomposition  of  water 
may  be  brought  about.  If  water  in 
the  form  of  steam  is  raised  to  a  very 
high  temperature  by  bringing  it  in 
contact  with  burning  anthracite  coal 
it  will  also  be  broken  up  into  hydrogen 
and  oxygen.  This  method  is  em- 
ployed on  a  large  scale  commercially 
in  producing  what  is  known  as  "water 
gas." 

If  we  want  to  express  very  shortly 
the  nature  of  water — that  is  to  say, 
the  make-up  of  a  molecule  of  water — 
we  can  simply  write  down  a  big  H  for 
hydrogen  and  put  a  little  2  beside  it  to 
show  that  we  want  two  hydrogen 
atoms;  and  then  we  can  take  a  big  O 
to  stand  for  oxygen,  and  put  a  little  1 


beside  it  to  mean  that  we  want  one 
oxygen  atom;  and  then  we  can  write 
them  together  like  this,  H2  Oi.  In 
order  to  save  trouble  we  usually  omit 
the  1,  and  so,  when  we  want  to  write 
water  in  this  special  way,  we  simply 
say  II2O,  and  that  represents  the  mole- 
cule of  water,  made  up  of  two  H,  or 
hydrogen,  atoms,  and  one  O,  or 
oxygen  atom. 

In  fact  scientists  frequently  use 
such  abbreviations  or  symbols  for 
elements  and  compounds.  Some- 
times more  than  the  initial  letter  is 
used  as  the  symbol  of  an  element,  and 
often  this  abbreviation  is  taken  from 
the  Latin  word  for  the  element.  For 
example,  Fe  stands  for  ferrum,  the 
Latin  word  for  iron;  Ag  for  argentum, 
meaning  silver;  and  Au  for  aurum,  the 
Latin  equivalent  for  gold. 

Reference  was  made  in  a  previous 
paragraph  to  the  force  which  holds 
the  atoms  together  to  form  the  mole- 
cules of  water.  This  force  is  spoken 
of  as  chemical  affinity  and  is  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  forces  in  the  world. 
Just  what  the  nature  of  this  force  is  no 
one  at  present  knows,  but  we  do  know 
that  this  force  acts  much  more  strongly 
between  certain  atoms  than  between 
others.  As  we  have  already  learned, 
the  chemical  affinity  between  the 
atoms  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
water  is  very  great  but  in  a  substance 
such  as  iron  rust,  which  is  a  compound 
of  the  elements  iron  and  oxygen,  the 
affinity  between  the  iron  and  oxy- 
gen is  not  nearly  so  strong  as  between 
hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  water. 

Not  only  is  there  a  difference  be- 
tween elements  with  respect  to  the 
strength  of  their  chemical  attraction, 
but  they  also  differ  in  the  manner  in 
which  they  unite  with  other  elements. 
For  instance  in  the  case  of  water  the 
element  oxygen  unites  with  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen  while  in  the  case  of  a 
certain    compound    of    zinc    used    in 


78  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

making  paint  the  molecules  are  made  Latin  in  order  to  express  this  way  of 

up  of  one  atom  of  oxygen   and  o?ie  measuring  things.     We  take  the  Latin 

atom  of  zinc.     It  would  take  us  too  word  for  a  hundred,  which  is  csnfum; 

far  to  inquire  into  this  point  further  and  another  Latin  word  per  meaning 

at  the  present  time  but  it  is  mentioned  "for"    or    "by";    and   so   we   get   the 

here    to    show    that    the    uniting    of  phrase    per    centum,    usually    written 

elements    to    form    compounds    is    a  per  cent  for  short.     Hence  we  say  in 

wonderful  process — a  process  however  the  case  of  apples,  for  instance,  that 

which    follows    certain    definite    and  they  are  18  per  cent  solid  matter  and 

fixed    laws.       It    has    already    been  82  per  cent  water.     The  long  black 

pointed  out  that  a  water  molecule  is  line  in  the  scale  in  the  picture  tells  the 

always  composed  of  the  same  elements  eye  just  what  these  words  tell  the  mind, 

in  the  same  proportions,  and  the  same  Picture   2  shows   that   strawberries 

thing   might   be   said   concerning   the  have  only  10  per  cent  of  solid  matter, 

compound  of  zinc  just  referred  to,  and  and  90  per  cent  of  water.     Picture  3 

about  any  compound  in  the  world.  shows  that  the  cucumber  has  only  5 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  water  per  cent  solid  matter,  and  95  per  cent 

it  is  well  for  us  to  realize  the  extent  of  water,  and  so  on  through  the  list, 

to  which  this  compound  enters  into  the  xA.nd  what  is  true  of  the  substances 

composition  of  the  countless  different  shown  in  the  illustrations  is  also  true 

substances    in    the    world.     Although  of  many  others.     Hence  we  are  led  to 

water  is  not  an  element  yet  it  acts  in  realize  how  widely  water  is  distributed 

the  world,  for  all  practical  purposes,  as  throughout  nature  and  how  important 

if    it    were    an    element.     The    water  a  part  this  compound  plays  in  the  life 

existing  in  nature — in  the  earth,  in  the  of  the  world. 

bodies  of  living  creatures,  in  the  sea,  And  now  we  come  to  consider  the 
and  in  the  air — goes  on  existing  as  fourth  thing  which  the  Greeks  thought 
water  from  year  to  year  just  as  if  it  was  an  element — namely,  fire.  It  is 
were  an  element  and  not  the  compound  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  ancient 
that  it  is.  This  is  one  of  the  singular  peoples  made  the  mistake  of  thinking 
and  very  important  facts  about  this  fire  to  be  something  separate  and  dis- 
common but  necessary  compound.  tinct  from  ordinary    matter.     As    we 

The  accompanying  picture  has  been  watch  the  flames  play  about  a  burning 
prepared  to  show  the  extent  to  which  object  and  acting  much  as  if  they 
water  enters  into  the  composition  of  were  alive  it  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
various  substances.  Each  of  the  small  stand  how  Plato,  one  of  the  most 
pictures  has  at  its  side  a  pillar,  which  learned  men  the  world  has  ever  known, 
we  may  call  a  scale  or  measure,  concluded  that  all  combustible  sub- 
marked  off  into  a  hundred  parts  Vjy  stances  must  contain  a  certain  element 
little  lines,  and  the  thick  black  line  which  enabled  them  to  burn.  Later 
in  the  middle  shows  how  many  hun-  in  the  world's  history  this  supposed 
dredths  of  the  thing  in  the  picture  are  element  came  to  be  known  as  phlogis- 
made  of  water.  ton,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning,  "I 

In  the  picture,  we  are  shown  that  set  on  fire."     According  to  this  theory 

eighty-two  parts  out  of  a  hundred  of  combustion  consisted  in  the  escape  of 

apples  consists  of  water.     The  remain-  phlogiston  from  the  burning  substance, 

ing  eighteen  parts  of  a  hundred  consist  In  short,  fire  was  escaping  phlogiston, 

of  various  other  things  which  are  not  About  the  time  of  our  Revolutionary 

water.     We  borrow   words   from   the  War  a  French  scientist  by  the  name  of 


THE     WATER     THAT     IS     EVERYWHERE 


S2  parts  out  of  100  of  apples  are 
made  of  water. 


90  parts  out  of  100  of  strawberries 
are  made  of  water. 


95  parts  out  of  100  of  a  cucumber 
are  made  ol  water. 


87   parts   out   of   100   of  milk   are 
made  of  water. 


12   parts  oui    of   100  of  Sour  are 
made  of  water 


This  loaf  contains  more  water  than 
the  flour  beside  it. 


About  two-thirds  of  an  egg  is  made 
of  water. 


About  four-fifths  of  a  fish  is  made 
of  water. 


Three-quarters  of  a  potato  is  made 
of  water. 

These  pictures  show  us  how  water  comes  into  everything.  It  is  wonderful  to  think  that  a  cucumber  can  hold  together 
as  a  solid  thing,  although  95  parts  of  it  are  water  and  only  5  are  solid  matter.  Each  of  these  pictures  has  a  little  measure 
beside  it,  marked  off  into  100  parts  by  little  lines,  and  the  thick  black  line  shows  how  many  of  these  parts  are  made  of 
water.  The  black  line  up  the  center  of  the  scale  stands  for  the  water,  the  white  line  stands  for  the  solid  matter  in  all  these 
things. 

7» 


80  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

Lavoisier  performed  a  number  of  ex-  set  free  and  escaping  as  a  gas.  This 
penments  which  revealed  the  true  is  a  somewhat  more  complex  reaction 
nature  of  the  process  of  combustion  than  the  oxidation  of  the  copper, 
and  gave  us  a  correct  understanding  When  the  chemical  reaction  just 
of  what  fire  really  is.  We  now  know  described  takes  place  a  definite  though 
that  fire  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  small  amount  of  heat  is  produced  as  a 
incandescent  matter— usually  the  result  of  the  reaction.  Now  many 
element  carbon.  The  process  known  chemical  reactions  result  in  a  large 
as  burning  or  combustion  is  what  the  amount  of  heat.  Carbon,  and  a  num- 
chemist  is  in  the  habit  of  calling  a  ber  of  other  elements,  have  a  very 
reaction.  By  reaction  he  means  the  strong  affinity  for  oxygen.  When  the 
breaking  up  of  a  compound  into  its  union  of  these  two  elements  takes 
elements,  or  the  uniting  of  elements  place  very  rapidly  a  large  amount  of 
to  form  a  compound,  the  latter  form  of  heat  is  produced.  Indeed  so  great 
reaction  being  illustrated  by  the  forma-  is  the  heat  that  the  particles  of  carbon 
tion  of  water  by  passing  an  electric  are  actually  heated  to  incandescence, 
spark  through  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  In  other  words,  combustion  or  hurnirig 
and  oxygen.  is  a  rapid  chemical  reaction  between 
If  we  lay  aside  a  bright  piece  of  carbon,  or  some  other  element,  and 
copper  for  a  considerable  length  of  oxygen.  Their  action  gives  rise  to  in- 
time  we  know  that  the  metal  will  be-  tenseheat  which  causes  the  combustible 
come  tarnished.  W^hat  has  happened?  material  to  glow  as  do  the  coals  in  the 
A  slow  chemical  reaction  has  taken  grate  or  the  gaseous  elements  in  a 
place.  Oxygen  from  the  air  has  candle  flame.  The  burning  of  a  build- 
gradually  united  with  the  metallic  ing  is  a  chemical  reaction  on  a  grand 
copper  on  the  surface  to  form  a  com-  scale. 

pound  known  as  copper  oxid.  Com-  The  question  might  naturally  arise, 
mon  muriatic  acid  is  a  gaseous  com-  what  happens  when  we  "light"  the 
pound  dissolved  in  water.  It  is  com-  fire  and  why  is  it  necessary? 
posed  of  hydrogen  and  an  element  By  applying  fire  to  a  combustible 
known  as  cldorine,  and  its  symbol  is  material  we  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
HCl — one  atom  of  hydrogen  and  one  substance  to  the  point  where  the  reac- 
of  chlorine  compose  a  molecule.  Now,  tion  will  begin,  and  after  the  union  of 
if  we  pour  some  of  this  acid  onto  a  the  elements  once  starts  the  heat  gener- 
piece  of  metallic  zinc  we  say  the  acid  ated  by  the  reaction  itself  is  sufficient 
"dissolves"  some  of  the  zinc.  What  to  continue  the  process.  The  tempera- 
we  really  mean  is  that  the  zinc  and  the  ture  to  which  we  must  heat  a  substance 
acid  have  reacted  chemically  to  form  before  it  will  begin  to  burn  is  known 
a  new  compound,  and  this  new  as  the  kindling  point.  We  can  thus 
substance  is  known  as  zinc  chlorid  see  that  combustion  will  not  take  place 
(Zn  CI2).  Zinc  has  a  much  stronger  where  there  is  no  oxygen,  and  that  if 
affinity  for  chlorine  than  does  hydro-  this  chemical  process  were  to  begin 
gen,  and  so  the  molecules  of  the  acid  at  ordinary  temperatures  all  the  corn- 
are  broken  up  and  new  molecules  are  bustible  material  in  the  world  would 
formed,    the    hydrogen    atoms    being  burn  up  at  once. 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS 

A  tabulated  statement  of  the  occurrence,  preparation,  properties  and  uses  of 
all  important  elements. 

Abbreviations: — At.  wt.,  atomic  weighl;    M.  wt.,  molecular  weight;    Va.,  valence;   S.  G.,  specific  gravity;    M.  P., 
melting  point;    B.  P.,  boiling  point.     All  temperatures  are  centigrade. 

Definitions  of  Chemical  Element,  Atomic  Weight,  Symbol,  Formula,  and    Electrolysis  will  be   found  at    the    end 
of  the  Table. 

Note: — The  M.  wt.  of  gases  divided  by  28.95  gives  the  density  compared  with  air. 


Aluminum,  Al, 

At.  wt.  27.1. 

Va.  III. 

S.  G.  2.6  M.  P.  658° 


Antimony,  Sb. 

At.  wt.  120.02. 
Va.  Ill  and  V. 
S.  G.  6.7. 
M.  P.  630°. 


Argon,  A. 

At.  wt.  39.86. 
M.  wt.  39.86. 
B.  P.  186°. 


Arsenic,     As. 

At.  wt.  75. 
Va.  Ill  and  V. 

S.  G.  5.7. 


Barium,     Ba. 

At.  wt.  137.37 
Va.  II. 
S.  G.  3.6. 


Bismuth,  Bi. 

At.  wt.  208. 
Va.  III. 
S.  G.  9.9. 
M.  P.  266.5". 
Boron,     B. 
At.  wt.  11. 
Va.  III. 
S.  G.  2.4. 


Occurrence.  Very  abundant  in  clays,  feldspars  and  many 
other  silicate  rocks;  also  as  the  oxide  in  emery,  ruby,  sap- 
phire,  etc. 

Preparation.  Electrolysis  of  the  purified  oxide  dissolved  in 
molten  cryolite. 

Properties.  Silver  white,  ductile,  malleable  at  120°,  high 
tensile  strength,  the  best  conductor  in  proportion  to  weight. 
Stable  at  ordinary  temperatures,  attact  only  by  the  strong 
acids,  except  nitric  acid,  and  by  caustic  alkali.  Has  a 
powerful  afhnity  for  oxygen  at  high  temperatures,  there- 
fore it  is  a  most  powerful  reducer  of  other  oxides,  generating 
high  temperatures  in  the  action,  which  are  exceeded  only  by 
the  electric  arc.  Also  used  for  cooking  utensils,  electrical 
conductors,  and  paint.  Clays  and  alum  are  very  important 
compounds. 

Occurrence.      Mostly  as  stibnite  (Sb2S3). 

Preparation.  Roasting  stibnite  to  oxide  and  reducing  with 
carbon. 

Properties.  White  metal,  brittle,  strongly  crystalline.  Molt- 
en metal  expands  on  solidification,  and  its  alloys  give,  there- 
fore, sharply  defined  castings,  e.  g.,  type  metal.  Stable 
in  air,  burns  when  heated,  and  unites  readily  with  the  halo- 
gens. It  is  used  mostly  in  alloys,  e.  g.,  type  metal,  Britannia 
metal  and   Babbitt   metal    (for  bearings). 

Occurrence.      About  1%  of  the  air. 

Preparation.  Carbon  dioxide,  water  vapor,  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  are  successively  removed  from  air  by  absorption. 
The  residue  is  mostly  Argon. 

Properties.  Monatomic  gas,  absolutely  inert,  enters  into  no 
chemical  combinations.  Identified  by  its  characteristic 
spectrum. 

Occurrence.  Free,  arseno  pyrite  (FeAsS),  and  the  sulphides 
orpiment  and  realgar. 

Preparation.     Roast  ores,  and  reduce  oxide  with  carbon. 

Properties.  Steel  gray,  tarnishes  to  dull  gray,  coarsely 
crystalline.  Sublimes  at  450°.  Burns  with  pale  blue  flame, 
combines  readily  with  the  halogens.  The  most  important 
compounds  are  white  arsenic  (AS2O3)  and  its  derivatives, 
and  the  salts  of  arsenic  acid  (II3ASO4).  Used  mostly  for 
insecticides,  also  in  medicine. 

Occurrence.     Barytes   (BaS04)   and  witherlte   (BaCOa). 

Preparation.     Electrolysis  of  the  molten  chloride. 

Properties.  A  silver-white  metal,  decomposes  water,  very 
active.  Its  vapors  give  a  green  flame.  Hence  it  is  used  in 
pyrotechny.  Important  compounds  are  BaOl,  used  in 
manufacturing  oxygen  and  hydrogen  peroxide,  and  BaSO*, 
used  in  paints  as  an  inferior  substitute  for  white  lead.  BaSO* 
is  highly  insoluble. 

Occurrence.     Free,  and  as  trioxide,  and  trisulphide. 

Preparation.     Roasted  in  air  and  reduced  with  carbon. 

Properties.  Bright  crystalline  metal  with  pinkish  tint; 
brittle.  Stable  in  air,  burns  when  heated.  Used  in  alloys 
with  low  melting  points.     The  subnitrate  is  used  in  medicine. 

Occurrence.      In  boric  acid  and  borax. 

Preparation.     The  o.xide  is  heated  with  magnesium. 

Properties.  A  greenish  black  powder.  Boric  acid  (H3BO3) 
and  borax  (Na2B407)  are  important  compounds. 


// 


THE  HUMAN  INTJEREST  LIBRARY 

CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


Bromine,     Br. 

At.  wt.  79.92. 
M.  wt.  160. 
Va.   L 
S.   G.  3.2. 
B.  P.  59°. 

Cadmium,     Cd. 

At.  wt.   112.4. 

Va.  II. 

S.   G.  8.6. 

M.   P.  321.7°. 
Caesium,   Cs. 

At.  wt.  132.81. 

Va.  1.     S.  G.  2.4. 
Calcium.     Ca. 

At.  wt.  40.09. 

Va.  II. 

S.   G.  1.54. 

M.  P.  760. 


Carbon,      C. 

At.  wt.   12. 

Va.  IV. 

S.   G.   1.9—3.5. 


Cerium,     Ce. 

At.   wt.   140.25. 
Va.  Ill  and  IV. 
S.   G.  7.0. 
Chlorine,      CI. 
At.  wt.  36.46. 
M.  wt.  71. 
Va.  I,  V  and  VII. 
B.  P.— 33  6°. 


Chromium,     Cr. 

At.  wt.  52. 

Va.  II,  III  and  VI. 

S.   G.  6.9. 

M.  P.  1515°. 


Cobalt,     Co. 

At.  wt.  58.97. 

Va.  II  and  III. 

S.   G.  8.5. 

M.  P.  1500°. 
Columbium,     Cb. 

At.  wt.  93.5. 

S.  G.   12.7 

M.  P.  1950°. 
Copper,     Cu. 

At.  wt.  63.57. 

Va.  I  and  II. 

?.   G.  8.9. 

M.  P.  1064°. 


Occurrence.     In  sea   water  and  salt  deposits,   as  bromides. 

Preparation.  Bromides  are  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
manganese  dioxide,   and  the   Br.   distilled  off. 

Properties.  Dark  red  liquid,  bad  odor,  very  corrosive  and 
poisonous.  Combines  with  most  elements  but  with  less 
energy  than  chlorine.  LTsed  in  preparation  of  dyes.  Bro- 
mides  are   used   in   medicine   and   photography. 

Occurrence.     In  Zinc  ores. 

Properties.  A  silver-white  metal,  burns  in  air,  and  is  faii'y 
active.  Uses,  in  alloys  with  low  ]\I.  P.  The  sulphide  is  a 
yellow  pigment.     The  iodide  is  used  in  medicine. 

Rare  element,  strongly  resembling  potassium.  The  most 
active  of  the  metals. 

Occurrence.  As  carbonate  in  limestone,  marble,  chalk,  etc. 
As  sulphate  in  gypsum,  as  phosphate,  fluoride,  and  in  many 
silicates. 

Preparation.     Electrolysis  of  the  fused  chloride. 

Properties.  A  white  crystalline  metal.  Decomposes  water, 
burns  in  air,  and  is  very  active.  Uses:  Yields  many  useful 
compounds,  e.  g.,  lime,  which  is  the  oxide;  slaked  lime,  the 
hydroxide;     bleaching   powder   and    calcium   carbide. 

Occurrence.  In  two  crystalline  forms,  diamond  and  graphite, 
and  in  several  amorphous  forms:  charcoal,  coke,  lamp 
black,  gas  carbon,  and  coal.  Each  has  its  peculiar  impor- 
tant uses. 

Properties.  Very  stable  at  ordinary  temperatures,  very 
active  toward  oxygen  at  high  temperatures.  It  forms  carbon 
dioxide,  the  basis  of  carbonic  acid,  and  the  poisonous  monox- 
ide. The  compounds  of  carbon  form  the  field  of  organic 
chemistry. 

Occurrence.     In  cerite  and  monazite. 

Preparation.  Electrolysis  of  the  molten  chloride.  Burns 
with  dazzling  brightness.  One  per  cent  of  the  dioxide  is 
used  in  Welshach  mantles. 

Occurrence.     In  salt   (XaCl)  and  other  chlorides. 

Preparation.  Electrolysis  of  chlorides,  or  oxidation  of  hy- 
drochloric acid. 

Properties.  A  greenish-yellow  gas  of  intensely  bad  odor, 
very  corrosive  to  mucous  membranes,  combines  with  most 
elements  with  great  energy.  Used  for  bleaching  and  dis- 
infecting. 

Occurrence.     As  chromite  (FeCr204). 

Preparation.     By  reducing  the  oxide  with  aluminum. 

Properties.  A  steel  gray,  brittle  and  very  hard  metal. 
Stable  in  air,  burns  at  high  temperatures.  Used  in  alloys 
and  in  chrome  steel.  Potassium  dichromate,  KoCr-iO?,  has 
many  uses,  in  making  pigments,  in  tanning  and  dyeing,  and 
as  an  oxidizing  agent. 

Occurrence.     As   smaltite,    CoAsj,   and  cobaltite,    CoAsS. 

Preparation.     Reducing  the  oxide  with  hydrogen. 

Properties.  A  white,  magnetic,  malleable  metal.  Its  salts 
are  pink.  Used  in  Cobalt  glass,  which,  when  ground,  gives 
the  blue  pigment,  smalt. 

A  rare  element.  The  metal  is  not  affected  by  acids.  It  h 
weakly  acidic  and  also  weakly  basic. 


Occurrence.     In  oxide,  carbonate  and  sulphide  ores. 

Preparation.  The  oxide  is  reduced  with  carbon.  It  is  re- 
fined by  electrolysis. 

Properties.  A  red,  lustrous,  very  ductile  and  malleable 
metal.     The  best  electrical  conductor  next  to  silver.     Dis- 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


III 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS— Continued 


Dysprosium. 
Erbium. 
Europium. 
Fluorine,     F. 

At.  wt.  19. 
M.  wt.  38. 
Va.  I. 


Gadolinium,     Gd. 
Gallium,     Ga. 

At.   wt.   69.9. 
Germanium,     Ge. 

At.   wt.  72.5. 
Glucinum   (or  Beryllium). 

Gl.      At.  wt.  9.1."^ 

Va.  II. 

S.   G.   1.8. 
Gold,     Au. 

At.   wt.   197.2. 

Va.  I  and  III. 

S.   G.   19.32. 

M.   P.   1062.4°. 


Helium,     He. 

At.  wt.  3.99. 
M.  wt.  3.99. 
B.   P.  268.7°. 

Hydrogen,     H. 

At.   wt.   1.008. 
M.   wt.  2.016. 
Va.  I. 
B.  P.— 252.5°. 


Indium,      In. 

At.   wt.   114.8. 
Iodine,      I. 

At.  wt.   126.92. 
Va.  I,  V  and  VII. 
S.  G.  4.95. 
M.  P.   114°. 


Iridium,      Jr. 

At.  wt.   193.1. 
S.   G.  22.42. 
M.   P.   1950°. 


solves  readily  in  nitric  acid,  and  in  other  acid  when  aided  by 
oxygen.  It  is  used  for  electrical  conductors,  for  electro- 
plating, as  sheet  copper,  and  in  many  alloys.  The  com- 
pounds are  poisonous  and  are  used  in  germicides,  and  in- 
secticides.    Blue  vitriol  is  CUSO45H2O. 

Are  rare  earth  elements,  separated  from  other  elements  with 
great  difficulty. 

Occurrence.  Mostly  in  cryolite,  NasAlFe,  and  fiuorite, 
CaF,. 

Preparation.  Electrolysis  of  hydrogen  fluoride  in  a  special 
cell. 

Properties.  A  pale  yellowish-green  gas.  The  most  violently 
active  non-metallic  element.  Decomposes  water,  liberating 
oxygen  as  ozone.  Hydrogen  fluoride  is  used  for  etching  glass 
and  in  the  decomposition  of  silicates. 

A  rare  earth  element,  difficult  to  separate. 

A  rare  element  found  in  some  zinc  blende.  Like  aluminum 
the  oxide  is  both  acidic  and  basic. 

A  rare  element,  having  the  properties  intermediate  between 
silicon  and  tin. 

Occurrence.      In  beryl. 

Preparation.     Electrolysis   of    the   fused   double   fluoride. 

Properties.  A  very  light  metal  with  the  excellent  qualities  of 
aluminum  to  even  a  greater  degree.     But  it  is  rare. 

Occurrence.      Chiefly  free,  but  also  as  telluride. 

Preparation.  Gold  bearing  sands  are  washed,  and  the  gold 
collected  in  mercury  from  which  it  is  separated  by  distilla- 
tion. When  gold  occurs  in  a  very  fine  state  it  is  dissolved 
from  the  powdered  ore  by  cyanide. 

Properties.  A  very  soft,  brilliant,  yellow  metal,  an  excellent 
conductor,  and  the  most  ductile  and  malleable  of  all  metals. 
It  is  very  stable  and  insoluble  in  all  acids,  except  aqua  regia. 
It  is  both  acidic  and  basic.  Gold  is  alloyed  with  copper  or 
silver  to  increase  its  hardness.  The  fineness  of  gold  is  ex- 
pressed in  carats,  24  carat  gold  is  the  pure  metal. 

Occurrence.  In  air  about  one  part  per  million  by  volume. 
In  large  quantities  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  sun. 

Preparation.  Fractional  distillation  of  liquid  argon.  The 
lightest  substance  next  to  hydrogen.  Combines  with  no 
other  elements,  and  has  the  lowest  B.  P.  of  any  substance. 

Occurrence.  11.19%  of  all  water,  also  in  petroleum,  natural 
gas,  and  all  living  organisms. 

Preparation.  By  electrolysis  of  water,  and  by  the  action 
of  zinc  and  other  metals  upon  several  strong  acids. 

Properties.  The  lightest  known  substance.  It  is  readily  ab- 
sorbed by  a  number  of  metals,  especially  by  palladium. 
Combines  powerfully  with  oxygen,  fluorine  and  chlorine.  In 
water,  acids,  living  organisms  and  organic  compounds  it 
plays  a  most  important  role.  It  is  used  for  filling  balloons 
and  in  the  oxy-hydrogen  blowpipe. 

A  rare  element,  occurring  in  zinc  blende.  Its  vapor  colors  a 
flame  blue. 

Occurrence.      In  certain  sea   weeds,   and  in   Chili   saltpeter. 

Preparation.      Treating   iodides    with    chlorine. 

Properties.  Dark  gray  crystals  with  metallic  luster.  Its 
vapor  is  violet.  Slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  in 
alcohol,  ether,  carbon  disulphide,  chloroform  and  solutions 
of  potassium  iodide.  Combines  with  many  elements,  but 
with  less  energy  than  clilorine  and  bromine.  It  colors  starch 
blue.     Used  in  medicine  and  in  many  organic  syntheses. 

Occurrence.      With  platinum. 

Properties.  A  white  and  very  hard  metal.  Not  attacked  by 
aqua  regia  or  any  acid.      Used  for  hardening  platinum. 


IV 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


Iron,     Fe. 

At.   wt.  55.85. 
Va.   II  and  III. 

S.   G.  7.86. 
M.   P.   1804°. 


Krypton,     Kr. 

At.    wt.   82.9. 
Lanthanum,     La. 

At.   wt.   139.0. 

Va.  III. 
Lead,     Pb. 

At.   wt.   207.1. 

Va.   II  and  1\. 

S.  G.   11.4. 

M.  P.  326°. 


Lithium,     Li. 

At.   wt.   6.94. 

Va.   I. 

S.  G.  0.53. 


Magnesium,      Mg. 

At.   wt.   24.32. 
Va.   II. 
S.  G.   1.75. 
M.   P.   633°. 


Manganese,      Mn. 

At.   wt.   54.93. 
Va.  II,  III,  IV,  VI 
and  VII. 

S.  G.  8.0. 


Mercury,     Hg. 

At.   wt.   200. 
Va.   I  and  II. 
S.   G.   13.6. 


Occurrence.  As  the  ores,  magnetite,  hematite,  limonite, 
and  siderite;  also  in  pyrites  and  widely  distributed  through 
rocks  and  soils. 

Preparation.  In  the  blast  furnace  where  the  ores  are  re- 
duced by  carbon  monoxide,  and  other  matter  is  run  into 
slag.  The  result  is  pig  iron  from  which  the  different  kinds 
of  iron  and  steel  are  prepared.  The  essential  difference  in 
these  is  due  to  the  varying  proportions  of  carbon  contained, 
and  the  influence  of  small  amounts  of  other  metals  alloyed 
with  steel.  Mn.,  Ni.,  Cr.,  Mo.,  W.,  V.,  Ti.,  Si.  and  Cu.,  are 
all  used  to  impart  special  properties  to  steel.  The  carbon 
content  varies  from  2%  to  5%  in  cast  iron;  .2%  to  1.5%  in 
steel;    and  less  than  .2%  in  wrought  iron. 

Properties.  A  white,  malleable,  ductile  and  magnetic  metal. 
It  rusts  in  moist  air,  and  dissolves  readily  in  dilute  acids. 
It  is  by  far  the  most  important  metal  in  the  extent  and  the 
varied  applications  of  its  usefulness.  Some  of  its  compounds 
are  used  in  medicine,  and  green  vitriol  (FeS047H20)  is  used 
as  a  disinfectant,  in  dyeing  and  in  the  making  of  ink. 

Occurrence.      In  minute  quantity  in  air. 

Properties.      Like  argon,  forms  no  chemical  combinations. 

Occurrence.     In    the    rare    mineral    lanthanite. 

Properties.  An  iron  gray  metal,  malleable  and  ductile.  It 
is  unstable,  and  reacts  with  water. 

Occurrence.      Principally  as  galena  (PbS). 

Preparation.  Partial  roasting  of  the  ore,  then  continuing 
the  heating  in  a  closed  furnace.  The  crude  metal  is  then 
purified. 

Properties.  A  soft,  gray  metal,  malleable  but  of  small 
ductility.  It  is  stable  in  air,  is  but  little  affected  by  acids, 
excepting  nitric  acid.  Heated  in  air  it  forms  the  oxide 
litharge  (PbO)  which  oxidizes  to  red  lead  (Pb304)  on  further 
heating.  It  is  used  for  water  pipes,  as  sheet  lead,  lead  foil, 
in  shot,  storage  batteries,  and  in  a  number  of  important 
alloys.  The  basic  carbonate,  "white  lead"  is  the  most 
important  basis  of  paints. 

Occurrence.  In  some  rare  minerals,  and  in  some  mineral 
waters. 

Preparation.  By  electrolysis  of  the  fused  chloride.  A  silver 
white,  soft  metal,  that  tarnishes  quickly  in  air,  decomposes 
water,  and  combines  readily  with  nitrogen.  The  carbonate 
is  used  in  medicine.     Lithium  salts  color  flames  carmine  red. 

Occurrence.  Widely  distributed  in  carbonates,  as  magnesite 
and  dolomite,  as  sulphate,  chloride,  and  in  many  silicate 
rocks. 

Preparation.      Electrolysis  of  fused  carnallite. 

Properties.  A  silver-white,  tough  metal,  ductile  when  hot. 
It  tarnishes  in  air,  decomposes  boiling  water,  is  very  active 
toward  acids,  and  burns  with  an  exceedingly  dazzling  bright 
light.  The  sulphate,  "epsom  salts,""  and  the  oxide  and 
carbonate  are  used  in  medicine.  Magnalium,  the  alloy 
with  aluminum  is  light  and  strong  and  has  important  uses. 

Occurrence.  Principally  pyrolusite  (MnOs),  also  as  Mn203, 
and  Mn304,  and  as  a  minor  constituent  in  many  rocks. 

Preparation.     Reducing  Mn304  with  aluminum  filings. 

Properties.  A  hard  steel-gray  metal.  It  rusts  in  moist  air, 
and  dissolves  in  dilute  acids.  Used  in  steel  manufacture  and 
in  alloys.  Potassium  permanganate,  KMn04,  is  an  im- 
portant oxidizing  agent  and  disinfectant. 

Occurrence.      Free  and  as  cinnabar  (HgS). 

Preparation.  By  roasting  cinnabar  and  distilling  off  the 
mercury.  A  silver-white  liquid  metal.  It  is  stable  in  air 
and  is  dissolved  by  nitric  acid,  and  aqua  regia.      Used  in 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


M.  P.— 39.5°. 
B.   P.  356.95°. 


Molybdenum,  Mo. 

At.  wt.  96. 

Va.  IIL  IV,  V  and  VI. 

S.  G.  9.0.     M.  P.  2110°. 
Neodymium,     Nd. 

At.  wt.  144.3. 
Neon,     Ne. 

At.  wt.  20.2. 
Nickel,     Ni. 

At.  wt.  58.68. 

Va.  II  and  IIL 

S.  G.  8.9. 

M.  P.  1385°. 

Nitrogen,   N, 
At.  wt.  14.01. 
M.  wt.   28. 
Va.   Ill  and  IV. 
B.  P.— 194°. 


Osmium,     Os. 

At.   wt.   190.9. 
S.  G.  22.48. 
M.  P.    2400°. 
Oxygen,     O. 
At.  wt.  16. 
M.  wt.  32. 
Va.  II. 
B.  P.— 184°. 


Palladium,     Pd. 

At.  wt.   106.7. 
S.  G.  11.9. 
M.   P.  1535°. 
Phosphorus,     P. 
At.  wt.  31.04. 
Va.  Ill  and  V. 


Platinum,     Pt. 

At.  wt.   195.2. 
Va.  II  and  IV. 
S.    G.   21.48. 
M.  P.  1753°. 


many  scientific  instruments  and  in  the  extraction  of  gold 
from  its  ores.  It  forms  alloys  called  amalgams  with  many 
metals.  Its  salts  are  poisonous,  some  are  used  in  medicine 
and  the  bichloride  as  a  powerful  germicide. 

Occurrence.     As  molybdenite  (M0S2). 

Preparation.  By  reducing  the  oxide  with  aluminum.  A 
white  malleable  metal,  insoluble  in  dilute  acids.  It  is  used 
in  steels. 

A. rare  element  occurring  with  other  rare  earth  elements. 

Occurrence.  Along  with  argon,  which  it  resembles  in  prop- 
erties. 

Occurrence.      In  combination  with  arsenic  and  sulphur. 

Preparation.      Reducing  the  oxalate  in  hydrogen. 

Properties.  A  white,  hard,  lustrous  metal,  malleable,  ductile 
and  tenacious.  It  is  stable  in  air,  but  dissolves  readily  in 
nitric  acid.  Its  salts  are  green.  It  is  used  in  plating  and 
in  a  number  of  important  alloys. 

Occurrence.  Four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  also  in  ammonia, 
nitrates,  all  living  organisms,  and  in  many  organic  com- 
pounds. 

Preparation.  Removi^ng  the  other  constituents  of  air,  or  by 
heating  ammonium  nitrite. 

Properties.  A  colorless,  odorless  gas,  inactive,  but  though 
it  is  brought  into  combination  with  difficulty,  its  compounds 
are  exceedingly  numerous  and  important.  The  most  com- 
mon of  the  compounds  are  ammonia  (NH3),  and  nitric 
acid     (HNO3). 

Occurrence.      Along  with  platinum. 

Properties.  The  heaviest  known  metal.  It  has  the  highest 
known  valence  of  VIII,  and  its  principle  compound  is  the 
tetroxide   (OSO4). 

Occurrence.  Free  in  the  air  of  which  it  forms  one-fifth. 
It  constitutes  eight-ninths  of  water,  and  nearly  fifty  per  cent 
of  the  earth. 

Preparation.  By  heating  potassium  chlorate,  or  barium 
dioxide. 

Properties.  A  colorless  gas,  but  it  is  blue  in  deep  layers, 
slightly  heavier  than  air.  It  is  soluble  in  water  to  the  extent 
of  three  volumes  in  100  of  water.  It  is  exceedingly  active, 
and  combines  with  nearly  all  elements.  Its  oxides  form  the 
basis  of  most  of  inorganic  chemistry.  Its  uses  in  respiration 
and  combustion  are  fundamental  to  life  and  civilization. 

Occurrence.      Along  with  platinum. 

Properties.  Resembles  silver  and  platinum.  Dissolves  in 
nitric  acid.  The  metal  may  absorb  up  to  900  times  its 
volume  of  hydrogen. 

Occurrence.  As  phosphates  in  apatite  and  other  minerals, 
in  small  quantities  in  all  soils.  It  constitutes  the  chief  mineral 
matter  of  bones,  and  is  a  necessary  constituent  of  the  tissues. 

Preparation.  Reducing  calcium  phosphate  with  carbon  and 
sand  in  the  electric   furnace. 

Properties.  Phosphorus  exists  in  two  forms:  the  yellow  form 
which  is  waxy,  dissolves  in  carbon  disulphide,  melts  at  44°, 
ignites  at  a  very  low  temperature,  and  burns  with  great 
energy.  It  is  very  poisonous.  Red  phosphorus  is  a  crystal- 
line powder,  insoluble  in  carbon  disulphide,  acts  with  less 
energy  and  is  non-poisonous.  Phosphorus  is  used  for  the  heads 
of  matches,  and  the  phosphates  are  important  as  fertilizers. 

Occurrence.     Free,  alloyed  with  the  other  platinum  metals. 

Preparation.     The  separation  of  the  metals  is  complex. 

Properties.  A  silvery  metal,  tenacious,  ductile  and  malleable. 
Resists  all  acids,  but  dissolves  slowly  in  aqua  regia.  Be- 
cause of  this  resistance  and  its  high  melting  point  it  is  in- 


VI 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


Potassium,      K. 

At.   wt.  39.1. 
Va.   I. 

.   G.   86. 
M.   P.  G2.5°. 


Praseodymium, 

At   wt.    140.(3. 
Radium,     Ra. 
At.   wt.  2^6.4. 
Va.  IL 


Pr. 


Rhodium,      Rh. 

At.   wt.   1(1-2. !>. 
Rubidium,     Rb. 

At.   wt.  85.45. 

Va.   I. 

S.  G.   1.52. 
Ruthenium,     Ru. 

At.   wt.   101.7. 

Samarium,     Sa. 

At.    wt.    150.4. 
Scandium,     Sc. 

At.   wt.   44.1. 
Selenium,      Se. 

At.   wt.   79.2. 

Va.  IL  IV  and  VI. 


Silicon,     Si. 

At.  wt.   28.3. 

Va.  IV. 

M.   P.   1200°. 


Silver,     Ag. 

At.   wt.   107.88. 
Va.  I. 

S.   G.   10.53. 
M.   P.  960°. 


valuable  for  chemical  vessels.  It  also  is  the  only  metal 
that  can  be  successfully  fused  into  glass,  hence  its  use  in 
electric   lamps. 

Occurrence.  As  chloride,  sulphate,  nitrate,  feldspar,  and 
many  other  silicates.  It  is  a  necessary  constituent  of  soils, 
and  of  plants  and  animals. 

Preparation.      Electrolysis  of  fused   potassium  hydroxide. 

Properties.  A  very  soft,  silver-white  metal.  It  tarnishes 
instantly  in  moist  air,  and  is  one  of  the  most  active  of  the 
metals.  Caustic  potash  (KOH)  is  the  strongest  base  of 
available  metals,  and  forms  salts  with  all  acids.  These 
salts  have  various  applications. 

One  of  the  rare  earth  elements,  occurring  with  cerium  and 
lanthanum. 

Occurrence.     In  minute  quantities  along  with  uranium. 

Preparation.  The  residues  from  uranium  ores,  after  extract- 
ing the  uranium,  are  treated  so  as  to  separate  the  radium  and 
barium  as  bromides.  These  are  then  separated  by  fractional 
cry.stalHzation. 

Properties.  Radium  in  any  form  emits  three  kinds  of  rays, 
different  from  light.  These  pass  through  objects  opaque 
to  light,  and  affect  photographic  plates  and  phosphorescent 
screens.  It  has  been  used  successfully  in  the  treatment  of 
cancer. 

Occurrence.  In  platinum  ores,  and  is  of  the  general  character 
of  the  i)latinum  metals. 

Occurrence.  In  minute  amounts  along  with  potassium  salts, 
and  it  strongly  resembles  potassium  in  all  its  properties. 


Occurrence.  In  ores  of  platinum.  Of  the  general  character 
of  the  platinum  metals,  resembling  especially  osmium,  and 
like  it  forms  several  oxides. 

A  rare  metal,  resembling  in  general  the  rare  earth  elements 
in  its  properties. 

A  typical  rare  earth  element. 

Occurrence.      With  sulphur  and  sulphides. 

Preparation.     Reducing  selenious  acid  with  sulphur  dioxide. 

Properties.  The  element  occurs  in  three  forms:  the  red 
amorphous,  the  red  crystalline,  and  the  blue-gray  metallic. 
The  latter  conducts  electricity,  and  its  conductivity  is  greatly 
increased  by  light.  Therefore,  it  is  used  in  cells  for  measuring 
light.     Its  chemical  compounds  resemble  those  of  sulphur. 

Occurrence.  Silicon  dioxide  (SiOo)  occurs  in  sand  and  dif- 
ferent forms  of  quartz.  Most  of  the  earths  crust  is  composed 
of  silicates. 

Preparation.  Reducing  sand  by  heating  with  magnesium 
powder.  Amorphous  silicon  is  a  brown  powder,  that  burns 
in  air.  Crystalline  silicon  forms  black  needles  and  is  less 
active.  Silicon  is  used  in  steel  making.  Some  quartz  and 
silicates  are  used  as  gems.  Quartz  sand  is  used  in  manu- 
facturing glass.  Silicon  carbide  (SiC)  "Carborundum"  is 
nearly  as  hard  as  the  diamond  and  is  used  as  an  abrasive. 

Occurrence.  Native  and  as  sulphide,  usually  accompanying 
galena. 

Preparation.  Separated  from  lead  by  the  Pattison  or  the 
Parkes  process.     Separated  from  gold  by  nitric  acid. 

Properties.  A  white,  lustrous,  tough,  very  ductile  and 
malleable  metal,  the  best  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity. 

It  is  not  oxidized  by  air,  but  it  is  tarnished  by  hydrogen  sul- 
phide. It  dissolves  in  dilute  nitric  and  in  boiling  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  Uses,  for  coinage,  and  for  many 
useful    articles  and    ornaments.     Silver   nitrate    is    used   as 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 


VII 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


Sodium,     Na. 
At.   wt.  23.0. 
Va.   I. 
S.   G.  0.97. 
M.   P.  95.6°. 


Strontium,     Sr. 

At.  wt.   87.63, 
Va.  IL 
S.  G.  2.55. 

Sulphur,     S. 

At.   wt.  32.07. 
Va.  IL  IV  and 
M.  P.   114.5°. 


VI. 


Tantalum,     Ta. 

At.   wt.   181. 
S.  G.   16.6. 
M.   P.— 2250°. 
Tellurium,     Te. 
At.   wt.   127.5°. 
Va.   II,   IV  and 


VI. 


Terbium,     Tb. 

At.   wt.   159.2.     Va. 
Thallium,     Tl. 

At.   wt.  204. 

Va.   I  and  II. 
Thorium,     Th. 

At.   wt.   232. 

Va.   IV. 
Thulium,     Tm. 

At.  wt.   168.5. 
Tin,     Sn. 

At.  wt.   119. 

Va.  II  and  IV. 

S.   G.  7.3. 

M.  P.   232°. 

Titanium,     Ti. 

Ac.   wt.  48.1. 

Va.  IL   III  and  IV 

M.  P.   1850°. 

Tungsten,      W. 

At.  wt.   184. 


III. 


"lunar  caustic"  in  cauterizing  and  to  make  the  silver  halides 
used  in  photography.  Potassium  silver  cyanide,  KAgCCug), 
is  used  in  plating. 

Occurrence.  As  salt  (XaCl),  nitrate,  borate,  carbonate,  and 
in  many  silicates. 

Preparation.  Electroylsis  of  the  fused  hydroxide  or  chlo- 
ide. 

Properties,  A  silver-white  metal,  soft  as  wax.  It  is  very 
active,  readily  decomposes  water  and  resembles  potassium 
generally.  Sodium  hydroxide  is  a  powerful  base  which 
forms  salts  with  all  acids.  Most  of  these  salts  have  their 
application. 

Occurrence.      As  carbonate  and  sulphate. 

Preparation.      Electrolysis  of  the  fused  chloride. 

Properties.  A  light,  active  metal  resembling  calcium.  It 
decomposes  water  vigorously.  Its  vapors  color  flames  red, 
and  it  is  therefore  used  for  red  fire  in  pjTotechny. 

Occurrence.  Free  and  combined  with  metals  as  sulphides 
and  sulphates. 

Preparation.  Melting  the  native  sulphur  and  draining  it  off 
from  the  rocks  and  earth  with  which  it  is  mixed.  It  is 
then  purified  by  distillation. 

Properties.  It  exists  in  two  crystalline  and  one  amorphous 
form.  The  rhombic  form  is  the  stable  variety  into  which 
the  others  change  on  standing  below  96°C.  This  variety  is  a 
brittle  light  yellow  solid,  soluble  in  carbon  disulphid.  It 
burns  in  air  to  sulphur  dioxide  (SOo)  and  it  combines  with 
most  metals  to  form  sulphides.  Sulphur  is  used  for  vul- 
canizing rubber,  in  gunpowder,  fireworks  and  matches. 
SO2  is  used  for  bleaching,  disinfecting  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  latter  is  the  most  important  of  all 
chemicals. 

Occurrence.      In  rare  minerals  along  with  rare  earth  elements. 

Preparation.      Reduction  of  the  fluoride  by  sodium. 

Properties.  A  hard  silver-white  metal  of  great  strength  and 
stability.      Used  for  filaments  in  electric  lamps. 

Occurrence.      Free  and  as  tellurides. 

Preparation.  Reduction  of  tellurious  acid  by  sulphur 
dioxide. 

Properties,  Similar  to  those  of  sulphur  and  selenium,  but 
is  less  acidic. 

Occurrence.  In  rare  earth  minerals,  and  it  has  the  general 
properties  of  these  elements. 

Occurrence,  In  flue  dust  of  sulphuric  acid  works.  A 
bluish  metal  resembling  lead,  and  has  a  rather  high  chemical 
activity. 

Occurrence.      In  monczite  sand. 

Preparation.  By  electrolysis.  Welsbach  mantles  consist  of 
99^  thorium  dioxide. 

A  rare  earth  element,  associated  with  others  of  the  group. 

Occurrence.     As  cassiterite  (Sn02). 

Preparation.     Roasting  the  ore  then  reducing  this  by  ignition 

with  carbon. 
Properties.      A  silver-white  metal,  rather  soft,  very  malleable 

ductile  and  stable  in  air.     It  is  used  for  tin  plating  iron  and 

copper,  and  in  a  number  of  alloys. 
Occurrence.      As  rutile  (TiOo)  and  titanic  iron  ore. 
Preparation.     Reducing  the  chloride   with  sodium. 
Properties.      A  hard,   brittle  metal  that  can  be  forged  at  a 

low,  red  heat.     It  unites   with  oxygen  and   nitrogen  when 

heated.     It  is  used  in  steel  manufacture. 
Occurrence.      As     wolframite     (FeW04)     and     as     scheelite 

(CaW04). 


VIII 


THE  HUMAN  IXTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS  —  Continued 


Va.  II,  IV,  V  and  \  I. 

S.  G.  19.3. 
M.  P.  -2800°. 


Uranium,     U. 

At.   v.t.  238.5. 
Va.  Ill,  IV,   V,   and  VI. 
S.  G.  18.7. 
Vanadium,      V. 
At.  wt.  51.06. 
Va.  IL  III,   IV  and  V. 


Xenon,     Xe. 

At.  wt.   130.2. 
Ytterbium,     Yb, 

At.   wt.   172. 
Yttrium,     Y. 

At.   wt.  89. 
Zinc,      Zn. 

At.  wt.  65.37. 

Va.  II. 

S.  G.  6.9. 

M.  P.  419°. 


Zirconium,  Zr. 

At.   wt.  90. G. 
Va.  IV. 


Preparation.      Reduction  of  the  trioxide  by  carbon  at  high 

temperatures. 
Properties.      A  hard,  gray  metal,  burns  in  air  and  combines 

with  chlorine  at  250°.     It  is  used  in  tungsten  steel,  and  for 

filaments  in  incandescent  lamps. 
Occurrence.      As  pitchblende  (L'aOs). 
Preparation.      Reducing  the  oxide  with  aluminum. 
Properties.      A  white  radio  active  metal,  tarnishes  in  air  and 

is  fairly   active. 
Occurrence.      Rather  rare,  in  vandinlte,  and  accompanying 

other   metals. 
Preparation.      Reducing  VCI2  in  hydrogen. 
Properties.      A    silver-white    metal,    stable    in    air,    burns    in 

oxygen,    and   combines   with   nitrogen   when  heated.     It  is 

used  in  special  high  grade  steel. 
The  heaviest  gas  of  the  argon  group,  with  the  general  group 

propevties. 
In  rare  earth  minerals.     A  rare  earth  element. 

A  rare  earth  element,  associated  in  rare  minerals  with  other 

related  elements. 
Occurrence.      As  zinc  blende   (ZnS)   principally,   but  also  as 

carbonate,  oxide  and  silicate. 
Preparation.     Roasting    the    ore    and    reducing    this    with 

carbon.     The   zinc  is    distilled   off. 
Properties.      A   bluish-white   metal,   brittle  but  malleable  at 

120°.     It  is  rather  active.     It  is  used  as  sheet  zinc  and  for 

galvanizing  iron,  in  galvanic  batteries,  and  in  alloys.     The 

oxide  (zinc  white)  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  paint. 
Occurrence.      As  zircon  (ZrSi04). 
Preparation.     Reducing  the  oxide  with  carbon  in  the  electric 

furnace.     A  hard,  gray  metal,  stable  in  air. 


Definitions:  A  Chemical  Element  is  a  simple  kind  of  matter,  which  cannot  be  resolved 
into  two  or  more  other  sul)stances  by  any  chemical  means.  There  are  about  eighty  ele- 
ments which  combine  to  form  the  many  thousands  of  substances  found  in  the  world. 

The  Atomic  Weights  are  the  unit  weights  of  the  elements  which  enter  into  chemical 
combination.  They  are  based  upon  the  atomic  nature  of  matter.  The  elements  are  con- 
ceived to  be  made  up  of  exceedingly  minute  particles  or  atoms,  which  for  any  given  element 
have  a  definite  characteristic  weight.  The  atomic  weight  of  Oxygen  is  represented  by  the 
number  16.  and  the  relative  weights  of  the  atoms  of  other  elements  are  expressed  in  com- 
parison with  this  number. 

The  Symbol  for  an  element  stands  for  the  name  of  the  element  and  also  represents 
its  atomic  weight. 

A  Formula  stands  for  a  substance  and  represents  by  symbols  the  elements  which 
form  it,  and  the  proportions  in  which  they  are  contained,  e.  g.  CO2  represents  carbon 
dioxide,  and  shows  that  one  atomic  weight  of  carbon  of  12  weight  units  is  combined  with 
two  atomic  weights  of  oxygen  or  2  x  16  weight  units.  In  other  words  it  shows  that  44 
grams  of  the  gas  contain  12  grams  of  carbon  and  32  grams  of  oxygen. 

Electrolysis  is  the  process  of  decomposing  substances  by  means  of  the  electric  current. 
Many  compound  substances  called  electrolytes  when  dissolved  in  water  or  when  in  a  molten 
condition,  will  conduct  the  electric  current.  But  unlike  a  wire  which  suffers  no  chemical 
change  from  the  passage  of  a  current,  electrolytes  are  decomposed  by  a  current — the 
metallic  part  collecting  on  the  negative  pole  and  the  non  metallic  part  at  the  positive  pole 
of  the  battery. 


A  GROUP  OF  PLANTS  THAT  CATCH  INSECTS 


1.  Pitcher  Plant 

4.   Huntsman's  Horn 


2.   Sarracenia 
5.   Butterwort 


3.  Sundew 


THE  SPERM  WHALE— THE  TIGER  OF  THE  DEEP 

Possessed  of  amazing  strength  this  monster  of  the  seas  sometimes  turns  upon  the  whalers.  When  this 
occurs  at  night,  and  it  soars  into  the  air  made  luminous  by  phosphorescence,  it  is  like  the  extension  of  some 
gigantic  flame  cone  from  the  deep. 


Book    of  Nature 


NATURE'S  WONDERFUL  FAMILY 

WILD  ANIMALS  IN  THEIR  HOMES 

BIRDS  OF  UNCOMMON  BEAUTY 

CHIEF  OF  THE  HUNTING  BIRDS 

COMMON  FARM  AND  ORCHARD  BIRDS 

WHAT  HAPPENS  IN  A  HIVE  OF  BEES 

HOW  INSECTS  GUARD  THEIR  YOUNG 

ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  OCEAN  DEPTHS 

SOME  INTELLIGENT  PLANTS 


s. 


MEMBERS   OF  THE    NUMEROUS   CAT  FAMILY 


The  wild  leopard   climbs  trees,  which  lions  and  tigers  The  lynx  climbs  trees  and  eats  birds.     It  has  wonderful 

do  not.     The  leopard  crouches  on  a  bough  and  lies  in  wait      eyes,  and  whenever  we  speak  of  anybody  who  seems  to  see 
to  spring  upon  an  animal  passing  underneath.  everything  we  call  him  "lyn.\-eyed." 


The  snow  leopard  can  live  where  it  is  very  cold.  It  has 
a  coat  of  warm  light-colored  fur,  so  that  it  can  steal  unseen 
over  the  snow  and  pounce  upon  its  prey. 


The  puma,  which  people  call  the  "American  lion,"  klll3 
cattle  and  horses,  but  never  attacks  a  man  unless  the  man 
attacks  him  first. 


The  cheetah  Is  one  ol  the  lew  aiiiuials  which,  alter  being 
caught  wild,  can  be  made  to  serve  man.  and  in  India  princes 
keep  many  cheetahs,  to  hunt  antelopes. 


The  jaguar  Is  a  mure  tcrribie-luuking  beast  than  the 
leopard,  having  much  thicker  legs  and  a  heavier  head. 
Like  the  leopard,  It  has  a  spotted  coat. 


8?, 


NATURE'S      WONDERFUL      FAMILY 

Nature  is  the  mother  of  us  all.  By  Nature  we  really  mean  the  whole  of  life — 
everything  that  is  not  made  by  man.  But  many  natural  things,  such  as  the  sun 
and  moon  and  the  earth  itself,  come  into  other  parts  of  our  book,  and  here  we  shall 
read  of  the  two  most  important  things  in  Nature — Animal  Life  and  Plant  Life. 
There  were  plants  on  the  earth  before  the  animals  came,  but  it  is  better  to  begin 
with  animals,  and  our  book  of  Nature  tells  us  first  the  story  of  the  animals,  and  then 
the  story  of  flowers  and  trees.  We  shall  not  tell  our  story  with  big  words  and  strange 
names;  but  we  shall  learn  all  that  we  need  know  now  about  animals  and  flowers. 
Our  story  tells  us  of  the  wonderful  things  that  live  in  the  world  with  us,  and  the  huge 
monsters  that  once  lived  upon  earth  and  have  now  passed  away. 

WHEN  we  have  interfered  with  That  is  a  little  thing  which  wise  men 

the  liberty  of  a  busily-work-  were   a   long   time   in   learning.     We 

ing  honeybee  or  bumblebee,  ought  always  to  remember  it,  because 

and  have  found  to  our  sorrow  that  it  it  shows  how  Nature  has  to  plan  so 

can    gallantly    defend   itself,    we   are  that  the  world  may  go  on  in  the  best 

quite  inclined  to  wish  that  there  were  way  for  us.     When  we  think  of  the 

no   such   things   as  bees.     But  let  us  world,  we  think  of  a  great  place  where 

suppose  that  our  wish  could  be  sudden-  men   and   women   and   children   live, 

ly  granted.    We  know  of  course  that  we  But  the  world  was  not  made  simply 

should  have  to  do  without  honey,  but  to  be  a  home  for  men  and  women  and 

how  many  of  us  know  that,  stranger  children.     If    there    were    no    living 

still,  we  should  soon  lose  many  of  our  creatures  but  ourselves,  there  would 

beautiful  flowers  as  well  as  many  of  be  a  great  many  empty  places  in  the 

our  more  necessary  fruits  and  grains?  world.     There  would  be  a  great  deal 

The  strangest  part  of  this,  too,  is  that  of  work  left  undone.     There  are  places 

with  all  the  work  that  it  does  for  man,  in  the  world  where  we  cannot  live, 

the  bee  is  wholly  unconscious  that  it  But   Nature   does   not   like   empty 

is  doing  anything  more  than  to  supply  spaces.     She  must  have  living  crea- 

its  own  needs.  tures  everywhere,   in  earth   and   sky 

A  great  many  of  our  commonest  and  sea. 
blossoms  contain  a  sweet  juice,  called  Our  eyes  are  not  strong  enough  to 
nectar,  which  the  bees  love  and  need  see  all  the  tiny  things  which  live.  If 
for  their  honey.  They  fly  into  the  our  eyes  were  as  strong  as  the  strong- 
blossoms  to  drink  the  juice,  and  in  est  magnifying  glasses,  we  should  see 
doing  so  carry  in  with  them  from  other  that  the  air  we  breathe  is  full  of  very 
plants  a  dust,  called  pollen,  which  the  tiny  creatures.  We  should  see  that 
plants  need  in  order  to  make  their  the  soil  in  the  garden  swarms  with 
seed;  if  the  flowers  do  not  get  this  little  insects.  We  should  see  that  the 
pollen  they  die.  Among  the  plants  to  little  drops  of  water  which  we  drink 
whose  very  existence  the  bee  is  neces-  have  in  them  more  living  creatures 
sary  are  the  white  clover,  the  red  than  we  can  count.  We  know  that 
clover,  several  of  the  common  violets,  there  is  life  in  the  air  as  there  is  life  in 
the  roadside  toadflax,  and  many  an-  the  sea.  We  can  see  the  jellyfish 
other  delightful  blossom  of  our  fields  floating  on  the  top  of  the  waves.  We 
and  lanes.  If  we  are  to  do  without  know  that  there  are  big  fish  and  little 
the  bees  with  their  sharp  stings  we  fish  beneath  the  surface.  We  know 
must  make  up  our  minds  to  do  also  that  there  are  monsters  in  the  sea  like 
without  these  plants  that  depend  whales  and  sharks,  we  know  that  deep 
upon  them  for  their  support.  down  in  the  sea,  deeper  than  the  deep- 

8S 


8Jt  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

est  mine  in  the  world,  there  are  area-  all   creatures   lived   in   the   seas   and 

tures  such  as  nobody  has  ever  seen.  rivers.     Some  lived  in  shells.     Others 

So   there   is   life   everywhere.     Be-  were  soft   things   like  jelly,   and  had 

sides  men  and  women  and  children,  no  backbones.     These  had  all  the  sea 

Nature  has  many  workmen,  great  and  to  themselves  for  a  very  long  time, 

small,   to  carry  on  the  work  of  the  But  during  this  time  they  were  grow- 

world.     Some  are  big,  like  elephants;  ing  into  separate  families,  unlike  those 

some  are  so  small  that  we  cannot  see  which  had  gone  before.     Proper  fish 

them.     Some  fly  in  the  air,  some  swim  began  to  swim  about,  and  there  were 

in  the  sea,  some  creep  in  the  earth,  great  sea-scorpions,   as  big  as  a  tall 

Some  live  among  us  as  our  friends;  man,  and  fishes  with  skins  made  like 

some  live  wild  in  woods  and  moun-  armor. 

tains.  The  reptiles,  the  flying  dragons. 

The  great  animal  world  the  birds,  and  man 

There   have   not   always   been   the  After    these    there    grew    up    great 

same  sort  of  animals  on  the  earth  as  creatures  which  could  live  in  the  water 

now.     Once  upon  a  time,  when  there  or  out  of  the  water,  as  the  hippopota- 

were  no  men  and  women  and  children  mus  can  today.     Then  came  enormous 

on  the  earth,  the  only  living  creatures  reptiles.     We  have  nothing  living  now 

were  strange  and  monstrous  animals  like  the  reptiles  which,   by  slow  de- 

such  as  we  see  in  our  pictures.     These  grees,  came  into  existence  millions  of 

huge  creatures,  bigger  than  any  ani-  years  ago.     Some  of  them  had  bodies 

mals  now  alive,  were  the  masters  of  as  large  as  elephants,  with  heads  like 

the   earth   before   man   came.     Some  lizards,  and  huge  teeth.     Some  could 

were  so  big  that  they  could  eat  off  fly,  and  some  could  swim  as  well  as 

the  top  branches  of  tall  trees;    some  they  could  walk.     From  some  of  the 

of  the  animals  could  fly  and  swim,  flying  monsters  came  the  birds,  and 

The  animals  we  know  have  come  from  still    later    came    animals    which,    in- 

these;    through  thousands  and  thou-  stead  of  scales  and  bony  spines  and 

sands    of    years    the    monsters    were  great  plates  of  bone,  had  hair  to  cover 

changing  and  passing  away,  until  in  them.     Little    by    little    the    animals 

their  places  we  have  the  animals  of  changed,  until  they  became  the  kind 

our   own    time.     Deep    down    in    the  of  creatures  that  are  now  living;  and 

rocks   we   find   remains   of   the   mon-  then,  last  of  all,  milleniums  after  the 

sters  still;    sometimes  when  men  dig  lower  animals,  came  man. 

deep  down  they  come  upon  the  whole  Nature  has  been  packing  her  box  for 

body  of  an  animal  which  must  have  millions  of  years 

died  and  been  covered  up  when  the  No    man    knows    how    much    time 

rocks  were  being  formed.  passed  away  while  all  this  was  happen- 

The  wonderful  way  in   which  liv-  ing,   but  we  know  that  at  one  time 

ing  things  have  changed  certain  kinds  of  creatures  lived  on  the 

It  has  taken  thousands  of  years  to  earth  or  in  the  waters,  and  that  after 

make  the  birds  and  animals  the  beau-  these   came   creatures   of   a   different 

tiful    creatures    that    they    now    are.  kind.     There  are  no  books  to  tell  us 

The  story  of  the  animals  makes  us  these  things,   because  there  were  no 

wonder   if   Nature   tried   all   sorts   of  men  alive  to  write  books,  but  we  find 

patterns    before    she    made    up    her  the    bodies    of    these    creatures    deep 

mind  what  sort  of  creatures  should  live  down  in  the  rocks  today.     When  you 

in  the  seas  and  on  the  land.     Once  unpack  a  box  you  begin  at  the  top, 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


85 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    ANIMAL     KINGDOM 


HOW    THE    ANIMALS    CAME    INTO    THE    WORLD         SOME  OF  THE    GREAT  MONSTERS  OF  THE  PAST 


These  pictures  show  us  some  of  the  strange  creatures 
that  have  passed  away,  and  help  us  to  understand  the  story 
oJ  animal  life  from  the  first  thing  we  know  about  it.  Once 
all  creatures  lived  in  the  sea,  and  the  first  of  all  were  only 
soft  things  lilie  jelly,  with  no  bones. 


>\Cirwr^ii 


These  creatures  had  the  sea  to  themselves  for  a  very 
long  time,  and  slowly  they  grew  into  separate  families,  un- 
like those  which  had  gone  before.  Proper  fishes  began  to 
swim  about,  and  some  of  them  lived  in  shells.  Then  on 
the  land  great  forests  grew,  and  a  new  kind  of  animals  came. 


The  first  crocodile  appeared  now,  but  this  age  is  impor- 
tant because  great  trees  grew,  drinking  in  the  sunshine 
for  thousands  of  years,  and  then  fell,  to  be  buried  in  the 
earth,  and  to  lie  there  millions  of  years  until  they  turned 
to  coal.     That  is  how  coal  began. 


^'•^-— -"     ^Sr     -**         '*t        "^^     "'^^^''K^r^^ 


In  the  sea  great  fish  lizards  grew,  four  times  as  long  as 
a  man,  some  with  necks  like  snakes.  There  were  great 
sea-serpents,  fish  with  skins  almost  like  iron,  and  huge 
animals  that  could  live  either  on  land  or  sea. 


Some  of  these  creatures  could  fly  and  swim,  and  some 
could  eat  off  tree-tops.  The  first  birds  came,  and  flying 
dragons.  It  has  taken  millions  of  years  for  these  strange 
things  to  become  the  beautiful  birds  we  know. 


On  the  land  the  great  monsters  were  grcjwing  up,  and 
the  mastodon,  like  a  giant  elephant  with  four  tusks,  fought 
the  savage  tiger  with  teeth  like  swords.  There  were  bata 
in  those  days,  and  a  strange  little  animal  which  we  may, 
perhaps,  call  the  first  horse,  walked  the  earth. 


The  little  sloths  we  see  today  have  descended  from 
creatures  like  that  clasping  a  tree  on  the  right  of  this  pic- 
ture. The  giant  sloth  lived  when  the  hippopotamus  and 
elephant  began,  when  there  were  horses  with  many  toes 
and  animals  like  tortoises  bigger  than  a  man. 


Slowly  the  world  grew  into  the  kind  of  place  it  is  today, 
and  the  animals  became  more  like  those  we  know.  Bears 
lived  in  the  caves,  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros  and  the 
savage  hyena  roamed  the  earth  with  the  mammoth,  like 
a  giant  elephant  with  long  hair. 


MM  #^l?^ 

^^ 

m^: 

j^^                     -^^^a 

[■niJiii^Bmtapp"^''''''^ 

f^^f^                              -^s« 

U!n^BHlBBHF^^if.               'b 

^S^           1 

Hnfr^ 

^fe*^^4^ 

§^^^9 

,ivfeslkt:-j4v    J^  ,J  - 

At  last  came  man,  the  lord  of  all  the  animals.  The  first 
men  lived  in  trees  and  caves,  with  the  wild  animals  about 
them,  and  it  has  taken  thousands  of  years  for  men  to  learn 
how  to  build  houses,  tame  animals,  make  fires  and  write 
books  to  tell  us  what  a  wonderful  place  the  world  has  been, 
and  how  much  more  wonderful  still  it  is  to  be. 


86 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


and  you  know  that  the  things  on  the 
top  were  put  last  into  the  box,  that 
those  lower  down  were  there  before 
the  top  ones,  and  that  the  things  at 
the  bottom  were  put  in  first  of  all. 
Well,  nature  has  been  packing  away 
things  in  her  cellars  for  millions  and 
millions  of  years.  Her  box  is  the 
solid  rock.  It  was  not  always  solid 
rock.  It  was  mud  and  water.  The 
water  dried  up,  and  as  thousands  of 
years  passed  away  the  mud  grew 
harder  and  harder,  so  that  it  is  now 
rock,  almost  as  hard  as  iron. 

How  do  we  find  the  old-time  animals 
in  these  rocks?  They  were  born,  and 
lived,  and  died,  and  were  covered  over. 
Floods  carried  them  away  to  the  seas 
and  lakes,  where  mud  came  swirling 
down  with  the  water  from  the  rivers. 
The  bodies  sank  and  were  covered 
with  layer  after  layer  of  mud.  As 
time  passed  away,  nature  dried  up 
the  seas  and  lakes,  and,  by  pressure 
from  within  the  earth,  forced  up  the  bed 
of  the  seas  and  lakes  and  rivers  and 
made  it  dry  land.  The  fishes  and 
birds  and  other  animals  which  had 
died  and  been  buried  in  the  mud  were 
sealed  up  in  this  mass,  and  as  the  mud 
hardened  into  rock  these  creatures 
became  part  of  the  stone. 

How  WE  FIND  THE  ANIMALS  THAT  LIVED 
LONG  AGO 

When  we  dig  deep  down  today  we 
find  mammals,  birds,  fishes,  and  even 
insects,  many  of  them  perfectly  shaped, 
in  the  rock,  where  they  have  lain  for 
millions  of  vears.  The  mud  which 
settled  about  them  was  so  soft  that 
it  did  not  crush  them  out  of  shape. 
It  preserved  their  shape,  as  it  pre- 
served the  shape  of  the  beautiful  ferns 
printed  in  the  coal.  Some  of  the  big 
things  were  just  as  carefully  protected 
by  the  mud,  without  being  turned  to 
stone.  Great  animals  like  the  mam- 
moth, which  was  a  sort  of  huge  ele- 
phant  covered   with   long   hair,    died 


thousands  of  years  ago  through  sinking 
into  deep  mud  in  Siberia,  and  became 
frozen  hard  in  that  mud;  and  some  of 
these  have  been  found  with  flesh,  and 
skin,  and  hair  all  preserved. 

Of  course,  not  all  the  creatures 
which  were  once  alive  have  been  pre- 
served in  this  way.  Many  were  de- 
stroyed in  various  ways  after  their 
death,  but  there  still  remains  enough 
to  show  us  what  creatures  of  long  ago 
were  like,  and  to  tell  from  what 
families  those  now  on  the  earth  first 
came.  It  seems  very  hard  to  believe 
that  the  birds,  with  their  lovely 
plumage  and  their  sweet  song,  came 
from  ugly  reptiles. 

What  the  first  of  all  birds  looked 

LIKE 

The  oldest  bird  known  is  called  the 
archseopteryx.  That  is  a  Greek  word, 
which  really  means  "ancient  wing." 
It  was  an  extraordinary  bird.  It  had 
a  long  tail,  not  all  feathers  as  a  bird's 
tail  is  now,  but  like  a  lizard's  tail,  long 
and  thick,  with  bones  and  flesh,  and 
with  feathers  growing  from  it.  It  had 
two  legs,  with  which  it  could  walk  or 
perch  in  the  trees,  but  it  had  two  other 
limbs  like  hands,  which  it  probably 
used  to  climb  about  the  trees  instead 
of  flying  from  bough  to  bough,  as 
birds  now  do.  It  had  a  curious  eye 
fitted  with  a  sort  of  armor  shield  as 
the  reptiles  have,  and  its  beak  was 
armed  with  great  strong  teeth. 

Of  course,  there  is  no  such  bird  as 
this  now,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that 
such  a  bird  should  pass  away.  Even 
in  these  daj's  two  or  three  strange 
birds  have  died  out.  The  dodo  was 
quite  common  in  the  island  of  Maur- 
itius 300  years  ago,  but  there  is  not 
one  alive  today  in  all  the  world.  It 
could  not  fly,  because  its  wings  were 
so  small,  and  the  dodo  family  was  soon 
all  killed.  In  New  Zealand  there  used 
to  be  vast  numbers  of  birds  called 
moas,  which  were  often  11  or  12  feet 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


81 


high.  There  still  lives  a  bird  called 
the  apteryx,  or  kiwi,  which,  like  the 
moa,  the  dodo,  the  ostrich  and  the 
penguin,  cannot  fly;  but,  though  it  is 
a  fair-sized  bird,  it  is  tiny  compared 
with  the  moa.  The  great  auk,  which 
used  to  come  in  thousands  to  the  shores 
of  Great  Britain,  is  another  bird  which 
has  died  out  within  the  last  hundred 
years.  There  is  not  one  in  the  world 
today,  but  there  are  a  few  of  its  egg 
shells,  and  they  are  so  rare  that  men 
pay  hundreds  of  dollars  for  them. 

Men  have  killed  many  animals,  but 
in  making  the  world  what  it  now  is 
nature  has  killed  far  more.  Whole 
races  of  animals  have  been  destroyed 
by  earthquakes  and  floods,  by  the 
sinking  of  land  into  sea,  and  by  snow 
and  frost  and  ice  descending  upon 
lands  where  before  all  was  sunshine 
and  rich  vegetation.  Then,  again, 
great  families  of  animals  have  gradu- 
ally died  out,  and  given  place  to  others 
better  able  to  fight  the  battle  of  life. 

Think  of  the  horse,  that  swift  and 
beautiful  creature.  Once  upon  a  time, 
long  before  man  appeared  on  the  earth, 
the  horse  was  a  miserable  little  thing 
with  five  toes  on  its  front  feet  and 
three  behind,  and  only  as  big  as  a 
fox.  The  horse  has,  through  a  long 
number  of  years,  become  larger  and 
swifter  and  more  beautiful,  and  its 
soft,  spreading  toes  have  become  hard 
hoofs. 

Think,  again,  of  the  humming  bird, 
that  tiny  beauty,  not  much  bigger  than 
a  good-sized  bee,  and  remember  that 
it,  like  all  other  birds,  has  descended 
from  an  herb-eating  monster  called  the 
iguanodon,  which  had  a  great  head 
like  a  lizard,  a  yard  in  length.  It  had 
a  great  tail  and  enormous  hind  legs, 
with  shorter  ones  in  front ;  and  when  it 
reared  itself  upon  its  hind  legs  the 
height  of  its  head  from  the  ground 
was  14  feet.  In  many  ways  it  was 
like  a  bird.     Its  front  legs,  it  is  sup- 


posed, had  first  been  used  as  paddles 
to  help  it  to  swim.  As  time  passed 
these  became  changed  into  wings,  with 
which  it  learned  to  fly. 

There  were  others  rather  like  it 
which  ate  flesh.  One  of  these  was  a 
fearful  creature  called  the  megalosau- 
rus,  which  fed  upon  the  flesh  of  the 
great  animals  that  lived  on  herbs. 
Another  was  called  the  brontosaurus, 
and  a  third  was  called  the  ceratosaurus. 
These  monsters  had  bodies  as  big  as 
the  biggest  elephants.  Their  legs  were 
shaped  like  those  of  the  iguanodon, 
except  that  the  front  legs  were  longer. 
The  length  of  these  creatures  was  as 
much  as  60  feet ;  and  their  backs,  when 
they  were  full  grown,  were  quite  14 
feet  from  the  ground.  All  these 
creatures  belonged  to  a  family  called  the 
dinosaurs,  which  means  terrible  lizards. 

The  sea,  as  we  have  seen,  had  won- 
derful creatures  in  those  far-off  days. 
The  waters  teemed  with  what  we  now 
call  the  great  fish  lizards.  One  of 
these  was  the  ichthyosaurus,  which 
was  30  to  40  feet  long.  It  had  a 
wonderfully  formed  eye,  which  it  could 
adjust  so  as  to  see  things  quite  near 
or  those  far  away.  The  remains  of 
this  creature  are  common  in  England, 
and  scientists  have  been  able  to  learn 
that  though  its  home  was  chiefly  in  the 
water,  it  used  to  crawl  to  the  land  to 
bask  in  the  sun,  as  turtles  and  seals 
still  do.  The  ichthyosaurus  has  died 
out,  but  the  shark  lives  as  a  relic  of 
those  bygone  times.  The  whale  is  a 
much  younger  creature. 

The  sloths,  small  animals  today, 
which  cling  to  the  branches  of  trees 
and  live  upside  down,  are  descended 
from  enormous  creatures  which,  in- 
stead of  having  to  climb  the  trees  to 
eat  the  tender  shoots,  were  powerful 
enough  to  pull  the  tree  down  to  their 
mouths ! 

The  bodies  of  these  monsters  were 
as  big  as  elephants,  and  their  front 


ANIMALS      THAT      LIVE     ON      ANTS 


The  pangolin  which  is  found  in  Asia  and  Africa  is  covered  from  head  to  taii  with  rough,  hard  scales,  each  scale  being 
made  up  of  tightly-woven  hairs,  all  joined  together.  The  pangolin  lives  in  a  burrow  where  it  stays  all  day.  It  has  a  long, 
sticky  tongue  and  feeds  entirely  on  ants. 


The  aardvarii  is  an  African  animal,  and  its  curious  name  given  by  the  Dutch  means  "earth-hog."  It  measures  about 
five  feet  in  length,  and  sleeps  by  day  in  a  burrow,  coming  out  at  night  to  feed  among  the  ant  hills.  Its  long  ears  and  pig- 
like head  give  it  a  strange  appearance. 


This  ant  eater  is  a  big  animal,  four  feet  long,  with  an  extraordinary  tail  about  the  same  length.  The  body  is  covered 
with  long,  coarse  hair,  and  the  claws  on  its  forefeet  are  so  long  and  sharp  that  the  foot  has  to  be  turned  over  on  its  side 
in  walking.     It  has  no  teeth,  but  piciis  up  the  ants  by  its  sticky  tongue. 

88 


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BOOK  OF  NATURE 


89 


legs  had  enormous  power.  Similar  to 
the  great  sloth  was  an  animal  called 
the  mylodon,  the  remains  of  which 
have  been  found  in  a  huge  cave  in 
Patagonia,  along  with  the  bones  of 
other  wild  animals.  In  this  cave  there 
were  also  the  bones  of  dogs  and  men, 
with  bones  made  sharp  by  man  to  use, 
perhaps,  as  forks;  and  here  also  was 
found  a  quantity  of  cut  grass,  which 
makes  us  believe  that  once  upon  a 
time  savages  kept  the  mylodon  alive 
in  the  cave  and  fed  it  with  grass,  just 
as  we  feed  cows  and  horses  today. 

Nearly  all  these  extinct  monsters 
made  their  home  at  one  time  in  Great 
Britain.  In  those  days  there  was  no 
sea  between  England  and  Europe. 

These  great  animals,  once  upon  a 
time,  had  the  world  to  themselves. 
They  were  the  masters  of  the  earth. 
They  disappeared  in  the  ways  we  have 
seen,  and  in  many  other  ways.  Many 
of  them  were  destroyed  by  the  Great 
Ice  Age,  when  the  climate  of  a  great 
part  of  the  world  was  suddenly 
changed,  and  nearly  all  living  creatures 
perished  from  cold. 

All  these  things  about  the  early 
world  we  learn  from  nature's  own 
storehouses,  the  rocks  and  bogs  or 
frozen  wastes  in  which  the  strange 
monsters  of  land  and  sea  fell  and  died. 
The  great  fish  lizards  are  no  more,  the 
monstrous  flying  reptiles  have  gone. 
The  gigantic  birds  are  represented  only 
by  the  ostrich  and  the  emu.  But 
there  are  still  links  with  the  puzzles  of 
those  old  days.  There  is  still  a  mam- 
mal— the  bat — which  flies;  and  there 
is  still  a  mammal — the  duckbill,  or 
platypus — which  lays  eggs  like  a  bird 
and  has  a  beak  like  a  duck.  This 
duckbill  lives  in  Australia,  where  that 
strange  animal,  the  kangaroo,  looking 
like  some  old-world  freak,  is  also  to  be 
found.  The  great  sloth  has  come 
down  to  very  small  size,  though  some 


people  believe  that  there  are  still 
monstrous  ones  alive  in  Patagonia. 
The  bats,  with  their  wings  and  claws 
and  mouse-like  bodies,  remind  us  of 
the  curious  things  of  old  time,  and  the 
lizards  and  the  armadillos  tell  us  of  a 
time  when  their  ancestors  were  among 
the  marvels  of  the  world. 

What  is  the  use  of  all  these  animals.!* 
That  is  what  we  often  ask  ourselves. 
All  things  really  have  their  uses.    The 
humblest  animals   are  able  to  teach 
human  beings  many  lessons.     A  great 
man  named  Brunei  wanted  to  make  a 
tunnel    under    the    Thames.     It    was 
quite  a  new  thing  which  he  had  to  do. 
And  how  do  you  think  he  got  the  idea 
for    the    work.?     He    watched  a  little 
worm  burrowing  its  way  into  wood, 
building  round  itself  a  case  of  slime 
which    became    hard    and    firm,    and 
making  a  tunnel  that  could  not  fall 
in.     And    Brunei    made    his    tunnel 
under  the  river  just  as  the  worm  made 
its  tunnel  through  the  hard  woodwork. 
There  is  nothing  more  ugly  at  the 
Zoo  than  the  alligators  and  crocodiles. 
They  are  cruel  creatures,  and  have  to 
be  killed  when  we  catch  them,  because, 
when  they  can,  they  eat  men.     Yet  we 
cannot  afford  to  lose  therafor  they  eat 
animals  which  would  otherwise  destroy 
the  crops,  and  they  help  to  dispose  of 
the  bodies  of  drowned  animals  that,  if 
allowed  to  decay  there,  would  poison 
the   rivers   and    streams.     The   great 
hippopotamus,   also,   eats   the   things 
which  grow  in  the  rivers.     If  he  did 
not   the  rivers  would  become  choked 
with  weeds,  and  boats  would  be  unable 
to  pass  up  and  down. 

So  there  is  work  for  all.  Man  has 
his  work;  so  has  the  elephant  in  the 
forest,  the  hippopotamus  in  the  river, 
and  the  tiniest  insect  that  hums  in  the 
air.  Each  does  the  work  for  which  it 
is  created  and  all  help  to  keep  the 
world  healthy. 


WILD       ANIMALS       IN      THEIR      HOMES 


This  story  tells  us  of  the  life  of  the  wild  animals,  and  what  happens  in  those  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  lion  and  the  tiger  still  roam  about  and  animals  are  the  enemies 
of  man.  There  are  few  dangerous  wild  animals  left  in  America  now,  but  there  are 
still  parts  of  the  world  where  the  lion  is  king  and  where  its  roar  is  terrible  in  the 
forest.  Slowly,  however,  man  has  conquered  the  animal  kingdom,  and  the  great 
fight  between  animals  and  men  ends  always,  and  must  end  always,  with  the  triumph 
of  man.  But  we  learn  here  that  these  animals  are  not  useless  in  the  world,  for  nothing 
ever  created  is  quite  useless,  and  the  world  could  not  spare  even  its  wild  animals. 


THE  best  idea  of  peace  in  the 
world  is  that  which  we  fancy 
we  see  when  reading  of  the 
days  to  come  when  the  lion  shall  lie 
down  with  the  lamb,  and  a  child  shall 
lead  them.  We  know  that  if  a  lamb 
lay  down  near  a  lion  today,  the  lion 
would  quickly  eat  it.  The  lion  seems 
therefore,  a  cruel  creature.  But  the 
lion  is  doing  only  what  it  was  intended 
by  nature  to  do.  Suppose  there  had 
been  no  lions,  or  tigers,  or  leopards,  or 
other  flesh-eating  beasts  in  wild  coun- 
tries. There  would  have  been  all 
kinds  of  deer  and  cattle,  sheep  and 
goats,  hares  and  rabbits,  and  other 
animals  which  live  upon  vegetable 
matter,  but  there  would  have  been 
nothing  to  keep  their  numbers  in 
check.  They  would  have  multiplied 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  countries 
in  which  they  lived  could  never  have 
become  the  homes  of  men. 

Nature  never  meant  that  any  class 
of  animals  should  become  too  numer- 
ous, because  that  brings  trouble  all 
around.  It  is  said  that  the  countries 
lying  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea  lost 
their  forests  and  vineyards  through 
goats  being  allowed  to  work  havoc. 
The  goats,  having  no  enemies  to  keep 
down  their  numbers,  ate  up  everything 
they  could.  They  gnawed  the  vines, 
they  nibbled  off  the  young  shoots  of 
trees;  they  ate  the  bark  of  the  big 
trees  and  so  killed  them.  They  de- 
stroyed all  the  green  growth  upon  the 
mountain-sides,  and  left  a  wilderness 
in  place  of  smiling  plenty.  By  so  do- 
ing they  caused  the  climate  to  become 


changed  into  one  dry  and  unfavorable 
to  the  growth  of  green  things.  Where 
there  are  forests  and  green  plains  the 
air  is  never  so  hot  and  dry  as  where 
all  is  bare  rock  and  sand.  By  destroy- 
ing forests  we  ruin  the  climate. 

Had  the  deer  and  cattle  and  sheep 
and  goats  all  been  allowed  to  increase 
as  the  goats  in  the  INIediterranean 
countries  were,  there  would  have  been 
far  greater  damage.  The  end  of  it 
would  have  been  that  these  animals 
would  have  died  of  starvation,  for  they 
would  have  changed  the  beautiful 
places  in  which  they  lived  into  dreary 
deserts,  where  nothing  would  have 
been  able  to  grow. 

If  the  numbers  of  lions  and  tigers 
and  other  savage  creatures  had  been 
allowed  to  increase  without  any  check, 
these  would  in  turn  have  become  a 
deadly  peril  to  us  all.  But  man  has 
become  master  of  the  lions  and  tigers. 
He  is  not  so  strong  as  these  monsters, 
but  he  is  wiser  and  has  made  spears 
and  guns  with  which  he  can  kill  them. 
Wherever  tlie  white  man  makes  his 
home,  the  lion  and  the  tiger  have  to 
leave.  There  is  no  need  now  for  lions 
and  tigers  to  keep  down  the  number  of 
other  wild  creatures  that  eat  herbs, 
for  man  can  do  that  himself.  He  does 
not  want  big  animals  which  kill  his 
cattle  as  freely  as  they  kill  the 
creatures  of  the  forest. 

When   the    lion  creeps  abroad   in 
the  night 

The  story  of  the  war  between  men 
and  the  savage  beasts  is  as  old  as  the 


90 


The  elephant  and  the  tiger  are  both  monarchs  of  the  jungle,  each  in  his  own  sphere,  but  when  they  meet  there  is  a 
aerce  battle,  and  till  the  flght  is  over  none  can  say  who  will  be  the  victor.  More  often  than  not,  however,  the  elephant 
is  conqueror,  and  the  tiger  is  fortunate  U  he  can  steal  away  from  his  enemy  into  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


world;  but  victory  always  rests  in  the 
end  with  man. 

There  are  lions  in  other  parts  of 
Asia  as  well  as  India,  but  Africa  is 
now  the  chief  home  of  the  lion.  Where 
white  men  have  been  living  for  a  long 
time  it  is  not  very  often  seen,  but  when 
men  are  making  their  way  into  new 
parts,  there  the  lion  is  a  terrible 
enemy  to  them.  The  deer  flee  away 
at  the  sight  of  man,  and  the  lion,  unless 
he  follows  the  deer,  must  have  cattle, 
or  even  men,  or  else  he  must  starve. 
So  he  attacks  the  horses,  and  mules, 
and  cattle  which  draw  the  white  men's 
wagons,  and  even  kills  and  eats  the 
men  themselves.  The  teeth  of  the 
lion  are  of  huge  size,  and  its  jaws  are 
as  strong  as  a  great  steel  trap.  How 
does  it  get  the  great  power  which  en- 
ables it  to  kill  a  horse  or  an  ox  at  a 
single  blow? 

The  three  strongest  things  in  the 
animal  world 

Let  us  fancy  that  we  are  looking  at 
those  terrible  front  paws  with  which  it 
strikes  the  blow.  The  leg,  or  forearm, 
as  it  is  called,  measures  19  inches 
around,  and  is  made  up  of  the  hardest 
of  hard  bone,  with  muscle  and  tendons 
as  strong  as  the  strongest  wire.  The 
foot  measures  8  inches  across.  ^Yhen 
this  foot  strikes  an  animal  the  lion 
shoots  out  its  terrible  claws,  which  are 
hidden,  when  it  walks,  inside  the  joints 
of  the  toes.  These  claws  are  like 
great  hooks  made  of  yellow  horn. 
They  tear  the  flesh  off  an  animal  as 
we  would  strip  the  peel  from  an  orange. 
The  force  with  which  these  claws  are 
driven  in  is  almost  more  than  we  can 
believe.  We  are  told  that  the  three 
strongest  things  in  the  animal  world 
are  these:  first,  the  blow  from  the  tail 
of  a  whale,  second,  the  kick  of  a  giraffe, 
and  third  the  blow  from  a  lion's  paw. 
The  forearm  of  the  lion  is  worked  by 
great  muscles  at  the  shoulder,  and  the 
blow  which  it  makes  is  really  like  the 


blow  from  a  steam  hammer.  No 
wonder  that  it  can  kill  a  man  or  a  big 
animal  with  ease. 

The  lion  and  the  tiger  are  the  largest 
of  the  cat  family.  They  are  really 
great  fierce  cats.  Your  pet  kitten  is 
simply  a  young  lion  or  tiger  on  a  tiny 
scale.  Notice  the  kitten's  claws:  they 
are  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  lion's. 
Notice  how  rough  its  tongue  is  upon 
your  hand.  The  lion's  tongue  is  like 
that,  only  much  more  rough.  On  it's 
tongue  little  hard  points,  like  frag- 
ments of  horn,  stick  up,  so  that  with 
these  the  lion  can  tear  pieces  of  meat 
from  a  bone  just  as  if  it  were  using  a 
file. 

The   LION'S   ROAR    IN    THE    FOREST    AND 
HOW   HE  GETS   HIS   SUPPER 

Another  thing  in  which  the  lion  is 
like  the  cat  is  that  it  cannot  run  fast 
for  a  long  distance.  It  can  spring  a 
long  way,  and  it  can  bound  along  at 
a  great  rate  for  a  short  time;  but,  just 
as  a  dog  can  race  a  cat,  so  a  deer  can 
easily  race  a  lion.  So  the  lion  has  to 
be  very  cunning  to  catch  swift  an- 
imals for  its  supper. 

When  the  lion  goes  out  to  a  pool 
to  drink  at  night,  he  knows  that  other 
animals  will  be  coming  to  the  same 
spot.  So  he  puts  his  great  mouth  to 
the  ground  and  roars.  There  is  no 
other  sound  in  the  animal  world  like 
the  roar  of  a  lion.  It  is  so  loud,  so 
deep  and  so  powerful,  that  it  terrifies 
all  the  animals  which  hear  it.  It  seems 
to  send  them  wild  with  terror.  The 
lion  knows  this,  and  he  keeps  on  roar- 
ing. The  result  is  that  the  animals 
which  hear  it  forget  everything  in  their 
terror;  they  rush  madly  to  and  fro, 
and  one  of  them  generally  dashes 
straight  into  the  mouth  of  the  lion. 
That  is  one  of  his  ways  of  catching  a 
supper.     There  is  another  way. 

Suppose  that  there  are  deer  right 
out  on  the  plain.  It  is  of  no  use  for 
the  lion  to  go  galloping  out  there,  for 


THE    LORDS    OF    THE    WILD     KINGDOM 


The  lion  is  the  king  of  beasts,  the  lord  of  the  forest.  A  blow  from  a  lion's  paw  is  one  of  the  strongest  things  in  the 
world,  like  a  blow  from  a  steam-hammer.  When  he  goes  to  drink  at  the  pool  at  night,  he  puts  his  great  mouth  to  the 
ground  and  roars,  filling  the  other  animals  with  terror,  and  sending  them  rushing  madly  to  and  fro  in  their  contusion,  often 
within  reach  of  the  lion's  paws.     That  is  how  the  lion  gets  his  supper. 


I 


The  tiger,  which  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  lion  and  the  cat,  has  not  the  grand  head  and  mane  of  the  lion, 
but  it  uses  its  strength  jast  as  surely  as  the  lion,  and  in  countries  like  India  hundreds  of  people  and  thousands  of  cattle 
are  killed  by  tigers  every  year.  When  they  have  once  tasted  human  blood,  tigers  become  very  bold,  and  they  will  prowl 
round  houses  at  night  and  carry  off  anybody  they  can  catch. 

OS 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  deer  would  see  him  and  rush  far 
away.  There  may  be  scattered  rocks 
to  enable  him  silently  to  creep  from 
one  to  another,  and  so  get  near,  ready 
to  jump  out.  But  suppose  that  there 
are  no  rocks;  then  he  cannot  get  near. 
In  that  case  two  lions  have  to  hunt 
together.  One  lies  down  and  hides. 
The  other  lion  goes  quietly  off  in  the 
reeds  and  bushes  at  the  edge  of  the 
plain,  until  he  can  get  round  to  the 
back  of  where  the  deer  are  feeding; 
then  he  dashes  out  with  a  roar.  The 
deer  rush  away  in  terror,  with  the  lion 
after  them.  Though  he  cannot  keep 
up  with  them,  he  can  keep  near  enough 
to  drive  them  towards  where  the 
other  lion  is  hiding.  In  an  instant, 
when  the  deer  draw  near,  this  lion 
bounds  forth,  strikes  right  and  left 
with  his  great  paws,  and  at  each  stroke 
he  kills  a  deer,  and  so  gains  a  supper 
for  himself  and  his  friends. 

The  sword-toothed  tiger  that  lived 
in  england 

The  tiger  is  more  to  be  feared,  per- 
haps, than  the  lion.  It  does  not  live 
in  Africa,  but  is  to  be  found  nearly  all 
over  Asia  and  especially  in  India.  It 
is  cunning  and  cruel;  it  will  kill  animals 
when  it  does  not  need  food.  It  has 
not  the  grand  head  and  mane  of  the  lion, 
but  it  uses  its  strength  just  as  surely. 

Ages  ago  there  were  tigers  more  ter- 
rible even  than  those  living  today.  They 
had  two  teeth  which  the  tiger  of  today 
has  not.  These  two  teeth  were  great 
blades  which  grew  down  from  the 
upper  jaw.  They  were  like  sword 
blades,  and  the  name  given  to  that 
tiger  is  the  "saber-toothed"  tiger.  It 
had  legs  bigger  and  stronger  and  claws 
more  powerful  than  the  tigers  of  today. 
With  its  great  teeth  and  big  mouth  it 
could  break  the  backs  of  huge  beasts 
such  as  then  lived. 
How  the  tiger  hunts  his  prev 

Animals  are  often  colored  like  the 
scenes  in  which  they  live.     The  lion 


loves  the  open  ground,  so  its  fur  has 
become  a  mixture  between  yellow  and 
gray,  like  the  sand  and  rocks.  The 
tiger  hunts  in  marshes  or  among  long 
reeds  and  grass,  so  its  coat  is  a  fawn 
color  with  stripes  of  black,  or  a  color 
almost  black.  When  it  crouches  down 
among  the  reeds,  or  tall  grass,  it  looks 
like  the  ground,  with  shadows  of  the 
reeds  showing  on  it. 

Although  lions  and  tigers  kill  men 
and  cattle,  they  do  not  do  this  all  their 
lives.  The  lion  likes  deer  and  zebras 
and  giraffes.     The  tiger  eats  deer  and 


THE  TIGER  PEERS  OUT  OE  THE  JUNGLE 

wild  pigs  and  pea-fowl.  When  the 
tigers  get  old,  or  after  they  have  been 
injured,  it  is  less  easy  for  them  to 
catch  wild  prey,  so  they  creep  nearer 
to  the  homes  of  men,  and  take  their 
cattle.  The  tiger  does  this  very  often 
in  India.  The  poor  natives  who  are 
set  to  guard  the  cattle  are  terribly 
frightened  when  they  see  a  tiger, 
which,  sometimes  twice  in  a  week, 
will  carry  off  a  cow.  The  man  runs 
away,  and  so  shows  the  lion  or  tiger 
that  he  is  afraid.  When  it  sees  this, 
the  animal  strikes  the  man  down. 

Leopards  hide  in  trees  and  spring 
UPON  their  victims 

Leopards  are  more  like  tigers  than 

lions,  for  they  have  no  manes,  but  they 


THE    HYENA,   GRIZZLY   AND   POLAR   BEARS 


The  hyena  is  a  fierce,   ugly  creature,  which  hunts  in  This  is  a  big  grizzly  bear,  which  climbs  trees  and  will 

packs  at  night  and  steals  everything  it  can  get.     It  is  a      catch  and  kill  a  horse  or  a  man.     These  bears  generally 
cowardly  animal,  with  great  power  in  its  teeth.  live  in  a  cave  and  sleep  through  the  winter. 


The  Polar  bear  lives  near  the  North  Pole,  at  the  very  top  of  the  world,  where  it  Is  all  ice  and  snow.    It  lives  chiefly 
upon  seals  and  walruses,  but  U  It  can  it  will  kill  and  eat  a  man. 

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are  spotted,  instead  of  striped,  as  the 
tiger  is.  When  wild,  they  are  even 
more  to  be  dreaded  than  the  lion  or 
the  tiger,  for  they  climb  trees,  which 
lions  and  tigers  do  not.  They  crouch 
down  on  a  bough,  and  as  a  child  or  an 
animal  passes  underneath  they  spring 
down  and  kill  it.  The  cruel  leopard 
seems  to  love  to  kill  simply  for  the  sake 
of  killing.  The  leopard  is  a  most 
cunning  animal.  Though  it  will  not 
attack  a  man  who  has  a  gun,  it  will 
spring  on  a  poor  native  who  is  un- 
armed. 

Some  leopards  can  live  where  it  is 
very  cold.  These  are  called  snow 
leopards.  They  live  high  up  in  the 
mountains,  where  snow  nearly  always 
lies,  and  then  their  fur  is  long,  to  keep 
them  warm,  and  light  colored,  so  that 
they  may  steal  unseen  over  the  snow 
upon  their  prey.  When  captured  and 
brought  into  a  warmer  climate,  where 
there  is  no  longer  any  snow  about,  the 
coat  of  the  snow  leopard  often  becomes 
darker. 

The  jaguar  is  a  more  terrible-looking 
beast  than  the  leopard.  It  has  much 
thicker  legs,  its  head  is  heavier,  and 
the  spots  upon  its  coat,  instead  of 
being  round  rings,  like  those  of  the 
leopard,  are  shaped  like  rosettes. 
Like  the  leopard,  it  climbs  trees,  and 
pounces  down  upon  its  victim.  Its 
home  is  in  America,  from  Texas  south 
to  Patagonia. 

The  puma,  the  enemy  of  the  dog  and 
the  kind  man's  friend 

Another  of  the  big  cats  like  the 
leopard  is  the  puma,  also  called  the 
mountain  lion,  panther  and  cougar. 
The  puma  can  kill  a  horse  or  an  ox, 
but  of  all  things  it  best  loves  the  flesh 
of  the  dog.  It  can  be  tamed,  but  you 
must  not  let  it  see  a  dog,  for  that  will 
tempt  it  too  much. 

There  is  this  to  be  said  in  favor  of 
the  puma:  although  he  will  fight  the 
jaguar   and   the   bear,    and   will    kill 


cattle  and  horses,  he  never  attacks  a 
man  unless  he  is  himself  first  attacked. 
People  sleep  without  any  protection 
when  they  know  that  pumas  are  about, 
for  they  call  him  the  kind  man's 
friend. 

How  THE  CHEETAH  IS  MADE  TO  HUNT 
THE  ANTELOPE 

One  of  the  f'^w  savage  animals 
which,  after  being  caught,  can  be 
made  to  serve  man  is  the  cheetah.  If 
he  is  caught  wild  he  can  be  taught  to 
hunt  for  his  master;  but  he  cannot  be 
made  to  do  this  if  he  has  been  born  in 
captivity.  Some  princes  in  India  keep 
cheetahs,  just  as  many  men  in  England 
keep  packs  of  hounds  for  hunting  foxes. 
When  it  has  been  trained,  the  cheetah 
is  taken  near  to  where  there  are  deer  or 
antelopes.  At  first  its  head  is  covered 
with  a  hood;  when  this  is  taken  off  the 
animal  creeps  away  to  where  it  sees 
the  deer,  and,  springing  upon  one, 
catches  it  for  its  master.  It  is  like 
the  leopard,  in  appearance,  having  a 
spotted  coat,  but  it  cannot  climb  trees. 

The  weasel  family  is  a  big  one.  It 
includes  the  otter,  which  swims  and 
dives  splendidly  and  catches  fish;  the 
glutton,  or  wolverine,  which  lives  in 
the  cold  countries  and  is  a  foe  to  the 
beaver;  the  stoat,  or  ermine,  with  its 
brown  coat  in  summer  and  white  coat 
in  winter,  and  its  everlasting  appetite; 
and  the  weasel  itself,  which  eats  rats 
and  mice  and  birds.  If  a  weasel  gets 
into  a  poultry  yard,  no  chickens  will 
be  left  alive. 

The  little  sharp-toothed  members 
OF  the  weasel  family 

The  pine  marten  is  another  of  these 

little  animals  with  long  thin  bodies. 

They    are    terrible    little    creatures, 

though  they  are  so  handsome.     Some 

years   ago   a   farmer   in   Ireland   had 

fourteen    out    of    twenty-one    lambs 

killed,  and  the  next  night  the  other 

seven  were  served  in  the  same  way. 

When  a  search  was  made  it  was  found 


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97 


that  the  whole  of  the  damage  had  been 
done  by  two  pine  martens,  which  had 
made  their  home  in  the  nest  of  a  mag- 
pie in  the  top  of  a  pine  tree  near  by. 

The  American  sable  is  sometimes 
called  the  pine  marten,  but  is  a  mem- 
ber of  a  different  family  and  is  more 
like  its  cousins  among  the  sables. 

The  most  famous  of  the  weasel 
family  is  the  sable.  This  is  a  little 
animal  which  has  a  brown  coat  in 
summer,  but  a  white  one  in  winter 
when  the  snow  conies.  Its  fur  is  so 
precious  that  men  go  into  the  cold, 
frozen  wastes  of  Siberia  to  catch  it, 
and  in  seeking  it  they  have  explored 
and  made  maps  of  lands  where 
civilized  men  had  never  been  before. 

An  animal  known  for  its  scent  is  the 
civet,  which  lives  in  Africa.  Its  scent 
is  not  unpleasant,  but  is  valued,  and 
the  civet  is  kept  tame,  so  that  men 
can  always  get  a  supply  of  the  scent. 
It  is  a  waxy  substance  that  is  passed 
from  the  animal's  body  into  a  little 
pouch  beneath  the  abdomen,  from 
which  it  is  removed  by  men  who  sell 
it  to  be  used  for  making  perfumes. 

A  little  long-bodied  animal  which 
is  much  prized  is  the  mongoose.  Men 
tame  it  and  have  it  about  their  houses, 
because  it  kills  snakes  and  rats  and 
mice.  So  long  as  it  is  kept  under 
control,  all  goes  well;  but  if  it  is  not 
controlled,  then  woe  betide  its  master. 
Many  years  ago  the  island  of  Jamaica 
swarmed  with  rats.  These  creatures 
ate  the  sugar-canes  and  ruined  the 
planters.  A  number  of  mongooses 
were  taken  there  from  India,  and 
turned  loose  in  the  fields.  Though 
they  quickly  killed  and  ate  the  rats, 
they  also  killed  all  the  useful  little 
animals  in  the  island. 
The  bear  that  lives  in  a  world  of  ice 

AND  SNOW 

In  the  frozen  Arctic  regions  the 
animal  which  men  most  dread  is  the 
Polar  bear.     It  is  not  so  fearful  a  bear 


as  the  one  which  used  to  live  in  Europe. 
That  was  called  the  cave  bear,  and 
was  so  big  that  two  cave  bears  would 
have  weighed  more  than  three  of  the 
biggest  bears  in  the  world  of  today. 


THE  POLAR   BEAR  BEGS 

The  Polar  bear  lives  chiefly  upon  seals 
and  walruses,  and  on  the  flesh  of 
whales,  but  if  it  can  it  will  kill  and 
eat  a  man. 


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In  winter  the  female  bear  goes  some 
distance  away  from  the  sea  and  Ues 
down  and  buries  herself  in  the  snow. 
Then  she  goes  to  sleep  for  the  whole 
winter,  while  her  husband  is  out 
getting  food  and  keeping  himself  warm 
as  best  he  can.  When  she  goes  out  in 
the  spring  from  her  snowy  home,  the 
she-bear  generally  takes  a  baby  bear 
with  her  to  show  to  her  husband.  The 
Polar  bear  can  swim,  and  can  make  his 
way  over  smooth  ice  where  no  horse  or 


A  LIVE   TEDDY    BEAR,  THREE  WEEKS   OLD 

man  could  go,  since  his  great  feet  are 
covered  with  little  hairs,  which  prevent 
him  from  slipping. 

The  Polar  bear  would  perhaps  not 
know  what  to  do  if  he  came  to  a  tree; 
but  the  grizzly  bear,  or  any  other  bear 
which  does  not  live  in  the  Polar 
regions,  would  know  what  to  do. 
These  would  climb  the  tree  if  there 
were  a  bees'  nest  or  a  man  at  the  top. 


Wherever  there  is  food  they  will  go. 
They  will  eat  roots  or  berries;  they 
will  eat  honey;  they  will  catch  and  kill 
a  horse  or  a  man;  they  will  eat  the 
body  of  a  man  or  an  animal  which  has 
died.  Nearly  all  the  bears  go  to  sleep 
in  the  winter.  They  get  so  fat  in  the 
summer  that,  while  they  are  sleeping 
in  the  winter,  they  can  live  on  the 
strength  which  is  stored  up  in  their  fat. 
They  are  thin  and  hungry  when  they 
come  out  of  their  hiding-places  in  the 
spring.  That  hiding-place  is  generally 
a  cave  or  some  other  hole,  or  it  may 
even  be  the  inside  of  a  great  hollow  tree. 

The  wolves  that  chase  the  horses  in 
the  great  russian  wilderness 

The  wolf  is  not  as  large  an  animal 
as  the  bear,  but  he  is  more  to  be 
feared.  There  are  so  many  wolves, 
and  they  travel  so  fast  and  so  far. 
They  hunt  together  in  large  packs, 
and  in  the  winter,  when  snow  is  on  the 
ground  and  food  is  hard  to  find,  they 
run  for  miles  and  miles  to  chase  horses 
and  men. 

In  Siberia  and  Russia,  and  other 
cold  countries,  wolves  hunt  men  who 
are  driving  in  sledges.  No  matter 
how  quickly  the  frightened  horses 
gallop,  the  wolf  can  keep  up  with 
them.  Sometimes  the  driver  is  com- 
pelled to  cut  the  harness  of  one  of  the 
horses  and  let  it  go,  so  that  the  wolves 
may  seize  that,  and  enable  him  to  get 
safely  away  with  the  other  horses. 
But  if  there  are  many  wolves,  some 
will  still  follow  the  man,  and  in  the 
end  run  him  down.  If,  while  he  is  being 
chased,  the  man  shoots  a  wolf,  some 
will  stop  and  eat  the  one  which  drops, 
but  the  others  go  on.  When  hunting 
animals  they  are  just  as  determined. 
Two  will  hunt  a  deer  as  the  lion  does, 
one  lying  in  hiding  while  the  other 
drives  the  deer  towards  it.  Wolves 
are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
and  used  to  live  in  such  numbers  in 
England  and  Scotland  that  the  kings 


THE    FOX,   THE  JACKAL   AND    THE   WOLVES 


The  fox  Is  the  only  wild  animal  left  In  the  country  which  The  jackal  runs  like  a  shadow  after  the  lion  and  tiger,  and 

l3  at  all  like  the  wolf.     It  l3  handsome,  cunning,  and  bold,       picks  up  whatever  they  leave.     He  will  eat  up  anything 
and  destroys  the  farmer's  fowls  and  ducks.  the  Uon  and  tiger  refuse. 


This  picture  shows  us  a  pack  of  wolves  hunting  for  food.  They  hunt  together  in  large  numbers,  and  In  the  winter, 
when  the  ground  Is  under  snow  and  food  is  hard  to  find,  they  run  for  miles,  chasing  horses  and  men.  Sometimes  the  driver 
Iiaa  to  let  loose  one  borse  to  satlafy  the  wolves  and  to  enable  him  to  get  away  with  the  others. 

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made  the  people  pay  taxes,  not  in 
money,  but  in  the  skins  of  wolves. 
That  was  a  sure  way  of  making  people 
hunt  and  kill  the  wolf. 

The  only  wild  animal  left  in  the 
country  now  at  all  like  a  wolf  is  the 
fox,  the  animal  which,  in  England, 
men  on  horseback  hunt  with  hounds. 
It  is  a  handsome  but  cruel  animal. 
Like  the  leopard,  it  will  kill  all  it 
possibly  can.  In  one  night  it  will  kill 
scores  of  fowls,  though  it  needs  but 
one  or  two. 

The   cunning   fox   and   the   way   in 
which  he  cheats  his  hunters 

The  fox  lives  in  a  hole  burrowed  in 
the  ground,  or  in  the  root  of  an  old 
tree.  Sometimes  it  will  share  a  bur- 
row with  a  badger.  The  badger  is  a 
shy,  handsome  animal,  with  long,  fine 
hair.  No  other  animal  of  its  size  has 
such  terrible  jaws.  The  badger  and 
the  fox  do  not  fight,  or  it  would  be 
bad  for  the  fox.  Sometimes  they  live 
together  in  a  burrow  which  has  two 
little  rooms  at  the  end.  In  one  the 
mother  fox  rears  her  babies,  and  in 
the  other  the  badger  nurses  hers. 
Although  the  fox  does  not  bite  so  hard 
as  the  badger,  its  bite  is  dangerous, 
and  men  have  gone  mad  from  the 
wound  caused  in  this  way. 

The  fox  is  as  bold  as  it  is  cunning, 
and,  like  the  skunk,  the  fox  has  a 
strong  smell,  and  wherever  it  goes  it 
leaves  traces  of  this  odor.  It  is  this 
which  the  dogs  are  able  to  follow.  They 
can  chase  a  fox  which  they  cannot  see. 
They  do  not  look  for  the  animal;  they 
simply  keep  their  noses  to  the  ground, 
and  follow  wherever  the  scent  leads 
them.  The  fox  knows  all  about  this, 
and  does  all  he  can  to  destroy  the  scent 
he  leaves.  He  will  swim  as  readily  as 
a  Polar  bear,  and  he  will  make  great 
leaps  in  the  air  as  the  hare  does  to 
break  the  track  of  scent. 


The  wild  dogs,  the  wolves,  the  jack- 
al, AND  THE  HYENA 

All  dogs  were  wild  once  upon  a 
time.  The  dogs  and  the  wolves  and 
the  foxes  and  the  wild  dogs  still  living 
in  places  abroad  all  come  from  the 
same  father  and  mother,  far  back  in 
the  ages.  There  are  still  to  be  seen  in 
Achill  Island,  off  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland,  dogs  which  are  simply  little 
wolves  and  nothing  else.  We  need 
not  be  surprised,  then,  that  the  ways 
of  wild  dogs  and  wolves  are  alike. 
Wild  dogs  hunt  just  as  the  wolves  do. 
They  will  attack  any  animal  when 
they  are  hungry. 

The  jackal  is  really  a  smaller  kind 
of  wolf.  He  is  a  wretched  creature, 
and  runs  like  a  shadow  after  the  lion 
and  the  tiger.  When  the  tiger  has 
killed  an  animal  and  eaten  as  much 
as  it  wants,  the  jackals,  which  have 
been  humbly  creeping  round  about, 
rush  out  from  their  hiding  place  and 
devour  the  rest  of  the  carcass.  They 
eat  up  the  filth  of  the  villages;  but 
they  are  great  thieves,  and  dogs  have 
to  be  kept  to  prevent  them  from  doing 
still  greater  damage.  They  have  a 
nose  which  is  less  pointed  than  that  of 
the  fox,  but  sharper  than  that  of  the 
ordinary  wolf;  and  they  have  a  tail 
like  the  fox. 

If  there  is  a  more  unpleasant  animal 
than  the  jackal,  it  is  the  hyena.  But, 
uglj'^  and  horrid  as  they  are,  they  are 
important  to  the  health  of  the  coun- 
tries where  they  live.  If  wounded 
animals  get  away  and  die  in  the  forest, 
or  if  animals  be  left  only  partly  eaten, 
their  flesh,  if  allowed  to  lie  in  the  sun, 
would  become  poisonous.  But  where 
hyenas  are  about,  this  thing  never 
happens.  They  set  out  in  packs  at 
night,  and  clear  up  whatever  dead 
bodies  they  can  find,  not  even  leaving 
the  bones. 


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101 


The  home  ol  the  W  eaver  Birds 


BIRDS      OF      UNCOMMON      BEAUTY 


WHEN  Alice  was  in  Wonder- 
land, if  she  wanted  suddenly 
to  grow  tall  or  to  make  her- 
self smaller,  all  she  had  to  do  was  to 
eat  a  piece  of  cake  or  mushroom,  or 
drink  something  from  a  bottle,  and  she 
at  once  became  the  right  size.  When 
we  think  of  birds  becoming  brilliantly 
colored,  or  marked  like  the  surround- 
ings in  which  they  live,  we  think  of 
Alice.  But,  of  course,  the  case  in  real 
life  is  different  from  that  in  the  story- 
book. No  bird  ever  says  to  itself:  "I 
will  make  my  feathers  the  color  of  the 
rocks  and  sand  in  the  desert,  so  that 
the  hawks  and  eagles  shall  not  see  me." 
Nor  does  it  make  up  its  mind  to  wear 
rich  and  gorgeous  plumage.  The  ap- 
pearance of  birds  is  brought  about  by 
long  ages  of  change,  by  the  slow  work- 
ing of  natural  laws. 

Suppose  we  have  a  number  of  birds 
Hving  in  a  place  where  they  have 
many  strong  enemies.  They  cannot 
escape  by  fighting,  for  they  are  not 
strong  enough.  They  cannot  escape 
by  flying,  for  their  enemies  fly  faster. 
The  probability  is  that  they  will  be 
killed.  But  if  some  of  the  birds  have 
feathers  which  enable  them  to  appear, 
when  hiding,  like  the  rocks  or  sand, 
or  like  the  trees  or  jungle,  it  is  very 
likely  that  those  birds  will  escape. 


The  birds  which  have  not  this  ad- 
vantage will  be  caught  and  killed,  but 
the  others  will  live,  and  the  baby 
birds  hatched  from  their  eggs  will  be 
like  them.  It  will  become  part  of 
their  nature  to  seek  safety  by  hiding. 
Gradually  they  will  become  more  and 
more  like  the  scene  in  which  they  live. 
If  the  change  of  seasons  brings  great 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  foliage, 
the  birds  will  be  able  to  change  their 
feathers  so  that  they  will  keep  pace, 
in  appearance,  with  the  altered  looks 
of  the  things  about  their  homes. 

That  is  one  way  in  which  nature 
enables  birds  to  flourish.  But  there 
is  another  way.  It  is  the  way  of  the 
female  bird  to  mate  herself  to  the 
handsomest  among  her  suitors,  like 
the  princesses  in  the  story-books;  so 
that  each  generation  of  birds  in  this 
way  tends  to  become  stronger  and 
more  handsome.  But  the  mother 
birds  of  gorgeous  bird  families  are,  as 
a  rule,  neither  gay  nor  splendid,  so 
that  they  may  sit  on  the  nest  and  hatch 
the  eggs  without  danger  of  being  mo- 
lested by  their  enemies. 

The  most  gorgeous  birds  in  the 
world  are  the  birds  of  paradise  and 
the  humming-birds.  The  first  of  these 
is,  like  the  bower-birds,  a  distant 
cousin    of    our   old   friend   the   crow. 


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Only  a  naturalist  could  discover  this. 
To  anyone  not  acquainted  with  the 
science  of  natural  history,  it  would 
be  hard  to  imagine  a  greater  con- 
trast than  that  between  the  crow  and 
the  bird  of  paradise.  But  then  the 
bird  of  paradise  does  not  differ  more 
from  the  crow  than  one  species  of 
bird  of  paradise  differs  from  another 
species.  There  are  nearly  fifty  differ- 
ent species  of  birds  of  paradise,  and 
many  of  them  may  claim  to  be  among 
the  fairest  of  nature's  children.  Not 
only  are  they  beautiful  in  coloring, 
but  the  arrangement  of  the  feathers 
of  some  of  them  is  really  extraordinary. 
The  GORGEOUS  plumage  of  the  birds 

OF   PARADISE 

There  is  one  called  the  twelve-wired 
bird  of  paradise.  It's  tail  is  short  and 
square,  but  there  grow  out  twelve  long, 
wire-like  feathers,  or  bristles,  for  they 
are  only  the  bare  stems  of  feathers, 
which  curve  round  towards  the  sides 
of  the  wings,  and  give  the  strangest 
appearance  to  the  bird.  The  chief 
colors  in  its  magnificent  plumage  are 
purple-bronze  on  the  head,  green  and 
purple  and  black  on  the  neck,  bronze 
green  on  the  back  and  shoulders,  and 
emerald  green  to  the  edges  of  the 
outer  wing  feathers,  with  brilliant 
violet-purple  to  the  rest  of  the  wings 
and  tail,  and  rich  yellow  on  the  breast. 
This  bird  is,  including  its  two-inch 
beak,  a  foot  in  length.  The  long  beak 
supplies  the  bird  with  food,  which  it 
takes  in  the  form  of  honej^  from 
flowers. 

There  is  a  larger  bird  of  paradise 
than  this- — the  long-tailed  one  of  the 
mountainous  regions  of  New  Guinea, 
which  is  over  a  yard  in  length.  It  is 
colored  as  richly  as  the  other,  but  it 
adds  a  fan-like  arrangement  of  feathers 
which  rise  from  the  sides  of  the  breast, 
expanding  at  their  outer  ends  in  bril- 
liant blue  and  green,  while  the  tail 
feathers  are  of  a  lovely  opal  blue. 


The  king  of  the  gay  birds  and  its 
wonderful  spray  of  feathers 

The  king  of  gay  birds  is,  however, 
the  great  paradise  bird — a  bird  half 
the  size  of  the  long-tailed  one,  but 
lovely  beyond  description.  The  chief 
color  of  the  body  and  wings  is  deep, 
rich  brown,  varied  by  tints  of  black  and 
purple  and  violet.  The  top  of  the 
head  and  neck  are  colored  like  yellow 
plush,  while  from  beneath  the  eyes 
and  around  the  lower  part  of  the  throat 
run  feathers  of  emerald  green,  from 
which  spring  deeper  green  feathers  in 
a  band  across  the  forehead  and  chin. 
The  beak  is  blue,  and  the  feet  are  pink. 

The  most  wonderful  feature  of  this 
wonderful  bird  is  a  superb  spray  of 
feathers  which  it  erects  to  cover  itself 
and  look  its  best.  These  feathers 
grow  out  from  under  each  wing,  rise 
into  the  air,  and  curve  gracefully  over 
in  descending  plumes,  as  much  as  two 
feet  in  length.  The  plumes  are  of  a 
deep  orange  color,  pale  brown  at  the 
tip,  and  they  cover  the  bird  as  with  a 
cascade  of  glossy  feathers. 

When  the  male  birds  set  out  to  win 
mates  they  gather  together  in  the 
trees  near  the  home,  and  dance  and 
spread  their  feathers  in  the  vainest 
way.  On  one  of  these  trees,  says  Dr. 
Russel  Wallace,  who  has  studied  them 
in  their  native  home,  a  dozen  or  twenty 
magnificent  male  birds  in  full  plumage 
may  be  seen  together.  They  raise 
their  wings,  stretch  out  their  necks 
and  elevate  their  lovely  plumes  which 
they  keep  continually  vibrating,  so 
that  the  whole  tree  is  filled  with  wav- 
ing plumes  in  every  variety  of  attitude 
and  motion. 
The    bird    with    plumes    like    fans 

AND   A  tail   like   A    RACKET 

We  have  been  speaking  of  this  one 
as  the  king  of  the  birds  of  paradise, 
but  the  one  that  the  naturalists  call 
the  king  paradise  bird  is  only  about 
six    inches    in    length,    and    is    dis- 


THE    HANDSOMEST    BIRDS    IN    THE    WORLD 


The  satin  bower-bird  is  a  member  of  tlie  crow  family,  is  .Ia\  a  siiarrows  are  common  in   captivity.     They  have 

a  great  gardener  and  builder,  and  loves  to  build  a  bower        smart  white  feather  collars  in  winter  and  spring.     The 
beautiful  with  flowers  and  gay  feathers.  Java  sparrow  is  a  type  of  the  weaver-bird. 


The  great  bird  of  paradise  is  the  biggest  of  its  family, 
and  has  feathers  like  velvet,  as  well  as  the  wonderful 
spreading  tail.     The  colors  in  Its  plumage  are  gorgeous. 


The  gorget  bird  of  paradise  Is  lovely  beyond  description  The  humming  bird,  one  of  the  loveliest  of  living  things, 

with  its  colors  of  black,  purple,  copper,  green  and  gold.        flies  so  rapidly  that  its  wings  hum  like  those  of  a  bee. 


The  twelve-wired  bird  of  paradise  has  a  tail  unlike  any  Hundreds  of  sociable  weaver  birds  build  nests  together 

other  bird's.    The  shafts  are  bare  like  wires.  under  one  neat  thatched  root  made  in  a  tree. 

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tinguished  by  two  fan-like  plumes  on 
the  breast,  and  a  tail  of  curved  feathers 
shaped  at  the  end  like  a  racket.  Its 
feathers  are  green,  purple,  red  and  white. 

Wilson's  bird  of  paradise,  another 
member  of  this  family,  named  after 
its  discoverer,  is  almost  bare  upon 
the  head,  over  which  two  narrow 
tracts  of  feathers  form  a  cross.  The 
rest  of  the  head  is  bare,  and  the  skin 
a  deep  blue.  From  its  tail  grow  out 
two  long  feathers,  which  cross,  then 
curve  completely,  looking  like  the 
handles  of  a  pair  of  scissors. 

As  we  have  a  twelve-wired  bird  of 
paradise  so  we  have  also  a  six-plumed 
one.  The  plumes  are  long,  glistening, 
wire-like  growths,  springing  from  the 
back  of  the  head,  and  bare  all  the  way 
up  to  the  tips,  where  dainty  webs  of 
feather  appear.  This  bird  has  a 
gorgeous  ruffle,  and  a  tuft  of  silver 
feathers  upon  the  beak,  which  it  can 
cause  to  lie  flat  or  stand  up  at  will. 
No  pen  could  describe  the  glories  of 
these  birds.  They  must  be  seen. 
When  the  Zoo  is  fortunate,  it  has  one 
or  two  alive,  but  they  are  hard  to  keep 
in  captivity.  We  can  give  them  the 
proper  sort  of  food,  for  they  like  fruit 
and  insects  and  seeds,  but  we  cannot 
give  them  their  native  air,  sunshine, 
and  brilliant  climate. 

We  have  seen  in  earlier  stories  how 
birds  and  animals  develop  in  a  special 
way  in  particular  parts  of  the  world. 
The  wonderful  little  humming-birds 
inhabit  only  the  warm  parts  of 
United  States,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and 
certain  mountain  slopes  of  both  North 
and  South  America.  For  beauty  of 
plumage  there  is  no  bird  to  surpass 
them.  They  are  as  gorgeous  as  the 
birds  of  paradise,  but  not  with  the 
same  stately  grandeur,  for  the  biggest 
of  them  are  small,  and  the  tiniest 
are  no  more  than  three  inches  from 
beak  to  tail.  Yet  they  are  most 
wonderful  flying  birds. 


The  conjurers  rightly  say  that  the 
quickness  of  the  hand  deceives  the  eye. 
Well,  the  humming-bird's  quickness 
simply  makes  it  impossible  for  the 
human  eye  to  follow  it.  It  is  like  the 
flash  of  shooting  stars.  A  famous  man 
who  has  often  been  near  these  birds  in 
their  native  forests  has  told  us  how 
very  difficult  it  is  to  see  them.  While 
he  was  watching  a  flower  he  suddenly 
saw  something  come  between  his  eye 
and  the  bloom.  It  was  a  humming- 
bird, but  it  seemed  like  a  gray  blur  as 
it  paused  for  an  instant  before  the 
flower.  There  was  a  look  as  of  four 
black  threads  suspending  it  in  the  air. 
This  would  be  the  moving  forks  of 
the  bird's  tail.  There  was  a  gray  film 
as,  like  lightning,  the  bird  vibrated 
its  wings;  then,  with  a  sharp  twitter, 
it  turned.  There  was  a  flash  of 
emerald  and  sapphire  light  as  the  sun 
was  reflected  by  its  plumage,  and  in 
an  instant  it  had  vanished.  It  all 
happened  so  quicldy  that  the  word 
remained  unspoken  on  the  watcher's 
lips,  the  thought  in  his  mind  had 
scarcely  had  time  to  change.  Yet  in 
that  time  the  bird  had  flown  to  the 
flower;  it  had  thrust  in  its  beak,  shot 
out  its  long  tongue,  and  sucked  up  the 
honey  in  the  flower;  and  it  had  gone 
to  a  new  flower  which  would  furnish 
the  next  portion  of  its  meal. 

How  THE  HUMMING-BIRD  HANGS  IN  THE 
AIR  SIPPING  HONEY  FROM  A  FLOWER 

Everybody  who  has  seen  the  hum- 
ming-bird in  its  native  wilds  gives  us 
the  same  impression  of  its  marvelous 
swiftness.  No  one  can  see  its  wings 
move — they  are  vibrated  too  quickly. 
And  it  is  because  of  the  rate  at  which 
they  move  that  the  bird  makes  the 
humming  sound  which  gives  it  its 
name.  It  lives  all  day  in  the  air.  It 
is  never  tired  of  flying,  unless  it  be 
one  of  the  few  species  which  are  more 
like  other  birds,  and  prefer,  through 
weakness  of  wings,   to  take  its  food 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        105 

while   perching.     Most   of   the   hum-  another,    and   does   for   those  flowers 

ming-birds  feed  when  flying.     This  is,  what  bees  do  for  others,  in  making  the 

of  course,   the  habit  of  many  other  plant  fruitful. 

birds — of  the  swallow  and  goat-sucker.  There     are     nearly     five     hundred 

for  example — but  the  humming-bird  species    of    humming-birds,    so    it    is 

has  to  hang  in  the  air  while  sipping  hopeless  for  us  to  attempt  any  detailed 

the  honey  from  a  flower.     To  do  this  description.     The     most     remarkable 

it  possesses   wonderful   wings   for  its  part  of  their  frame,  after  their  splendid 

size.  wings,  is  the  long  beak  with  its  tongue 

Birds  are  supposed  to  be  unable  to  capable  of  being  shot  out  like  that  of 
fly  backwards,  but  the  humming-bird  the  Old  World  chameleon.  The  tongue 
is  an  exception.  It  can  fly  backwards  acts  like  a  pump,  and  the  beak  is 
for  a  little  way.  When  it  approaches  wonderfully  constructed  to  help, 
a  flower  it  inserts  its  long  beak,  while  a  humming  hermit-bird  of  the  for. 
its  body  is  raised  higher  than  the  est,  and  a  giant  eight  inches  long 
flower.  As  it  puts  in  its  beak  it  lets  Among  the  most  famous  humming- 
its  body  sink  down  in  the  air,  as  if  it  birds  is  the  Jamaican,  which  has  two 
were  holding  on  to  the  flower  by  its  long  feathers  growing  beyond  its  tail, 
beak.  But  it  does  not;  its  splendid  far  longer  than  the  body  of  the  bird, 
little  wings  are  working  like  steam-  The  hermit  humming-bird,  with  its 
engines  to  keep  it  afloat  in  the  air.  long  beak  and  long  tail,  haunts  the 
When  it  has  sipped  such  honey  as  the  dark  forest,  eating  insects,  instead  of 
flower  contains  it  raises  its  body  again,  seeking  honey  in  the  sunshine.  The 
withdraws  its  beak,  and  then  flies  out  sword-bill,  or  siphon-bill,  is  the  longest- 
backwards,  and  darts  away  like  a  flash,  beaked    of    all    the    humming-birds. 

Some  of  the  humming-birds  can  turn  Although  the  bird  itself  measures  only 

right  round  in  the  air  with  a  single  four  inches,  the  male  bird  has  a  beak 

motion;  some  seem  to  dance  in  the  air,  four  inches  in  length,  while  the  female, 

while  they  can  all  dart  from  side  to  still  better  provided,  has  a  bill  much 

side  in  a  manner  such  as  to  make  the  longer    than    her    body.     The    giant 

swallow,   which  they  most  resemble,  humming-bird  is  eight  or  more  inches 

seem  slow  and  commonplace.  in  length,  and  has  wings  measuring  five 

Five    hundred    kinds    of    humming-  or  six  inches  across.     It  hovers  over 

BIRDS  and  their  REMARKABLE  POWERS  a   flowcr   like   the   smaller   ones,   but 

When   young,    the   humming  -  bird  moves  more  slowly,  and  seems  to  gain 

might  pass  for  a  strange  sort  of  swal-  support  from  its  tail,  which,  while  the 

low,  for  its  beak  is  blunt  and  wide  like  bird  is  tapping  a  flower,   opens  and 

that  of  the  young  swallow.     But  as  it  shuts  like  a  fan. 

grows  older  the  beak  gets  longer  and  The  beauties  of  the  humming-bird 
slenderer,  until  the  full-grown  bird  are  well  known.  The  racket-tailed 
has  a  bill  ready  to  dip  into  the  smallest  has  two  long  feathers  from  the  tail, 
flower  to  drink  the  honev  which  it  and  two,  like  those  at  the  back  of  the 
stores.  It  does  not  depend  wholly  six-plumed  paradise  bird's  head,  bare 
upon  honey,  though  that  is  the  chief  but  glistening  to  the  tip,  where  the 
part  of  its  food.  It  eats  a  great  many  feather-web  grows  out  in  the  shape  of 
insects.  In  this  respect  it  is  a  good  a  racket.  Then  there  are  humming- 
friend  to  man.  But  it  has  another  birds  with  gorgeous  crests  and  ruffs, 
value:  by  going  from  flower  to  flower  humming-birds  with  balls  of  white 
as  it  does  it  carries  pollen  from  one  to  feathers  round  their  legs  like  powder- 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


puffs,  humming-birds  with  "boots"  of 
white  feathers,  spangled  humming- 
birds, humming-birds  with  snow-cap- 
ped heads,  with  long  beaks,  with  short 
beaks,  with  up-curving  beaks,  and 
beaks  bending  downwards  like  the 
scimitar  of  an  Indian  prince.  We  can 
never  say  that  we  have  exhausted  the 
beauties  of  birdland  until  we  have 
seen  these  visions  of  splendor  in  their 
own  homes.  The  sun-birds  resemble 
them  and  are  often  called  humming- 
birds, but  belong  to  a  different  order. 
We  must  turn  back  again  for  a 
moment  to  the  crow  family  to  make 
the  acquaintance  of  the  bower-birds. 
The  males  are  a  shining  blue-black, 
except  on  the  wings,  where  they  are 
deep  black.  They  are  handsome,  but 
they  interest  us  chiefly  from  their  love 
of  beauty.  They  make  their  nest  like 
ordinary  birds,  but  they  build  avenues 
of  twigs  and  houses  or  bowers  to  play 
in.  Here  the  two  sexes  meet.  The 
male  birds  show  themselves  off  and 
the  females  are  wooed  and  won  by  the 
best  among  them.  But  while  the 
wooing  is  in  progress  the  bower  is  a 
wonderful  place.  Sometimes  it  is 
several  feet  high,  made  of  twigs  and 
elaborately  decorated.  The  gay  feath- 
ers which  other  birds  have  dropped, 
pieces  of  colored  cloth  that  they  can 
pick  up  near  men's  homes,  bleached 
bones,  even  bright  tools,  they  build 
into  the  bower.  But,  prettiest  of  all, 
they  bite  off  orchids  and  other  beauti- 
ful flowers  growing  wild  near  them,  and 
weave  them  into  the  decorations. 
The  flowers  fade  of  course,  but  the 
dead  ones  are  taken  out  each  day  and 
thrown  behind  the  bower,  while  fresh 
flowers  are  put  in  their  place.  There 
are  different  sorts  of  bower-birds,  but 
in  all  the  habit  of  building  bowers  is 
the  same.  One  of  them,  the  Papuan 
bird,  makes  a  hut,  two  feet  high,  at 
the  foot  of  a  tree,  roofs  it  with  moss, 
{ind  builds  a  gallery  round  it. 


Among  the  birds  remarkable  for 
their  nests  are  the  weavers,  or  weaver 
birds.  They  form  a  large  family,  some 
of  them  very  beautiful,  as  the  whidah 
bird.  The  sociable  weavers  are  even 
more  ingenious  builders  than  the 
bower-birds.  They  collect  vegetable 
fibers  and  weave  them  round  the 
branch  of  a  tree.  This  forms  the 
thatch,  or  roof  of  the  dwelling. 
Underneath  they  make  a  great  num- 
ber of  nests,  where  as  many  as  three 
hundred  birds  may  have  their  homes, 
all  under  the  same  roof.  There  they 
dwell  together  in  peace,  each  pair  of 
birds  having  their  own  nest  and 
rearing  their  little  ones. 
The  weaver-birds  and  their  nests, 

AND  the  little  JAVA  SPARROWS 

In  the  following  year  they  make 
new  nests.  These  they  join  on  to  the 
layers  of  nests  made  in  the  previous 
year.  To  do  so  they  have  to  make 
the  roof  bigger,  and  in  course  of  time 
as  layer  after  layer  of  nests  is  added 
the  huge  structure  looks  like  a  thatched 
cottage.  Finally  it  becomes  so  heavy 
that  it  breaks  the  bough  of  the  tree 
upon  which  it  is  placed,  and  a  fresh 
start  on  another  branch  or  tree  has  to 
be  made. 

The  Java  sparrow,  a  favorite  bird 
in  our  aviaries,  is  a  type  of  weaver- 
bird. 

The  lyre-bird  and  the  peacock,  the 
birds  with  beautiful  tails 

The  Java  sparrows  are  not  as 
gorgeous  as  their  distant  cousin,  the 
whidah  bird,  but  they  are  still  hand- 
some and  interesting.  The  white 
feathers  on  their  cheeks  disappear  as 
summer  advances,  and  the  cheeks, 
neck  and  head  are  an  unbroken  black. 

Now  we  come  to  another  of  the  big 
beauties,  the  lyre-bird.  It  has  a 
strikingly  beautiful  tail,  shaped  like 
the  musical  instrument  called  the 
lyre.  Only  the  male  bird  has  this, 
and  not  until   he  is   four  years  old. 


SOME    BEAUTY    BIRDS   OF    FOREIGN    LANDS 


Hornbllls  live  in  Africa  and  India.     Kaffirs  in  time  of  The  toucan,  whlcli  we  see  here,  has  an  enormous  bill, 

drmiffht  kill  a  hnrnbill  as  an  offpriiicr  for  rain.  but  this  is  honeycombed  with  air-cells  to  make  it  light. 


K» 


v^M 


The  laughing  jackass  ol  Australia  is,  as  we  see  here,     I 
really  a  kingfisher.     It  loves  to  mimic  the  human  voice. 


'^ 


The  kaka  parrot  is  a  member  of  tlie  kea  lamuy,   but  Australia's  beautiful  lyre-bird  is  closely  related  to  oiu* 

harmless.     The  kea  proper  kills  sheep  for  food,  little  English  wren,  though  it  looks  so  different. 


The  gray  parrot  of  West  Africa  is  a  wonderful  mimic.  Love-birds  belong  to  the  parrot  family,  and  though  their 

It  can  imitate  birds  and  beasts,   whistle  a  song,   mock        home   is   in   Africa,   they  thrive  In   captivity   and   make 
street  criers,  and  imitate  the  sound  ot  machinery.  amusing  little  companions. 


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108  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

The  lyre-bird  has  a  gift  for  imitating  up  the  entrance,  leaving  only  a  small 

the  songs  and  cries  of  other  birds.     In  slit  through  which  he  can  pass  food  for 

that  he  has  a  decided  advantage  over  her  and  the  young  ones.     She  seems 

that    most    famous    tailed    domestic  to  assist  in  this.     He  does  not  let  her 

bird,  the  peacock.     Among  the  birds  and   the   family   come   out   until   the 

frequently  seen  in  pictures  and  well  young    ones    are    nearly    full    grown, 

known   in  parks   and   gardens   is   the  The  male  bird,  having  to  find  the  food, 

peacock.  is  worn  almost  to  a  skeleton  during 

No  other  bird  has  more  perfectly  this  long  time, 

colored  plumage,  but  in  spite  of  that  The  king  of  the  handsome  climbers 

the   peacock   is   a   disagreeable   bird,  is  undoubtedly  the  parrot.     We  can- 

with    a    hoarse    screech    for    its    call,  not  stay  here  to  glance  at  the  whole 

which  can  be  heard  far  and  near.  tribe,  for  when  we  sort  out  the  many 

It  is  well  for  him  that  he  is  such  a  forms  of  parrots,  macaws,  love-birds, 

beauty  in  appearance,  or  the  peacock  and  cockatoos,  there  are  hundreds  of 

would  never  be  tolerated  in  private  species  to  deal  with.     The  handsome 

life.     When    the    courting    season    is  little  parrakeet  which  is  often  seen  in 

over,  his  fine  feathers  disappear,  and  captivity   has   its   home   in   Australia 

he  slinks  away  until  new  ones  grow,  and   the   southern   states.     The   gray 

Then  he  comes  out  again  in  all  his  parrot    is    a   native   of   West   Africa, 

glory,  proud  as  only  a  peacock  knows  Macaws  come  mainly  from  the  warm 

how  to  be.  parts    of    America    and    from    India, 

The  strange  toucan,  and  the  horn-  ^^'h<?i^  ^il^  the  birds  all  eat  fruit  and 

BILL  which  brings  UP  ITS  YOUNG  IN  sccds.     Oiic  spccics,  howcvcr,  the  kea, 

PRISON  jj^g  become  a  flesh-eating  bird.     This 

With  all  their  splendor,  some  of  the  is  one  of  the  few  instances  of  a  bird's 

beauty  birds,  it  must  be  admitted,  are  nature  changing  while  actually  under 

to   be   regarded   as   a   little   freakish,  the     observation     of     man.     Nobody 

and  some  of  them  are  not  all  that  could  knows  for  certain  what  has  caused  it  to 

be  desired  in  their  ways.     Among  the  change,    but   the   kea   has   become   a 

strange    birds    let    us    take    first    the  deadly  enemy  of  the  sheep-farmer  in 

handsome  but  queer  toucan  and  the  New  Zealand.     Its  food  had  always 

hornbill.  been  insects  and  fruit.     One  day  a  kea 

The  toucan  is  a  bird  with  a  huge  was  found  standing  on  the  body  of  a 

beak  like  a  small  pelican's,  but  not  dead  sheep,  tearing  away  at  the  wool, 

soft  like  that  great  fisherman's  bag-  Such  a  thing  had  never  before  been 

net.     It  is  notched  like  a  saw,  and  as  known  to  happen.     Ever  since  then 

it  is  brightly  colored  it  gives  the  bird  the  kea  has  been  a  bird  of  prey.     The 

the  strangest  appearance.     This  beak  change  could  not  have  come  as  sud- 

is  not  so  heavy  as  it  looks,  for  it  con-  denly  as  that;  the  attacks  of  the  kea 

tains    air-sacs    which    make    it    light,  must  have  been  made  before,  but  it 

The   hornbills   share   this   advantage,  had  never  been  observed.     Now  two 

They  have  big  bills,  with  helmets  of  or  three  keas  attack  a  sheep  together, 

horn  on  the  top,  and  these  are  lightened  and  by  means  of  their  long,  cruel  beaks 

in  the  same  wav.  thev  kill  it. 

The    hornbills    are    famous    for    a  the   laughing   bird   that   mocks   a 

curious  habit.     When  the  female  has  man  in  the  Australian  wilds 

laid  her  eggs  in  a  hollow  tree,  the  male  While  we  are  thinking  of  Austra- 

makes  a  prisoner  of  her  by  plastering  lasian  birds,  we  must  not  forget  the 


STRANGE    BIRDS    WITH    STRANGE     FEATHERS 


The  waxwing  has  many  of  its  feathers  tipped  wit'i 
red  or  yellow  and  does  not  got  its  fine  feathers  till 


The  manakiu  is  brilliantly  i:ulored  with  a  feather  beard.  The  bell-bird  has  a  note  liiie  a  bell.  When  many  are 
The  beating  of  its  wings  In  flight  sounds  like  a  spinning  calling  the  sound  of  note  following  note  is  like  the  beating 
wheel.  of  hammers  on  steel  anvils. 


The  cock  of  the  rock  is  a  brilliant  The  quetzal  is  from  Central  Ameri-  The  banded  cotinga  is  a  Brazilian 

orange  red  and  crested  to  the  tip  of      ca.  Its  feathers  keep  their  lovely  color      bird  which  lives  among  the  tree  tops, 
the  beak.  alter  the  bird's  death.  only  descending  to  feed. 


109 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


laughing  jackass,  or  laughing  king- 
fisher. This  is  a  bird  which  could 
beat  the  parrot,  or  even  the  famous 
Indian  starling — called  the  mina — at 
laughing.  Parrots  and  niinas  mar- 
velously  imitate  human  speech.  Al- 
though they  seem  very  wise  birds  they 
do  not  understand  what  they  are  say- 
ing. The  mewing  of  a  cat,  which  they 
imitate  perfectly,  has  no  more  meaning 
for  them  than  a  song  which  they  may 
learn  to  sing.  So  the  laughter  of  the 
laughing  jackass  has  no  meaning  for 
the  bird.  It  has  a  voice,  and  uses  it 
in  this  way.  It  follows  a  man  in  the 
wilds  where  there  are  trees,  and  perches 
near  him,  chuckling  and  laughing. 

The  beautiful  kingfisher  and  the 
bird  with  a  note  like  a  bell 

The  kingfisher  is  a  beautiful  bird, 
which  at  one  time  was  very  scarce, 
owing  to  thoughtless  women  wearing 
its  plumage  in  their  hats.  It  flies  like 
a  swallow  over  the  water,  then,  when 
it  sees  a  fish,  dives  down  like  a  flash. 
Some  of  the  kingfishers  are  said  to 
build  their  nests  of  the  bones  of  fish 
which  they  have  eaten.  The  king- 
fisher is  one  of  the  handsomest  and 
most  interesting  of  all  birds. 

We  find  more  strange  beauties 
among  the  family  of  birds  called 
chatterers.  The  most  striking  is  the 
umbrella-bird.  This  has  a  fine  crest 
upon  its  head,  and  though  the  sides  of 
its  neck  are  naked,  it  possesses  a  lovely 
lappet  composed  of  loose  feathers 
hanging  from  beneath  the  throat. 
When  it  desires  to  call  its  mate,  it 
raises  its  crest,  moves  its  lappet  in 
stately  fashion,  and  pipes  loudly.  A 
more  remarkable  piping  bird  is  known 
as  the  bell-bird.  There  are  four 
species  of  this  bird,  of  which  the  most 
famous  is  a  pure  glossy  white.  Its  call 
is  like  the  note,  clear  and  melodious, 
of  a  beautiful  bell.  Sometimes  it 
utters  only  one  note,  then  rests.  At 
other   times   it   utters    several   notes, 


which  then   sound  like  a  blacksmith 
playing  on  his  anvil  with  a  hammer. 
When  several   of  the  birds   call  and 
answer,  the  effect  is  beautiful. 
The  strange  song  of  the  manakin 

AND  the  ways  of  THE  HOOPOE 

In  the  same  family  are  the  mana- 
kins,  marvelously-colored  little  birds; 
and  the  cotingas,  nearly  related  to  the 
bell-birds,  but  far  more  brilliant  in 
plumage.  The  manakin  has  a  strange 
little  song,  which  he  utters  when 
courting.  He  dances,  too,  in  the 
funniest  way,  as  if  trying  to  show  how 
much  more  agile  he  is  than  his  fellows. 
Two  rivals  meet  on  the  bough  of  a 
tree,  sing  their  song  and  leap  into  the 
air,  each  in  turn,  always  rising  to  the 
same  height  and  always  descending 
upon  the  exact  spot  from  which  they 
rose.  But  if  they  discover  that  they 
are  watched  by  enemies,  they  dis- 
appear with  remarkable  speed. 

They  have  a  rival  in  the  hoopoe. 
It  is  of  a  rich  russet  hue,  with  a  beauti- 
ful crest  upon  the  head  and  with  wings 
marked  out  in  black  and  white. 

The  cock  -  of  -  the  -  rock,  the  black- 
headed  NUN,  AND  THE  TINY  TROGON 

Returning  to  the  chatterers,  we 
must  notice  the  brilliantly-colored 
cock-of-the-rock,  famous  for  the  great 
crest  which  hides  its  nostrils,  and  the 
resplendent  orange  plumage,  for  the 
sake  of  which  the  unfortunate  bird  is 
mercilessly  shot.  The  cock-of-the- 
rock  is  a  handsome  bird,  with  its 
crest  and  gay  plumage.  When  perch- 
ed at  the  top  of  the  high  trees  in  which 
it  makes  its  home,  it  gambols  and  plays 
and  mews  like  a  cat.  There  is  another 
bird,  a  little  one,  the  black-headed 
nun,  which  mews,  too,  but  like  a  tiny 
kitten.  Another  gaudy-crested  bird 
is  the  trogon,  of  which  a  Central 
American  species,  called  the  quetzal, 
is  distinguished  by  a  long  streaming 
tail,  which  seems  to  help  rather  than 
hinder  its  strong  and  rapid  flight. 


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112 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHIEF     OF     THE     HUNTING     BIRDS 


THE  air  has  its  lions  and  tigers 
— not  real  lions  and  tigers, 
but  birds,  which,  in  their  way, 
are  as  fierce  and  hungry  as  the  great 
four-footed  animals  of  the  jungle  and 
the  plain.  When  we  study  their  lives, 
we  can  see  that  the  eagles,  the  falcons, 
the  kites,  the  buzzards,  the  vultures, 
the  owls,  and  other  flesh-eating  birds, 
play  a  similar  part  to  that  played 
by  the  flesh-eating  animals.  Some 
strike  down  their  prey,  kill  and  eat 
it;  others  wait  until  the  death  of  an 
animal  or  a  man  has  taken  place  before 
they  begin  their  meal. 

First  in  the  scale  of  splendor  among 
the  hunting  birds  comes  the  eagle, 
the  most  noble  looking  of  birds  that 
fly.  It  is  the  king  of  the  falcon  family, 
which  includes  no  fewer  than  300 
species  of  birds  that  hunt  their  prey 
by  day.  Here  for  the  moment  we 
will  keep  to  the  eagles  proper,  and 
glance  at  some  of  the  most  important. 

The  largest  are  the  sea  eagles.  Of 
these  there  are  several  species,  scat- 
tered over  a  great  part  of  the  world. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  Scotland  and 
the  northern  islands,  and  in  wild 
parts  of  Ireland.  One  was  caught  in 
Windsor  Forest,  England,  in  1856, 
measuring  eight  feet  across  the  wings 
and  three  feet  two  inches  from  the 
point  of  the  beak  to  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
and  weighing  twenty-two  pounds. 

The  golden  eagle,  the  handsomest 
of  the  family,  inhabits  Scotland  and 
America.  It  is  the  largest  of  all  save 
the  Steller  sea  eagle.  The  golden 
eagle  does  not  hunt  in  the  sea,  but 
otherwise  its  habits  do  not  differ 
much  from  the  habits  of  the  sea  eagle. 

Where  the  golden  eagle  builds  its 
nest  and  makes  its  larder 

Like  most  other  birds  of  prey,  the 

female  golden  eagle  is  larger  than  the 

male.     Her   length,   from   the   tip   of 


beak  to  the  end  of  tail,  is  about  a 
yard;  while  the  male  eagle  is  several 
inches  less.  The  plumage  is  rich  and 
handsome.  While  the  colors  may 
differ,  the  majority  of  these  birds  have 
feathers  of  a  golden-brown  hue.  The 
golden  color  occurs  near  the  tips  of  the 
feathers,  and  gives  a  golden  appear- 
ance to  the  whole.  The  bird  builds  in 
high,  rocky  places  far  from  the  haunts 
of  men,  and  the  rough,  strong  nest  can- 
not be  reached  except  by  a  rope  let 
down  froin  above. 

Eagles  are  watchful  parents.  They 
will  fiercely  attack  anyone  who  at- 
tempts to  approach  the  nest  in  which 
their  young  ones  are.  The  little 
eagles  have  big  appetites,  and  the 
parent  birds  have  to  maintain  quite  a 
larder  for  them.  The  larder  is  gen- 
erally a  large  rock  near  the  nest,  so 
that  the  eaglets  can  go  to  it  and  feed 
while  the  parent  birds  are  away. 
Here  on  this  stone  hares  and  rabbits 
and  birds  are  placed,  and  these  the 
eaglets  eat  at  their  leisure. 

If  the  little  eagles  need  so  much 
food,  what  do  the  big  eagles  require? 
They  have  hearty  appetites  to  support 
their  weight  and  flying  powers. 

The  story  that  the  eagle  carries 
off  children  is  not  true 

A  golden  eagle  will  eat  in  the  course 

of  a  day  a  couple  of  partridges  or  a 

rabbit.     It  can  live  on  that,  but,  like 

other  creatures,  it  prefers  variety  in 

its  food.     These  eagles  will  sometimes 

willingly  eat  putrid  flesh  as  a  change 

from   their   ordinary   diet;   and   men, 

knowing  this,  set  traps  and  catch  them 

as  if  they  were  the  silliest  birds.     But 

the  desire  for  change  does  not  end  here. 

The  eagles  carry  off  lambs  to  their 

nests,  and  they  attack  and  kill  deer. 

It  has  been  told  a  thousand  times  that 

eagles  carry  off  children;    but  though 

we  know  for  a  fact  that  they  will  at- 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


113 


tack  children  guarding  flocks  which 
the  eagles  desire  to  rob,  there  is  no 
proof  that  children  ever  have  been 
carried  away  by  these  birds. 

As  to  their  attacking  deer,  there  is 
no  such  doubt.  They  set  about  their 
work  with  as  much  method  and  skill 
as  if  it  were  part  of  their  everyday 
life.  Generally  they  will  attack  a 
young  deer,  that  being  more  easy  to 
kill.  They  drop  from  the  sky  like  a 
flash  upon  the  back  of  the  deer  they 
mean  to  secure.  If  they  can,  they 
drive  it  from  its  mother.  The  faith- 
ful hind,  if  she  can  keep  her  little  one 
close  beside  her,  will  fight  the  great 
eagle  with  splendid  courage,  and  strik- 
ing out  with  her  front  feet,  may  beat 
it  off.  But  if  the  fawn  can  be  driven 
away  from  the  hind,  the  hind  becomes 
so  alarmed  that  she  seems  unable  to 
act,  and  in  that  case  the  eagle  will 
send  the  little  deer  racing  away  in 
terror  and  kill  it  with  its  terrible 
talons  and  beak. 

How  THE  EAGLE  WILL  TERRIFY  A  HERD 
OF  DEER  TO  CATCH  ITS  PREY 

If  this  plan  cannot  be  tried,  the  eagle 
does  a  still  more  amazing  thing. 

It  will  hover  over  a  herd  and 
frighten  them  into  running  away. 
Just  as  they  are  bounding  round  some 
narrow  path  which  winds  round  the 
top  of  a  precipice,  the  bird  will  swoop 
down  upon  the  back  of  the  deer,  and 
drive  home  its  great  claws.  The  deer 
in  terror  seeks  to  throw  off  its  foe,  and 
generally  jumps  down  the  precipice, 
so  killing  itself  and  affording  the  eagle 
a  meal  without  further  trouble.  That 
is  just  what  the  eagle  wants,  and  it  is 
for  that  reason  that  it  makes  its  attack 
when  the  deer  are  in  so  perilous  a 
place. 

The  only  chance  for  a  young  deer 
when  so  attacked  is  to  bolt  into  a 
narrow  division  between  the  rocks. 
There  the  eagle  is  practically  power- 
less, for,  seeing  that  its  wings,  when 


outspread,  measure  from  eight  feet  to 
ten  feet  across,  of  course  it  cannot  fly 
in  a  little  space,  and  it  will  not  venture 
in  on  foot.  Eagles  have  been  seen  to 
suffer  defeat  in  this  way.  But  they 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  lose  their  prey. 

A  noted  huntsman  saw  a  remarkable 
sight  in  a  forest  showing  how  the  eagle 
can  hunt.  While  he  was  stalking  a 
herd  of  deer,  he  saw  through  his 
telescope  that  the  animals  became 
suddenly  alarmed.  He  knew  he  had 
not  caused  their  fright,  for  he  was  too 
far  away.  Suddenly  a  great  eagle 
swooped  into  sight  and  attacked  one 
of  the  small  stags.  Its  plan  was  to 
drive  it  away  from  the  rest  of  the  herd, 
so  that  they  could  not  help  it.  The 
bird  did  not  attack  with  beak  or 
talons,  but  kept  striking  the  stag 
heavy  blows  on  the  back  with  the 
middle  joint  of  his  powerful  wings. 
Several  times  it  seemed  as  if  he  would 
fail  to  get  the  stag  away,  for  the  bird 
kept  rising  into  the  air  as  if  to  fly 
away.  But  each  time  he  returned 
with  more  determination,  and  at  last 
he  did  get  the  stag  away  from  the  rest 
of  the  herd  and  killed  it.  The  man 
who  had  gone  out  to  kill  a  deer  by 
the  aid  of  a  gun  saw  his  victim  taken 
before  his  eyes  by  one  of  the  hunters 
of  the  air. 

An    EAGLE'S    GAME    OF     DROPPING    AND 
CATCHING  IN  THE  CLOUDS 

The  sight  of  the  eagle,  so  keen  and 
powerful,  is  the  gift  of  nature;  but  its 
ability  to  catch  things,  though  in- 
herited, is  developed  by  practice.  An 
eagle  has  been  seen  to  snatch  up  a 
wounded  grouse  as  it  fell  through  the 
air  after  being  shot.  Another  swooped 
down  and  caught  a  rabbit  which  was 
being  chased  by  hounds.  The  young 
eagle  practices  to  enable  it  to  do 
things  of  this  sort. 

One  of  these  birds  was  seen  to  catch 
a  rabbit.  Away  it  went  with  the 
rabbit,  up  into  the  sky.     Then,  when 


IIJ^ 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


far  up,  it  let  the  rabbit  drop  from  its 
talons.  While  the  rabbit  was  drop- 
ping through  the  air,  the  eagle  de- 
scended upon  it,  and  caught  it.  Then 
it  carried  it  up  again,  and  once  more 
let  it  drop,  and  again  caught  it.  This 
it  repeated  several  times,  never  once 
failing  to  catch  the  rabbit  as  it  was 
falling  through  the  air.  The  young 
eagle  was  at  play,  but  it  was  practicing 
for  the  serious  business  of  life.  Very 
wonderful  it  is  that  a  bird  should  be 
able  to  give  a  heavy  thing  like  a 
rabbit  a  good  start  in  a  fall  through 
the  air  towards  the  earth,  then  catch 
it  up  and  secure  it. 

The  wonderful  love  of  a  free  eagle 

FOR  ITS  trapped  COMRADE 

Fierce  as  the  eagle  is,  it  is  affec- 
tionate to  its  kind.  A  strange  ex- 
ample of  this  was  afforded  in  a  forest, 
where  a  beautiful  golden  eagle  was 
found  dead  in  a  trap  which  had  been 
set  to  catch  a  fox.  The  bird  had 
espied  the  bait  afar  off,  and,  going 
down  to  get  it,  had  been  seized  by  the 
trap  and  left  to  die  a  miserable  death. 
The  strange  thing  was  that  the  eagle 
had  not  died  of  starvation,  nor  from 
any  serious  injury.  It  was  caught 
only  by  one  claw.  Apparently  the 
knowledge  that  it  was  a  prisoner  had 
killed  it,  for  there  was  abundant  food 
beside  it.  Other  eagles,  seeing  the 
prisoner  in  the  trap,  had  brought  it 
food.  There,  beside  the  dead  eagle, 
were  two  grouse,  and  a  rabbit,  still 
warm  when  the  hunters  came  to  the 
trap. 
The  osprey  that  catches  fishes,  and 

ITS  FOE,   the   bald  EAGLE 

The  affection  which  the  eagles 
show  reminds  us  of  the  osprey,  which, 
though  as  wild  as  the  other  members 
of  its  family,  displays  great  love  for 
its  mate  and  children.  It  is  a  hand- 
some bird,  living  almost  entirely  on 
fish,  and  for  that  reason  is  called  the 
fishing  hawk.     It  is  about  twenty-two 


inches  in  length,  but  its  fine  wings 
measure  five  feet  six  inches  across, 
and  on  these  it  sails  in  graceful  flight 
over  the  sea  in  which  its  food  is  to  be 
found.  In  Scotland  the  osprey  has 
an  enemy  in  the  sea  eagle,  which  will 
occasionally  rob  it  of  the  fish  it  has 
caught.  In  North  America  the  bird 
the  osprey  most  dreads  is  the  great 
white-headed  eagle,  the  bird,  which, 
because  of  its  white  crown,  is  called 
the  bald  eagle.  This  is  a  bird  which 
will  eat  pretty  nearly  anything. 
Though  fond  of  fish,  it  is  no  fisherman, 
so  it  robs  the  osprey  as  it  is  returning 
to  its  nest  with  a  fish  in  its  talons. 
But  the  white-headed  eagle  will  eat 
dead  horses  or  other  animals,  and  it 
may  be  seen  seated  on  such  a  carcass 
feasting  and  angrily  keeping  off  a 
flock  of  vultures  which  prowl  round, 
hungry,  yet  afraid,  like  jackals  creep- 
ing about  an  animal  on  which  a  lion  is 
feeding. 

The  vulture  that  drops  a  tortoise 
from  a  height  to  split  its  shell 

It  is  im])ossible  to  be  fond  of  a 
vulture,  valuable  as  its  work  often  is 
when  it  plays  the  scavenger. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  vultures  that 
are  less  horrid  than  the  others.  The 
splendid  lammergeier,  or  lammergeyer, 
which  soars  above  the  Italian  Alps, 
the  Caucasus,  and  the  hills  of  Spain, 
is  not  so  repulsive  a  creature  as  the 
ordinary  vulture.  The  average  vul- 
ture has  dirty,  dusky-looking  plumage, 
and  its  neck  is  bare,  with  the  discol- 
ored flesh  showing  plainly.  The  lam- 
mergeier is  feathered  to  the  beak,  and 
sails  in  the  air  with  the  grace  of  a 
vacht. 

Its  claws  are  not  especially  strong 
enough  to  enable  it  to  carry  off  a  child, 
and  it  attacks  only  what  it  can  eat. 
Sometimes  it  will  take  a  live  animal, 
but  generally  speaking,  its  food  con- 
sists of  the  flesh  of  animals  which  have 
died.     In    India,    where    it    is    very 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        115 

abundant,  it  haunts  slaughter-houses  enough  to  avoid  the  noose  which  the 

and  the  soldiers'  quarters,  on  the  look-  expert  cattleman  throws, 

out   for  scraps,   and   particularly   for  the  powerful  weapons  with  which 

bones.     These  it  carries  to  a  height,  the  winged  scavengers  are  armed 

then  drops  them  on  the  rocks  to  split  But  the  true  vultures  are  greedier 

them.     It    does    the   same   with    tor-  than  even  the  condor.     One,  an  Egyp- 

toises,  tian  vulture,  has  been  seen  to  gorge 

The  mighty  condor  that  seems  to  be  itself  to  such  an  extent  that  it  could 

ASLEEP  ABOVE  THE  MOUNTAIN  TOPS  not  uiovc,  but  lay  ou  its  sidc  and  still 

The  biggest  of  all  the  vultures  is  the  fed.     There  are  many  kinds  of  vul- 

condor,   the  huge,  heavy  bird  which  tures,  some  worse  than  others.     They 

makes  its  home  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  share  with  the  hyenas  and  jackals  and 

and  Chile.     The  male  bird  is  about  wild  dogs  the  filth  of  the  villages  of 

four  feet  in  length,  and  its  wing-spread  the  East.     They  eat  also  all  the  putrid 

is  from  eight  to  eleven  feet  or  more,  flesh  of  dead  animals,  and  kill  lambs 

The  male  bird  has  a  large,  fleshy  wattle,  that  are  too  feeble  to  defend  them- 

which  forms  a  crest  to  the  head.  selves. 

Both  male  and  female  have  power-  They  have  powerful  feet  and  claws, 

ful  beaks,  but  their  claws,  while  they  but  not  such  as  would  enable  them  to 

help  in  tearing  their  food,  have  not  carry  off  heavy  burdens  to  their  nests, 

power  enough  to  enable  them  to  carry  Their  beaks  are  the  great  weapons  of 

away  heavy  bodies.     Their  food  con-  attack.     With  these  the  larger  ones 

sists  chiefly  of  animals  of  the  moun-  can  tear  off  the  skin  of  a  horse  or 

tain-side  and  the  plain,   which  have  buffalo,  and  tear  the  flesh  from  the 

either  died  a  natural  death  or  been  bones,  so  that  nothing  but  the  skeleton 

killed  by  wild  animals.  remains.     A  man  in  India  who  saw  a 

The  condor  has  marvelous  eyesight,  host  of  these  birds  settle  upon  a  dead 
and,  though  it  sails  high  up  in  the  air  horse  said  that  in  a  marvelously  short 
so  smoothly  that  men  have  believed  time  there  remained  of  the  horse 
it  to  be  asleep  while  thus  flying,  nothing  but  a  clean-picked  skeleton, 
hunters  say  that  it  is  closely  watching  Pharaoh's  chickens,  and  the  vul- 
some  animal  on  the  plain  thousands  ture  that  eats  reptiles 
of  feet  below,  which  is  being  killed  or  The  king  vulture's  naked  neck  is 
is  near  death  from  disease.  Suddenly  colored  with  shades  of  orange,  purple, 
the  bird  drops  like  a  stone  through  the  and  crimson,  and  it  has  extraordinary- 
air.  Others  from  all  quarters  follow;  colored  fleshy  wattles  all  round  its 
and  hunters  see  a  carcass  swarming  nostrils  and  the  root  of  its  cruel-looking 
with  birds  which  a  moment  before  had  beak.  All  the  vultures  have  this  fact 
been  specks  in  the  sky.  in  their  favor,  that  they  are  very  good 

The  condor  has  this  trait  in  common  parents.     Long  ago  the  Egyptians  so 

with  the  other  vultures,  it  can  fast  for  highly  regarded  the  vulture,  which  in 

several  days,  but  to  make  up  for  this  Egypt    has    the    name    of    Pharaoh's 

it  gorges  itself  when  it  gets  the  chance,  chickens,    that    they    frequently    in- 

This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  cattle-  eluded  it  in  their  drawings  and  carv- 

men  are  able  to  catch  it  with  ropes,  ings   as   the   emblem   of   the   love   of 

It   seems   unlikely   that   they   should  parents  for  their  children.     In  some 

lasso  a  grand  flyer  like  the  condor,  parts  of  the  East  the  vulture  is  pro- 

but  the  bird  so  fills  itself  with  food  that  tected  by  law  because  of  its  value  as 

it    cannot    rise    into    the    air    swiftly  a  scavenger. 


THE     IMMENSE     FAMILY     OF     VULTURES 


The  strangest-looking  viilttire  of  the  lamily  is  the  king 
vulture,  the  flesh  of  whose  extraordinary  bare  neck  is 
briUiantly  tinted  with  orange,  purple,  and  crimson. 


GrifBn  vultures  are  to  be  found  in  Europe  and  in  the 
East.  They  build  on  high  rocks,  but  sometimes  steal  the 
nests  which  eagles  have  made  and  left. 


The  Egyptian  vulture  was  the  chief  seavenuer  of  the  Thf  londor  is  the  largest  of  the  vultiu'es,  and,  indeed,  of 

land  of  Pharaoh.     The  Egyptians  valued  it  highly,  and      all  birds  of  prey.     It  makes  its  great  nest  in  high  moun- 
carved  its  likeness  on  their  monuments  and  tombs.  tains,  and  flies  as  gracefully  as  a  winged  yacht. 


The  lammergeier  is  known  as  the  bearded  vulture.  It 
descends  from  its  mountain  home  to  eat  dead  animals, 
and  can  carry  smaller  ones  to  its  nest  of  young  ones. 


The  secretary  bird  kills  and  eats  snakes  in  South  Africa. 
Its  feathered  head  makes  it  look  like  a  clerk,  with  a  quill 
pen  in  his  ear;  hence  its  name. 


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BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        117 

Before    passing    from    the    vulture  victim     without     making     a     sound, 

family  we  must  say  a  good  word  for  Members  of  the  tribe  are  to  be  found 

the  secretary  bird,  which  is  really  a  in  Scotland,  Ireland  and  America, 

vulture.     It  is  a  curious,  long-legged,  the  evil  work  of  the  kite  and  the 

long-tailed  bird,  with  a  strong,  hooked  good  work  that  it  does 

beak  and  strong  legs  armed  with  stout  The  kite  robs  rabbit  warrens,  and 

scales,  and  claws  admirably  adapted  likes  game  birds;  but  the  harm  that  it 

to  the  purpose  which  they  have  to  does  in  this  way  must  be  more  than 

serve.     Its   food   consists   of  reptiles,  made   up   by   the   good   it   works   in 

and  among  these  is  included  a  great  destroying  rats  and  mice,  and  snakes 

number  of  venomous  serpents.     The  and  moles. 

bird  has  no  fear  of  them.  Generally  Next  we  come  to  the  true  falcons — 
it  dashes  at  the  snake,  and,  with  its  handsome,  noble-looking  birds,  of 
wings  spread  out  towards  the  front  to  which  the  most  famous  are  the 
keep  the  serpent  from  biting  it,  beats  gerfalcon,  the  peregrine,  the  lanner, 
it,  pecks  it,  and  stamps  on  it  until  the  the  saker,  the  Barbary  falcon,  the 
snake  is  killed.  Small  snakes  it  swal-  Indian  shaheen,  the  hobby,  and  the 
lows  whole;  larger  ones  it  tears  to  merlin — all  long- winged,  dark-eyed 
pieces.  This  bird  is  found  chiefly  in  birds,  which  rise  high  in  the  air,  then 
South  Africa,  where  it  is  so  highly  descend  like  thunderbolts  upon  their 
valued  as  the  foe  of  snakes  that  a  fine  prey  and  bear  it  to  the  ground;  then 
is  imposed  for  killing  it.  It  gets  the  the  strong,  swift  goshawk  and  sparrow- 
name  of  secretary  bird  from  the  hawk,  birds  with  shorter  wings  and 
feathers  which  grow  out  from  the  back  yellow  eyes,  which  catch  their  prey  by 
of  its  head,  looking  very  much  like  flying  after  it  in  a  straight  line,  and 
quill  pens  behind  the  ear  of  a  clerk,  overcoming  it  by  greater  speed  and 
Some   of   the  smaller   members  of  strength. 

the  family  of  bird  hunters  piq^  .j-j^j.  falcon   birds  are   taught 

Of  course,  there  are  smaller  birds  in  to  catch  other  birds  for  men 

this  great  family  of  hunters  than  those  These  birds  play  the  same  part  in 

we  have  so  far  considered.     The  buz-  bird   life   that   the   cheetah   plays   in 

zards,  kites,  and  falcons,  though  hav-  the  animal  world.     Like  the  powerful 

ing  much  the  same  nature  as   their  cheetah,  they  are  by  nature  wild  and 

larger  relatives,  are  built  on  a  smaller  fierce,  but  they  are  trained  to  hunt 

scale.     The    buzzard    measures    from  for  men. 

twenty  to  twenty-two  inches  in  length.  Soft  leather  straps  are  fastened  to 

and  it  has  the  strong  beak  and  sharp  their  legs  so  that  they  cannot  fly  away 

claws  of  its  family.     But  it  is  not  so  at  will.     A  hood  is  put  over  the  head, 

active  a  bird  as  the  rest.     At  times  it  leaving  the  beak  and  nostrils  free  for 

flies  gloriously  high  up,  in  great  circles,  breathing,    but    preventing    the    bird 

with  very  few  movements  of  the  wings  from  seeing.     When  the  hood  is  re- 

which  the  eye  can  detect.     As  a  rule,  moved,  the  bird  is  shown  a  piece  of 

however,   it  prefers  to  get  its  living  meat,  and  has  to  hop  from  its  perch 

easily,  by  watching  and  waiting,  and  on  to  the  wrist  of  the  man  who  holds 

pouncing  at  the  right  moment  upon  the  food.     He  has  a  glove  on,  so  that 

its  victim,  whether  that  victim  be  rat,  the  sharp  talons  of  the  bird  will  not 

mouse,  reptile,  or  bird.     Parts  of  its  hurt  him. 

plumage  are  very  downy,  so  that  the  When    the   bird    gets    used  to  this 

bird  can  drop  down  upon  its  astonished  sort  of  treatment,  it  knows   that   by 


SOME     BIRDS     THAT     HUNT     FOR     BEASTS 


The  buzzard  la  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  falcon  tribe.     It  Is  fierce  but  lazy,  waiting  in  liidmg,  ttien  pouncing  on  its 
prey  without  being  heard      Its  feathers  are  downy,  and  mal^e  no  sound  as  the  bird  flies. 


The  smallest  falcon  is  the  merlin,  a  tierce  foe,  but  easy  Men  take  out  the  peregrine  falcon  to  hunt,  with  a  hood 

to  make  a  friend  of  and  to  tame      This  is  the  bird  which      put  over  its  head.     As  the  game  appears,  the  hood  Is  taken 
the  lark  flics  so  high  to  avoid  oft,  and  the  falcon  sees  it.s  prey  ami  flics  offer  it. 


The    strong,     tast-llyin^;     sixirrow-  Tue  kite  has  a  forked  tail,  and  looks,  Thr  u-cisliawli  rutche.s  its  prey  by  Its 

hawk  hunts  blackbirds  and  thrushes.      In  flying,  like  a  big  swallow.     Some     very  swift  flight,  clutches  it  in  its  tal- 
young  partridges,  rabbits  and  hares,     species  are  well  known  as  scavengers,     ens  and  drops  to  the  ground  with  It. 


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BOOK  OF  NATURE 


119 


jumping  to  the  wrist  it  will  be  fed. 
Then  the  distance  is  increased.  With 
a  light  line  tied  to  its  leg,  it  is  made  to 
fly  twenty  or  thirty  yards  for  its  food. 
Then  in  time  the  line  is  removed  from 
the  leg,  and  the  bird  flies  free.  After 
awhile,  instead  of  its  usual  food,  it  is 
made  to  fly  to  a  bird  or  a  small  animal, 
and  catches  this  and  returns  to  the 
wrist  of  its  master. 


Like  all  other  falcons,  the  peregrine 
is  a  magnificent  hunter.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  fly  at  the  rate  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  an  hour, 
yet  it  flies  with  such  delicacy  of  direc- 
tion that  it  can  follow  a  smaller  bird 
through  mazes  of  branches  and  under- 
growth, and  take  a  bird  off  a  bough 
without  stopping  or  touching  any  part 
of  the  tree. 


COMMON    FARM    AND    ORCHARD     BIRDS 

The  principal  object  of  this  section  is  to  give  concise  information  about  the  na- 
tive birds  that  frequent  farm,  orchard  and  suburban  districts.  To  aid  the  descriptions 
a  number  of  illustrations  in  color  are  inserted  to  enable  anyone — particularly  boys 
and  girls — to  identify  them;  while  the  information  itself  will  be  found  sufficiently 
full  to  disclose  the  good  or  harm  certain  birds  do.  Fifty  of  our  commoner  birds  are 
discussed,  including  some  that  are  destructive.  They  inhabit  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the  farmers  of  the  respective  localities  to  be 
familiar  with  them.  The  birds  were  drawn  from  nature  by  the  well-known  bird 
artist,  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes. 

AMERICA  is  greatly  favored  in  catchers,    quails,     doves,    and    other 

the  number  and  character  of  families  have  each  their  own  special 

its  birds,  which  not  only  in-  field     of     activity.     However    unlike 

elude  some  of  the  gems  of  the  bird  they  may  be  in  appearance,  structure, 

world,  as  the  warblers  and  humming  habits,  all  are  similar  in  one  respect — 

birds,  but  on  the  whole  embrace  few  they  possess  a  never  flagging  appetite 

destructive     species.     Not     only     do  for  insects  and  weed  seeds, 

many  birds  satisfy  our  senses  through  Birds  or  insect  destroyers 

their    beautiful    plumage    and    their  Entomologists  have  estimated  that 

sweet  voices,  but  they  are  marvelously  insects  yearly  cause  a  loss  of  upwards 

adapted  to  their  respective  fields  of  of    $700,000,000    to    the    agricultural 

activity.     No  other  creatures  are  so  interests  of  the  United  States.     Were 

well  fitted  to  capture  flying  insects  as  it  not  for  our  birds  the  loss  would  be 

swallows,     swifts,     and     nighthawks.  very  much  greater,  and  indeed  it  is 

Among    this    class    also    are    wrens,  believed  that  without  the  aid  of  our 

trim  of  body  and  agile  of  movement,  feathered  friends  successful  agriculture 

that  creep  in  and  out  of  holes  and  would  be  impossible, 

crevices    and    explore    rubbish    heaps  Birds    occupy    a    unique    position 

for  hidden  insects.     The  woodpecker,  among  the  enemies  of  insects,   since 

whose  whole  body  exhibits  wonderful  their  powers  of  flight  enable  them  at 

adaptation  of  means  to  end,  is  pro-  short  notice  to  gather  at  points  where 

vided  with  strong  claws  for  holding  there  are  abnormal  insect  outbreaks, 

firmly  when  at  work,  a  chisel-like  bill  An   unusual   abundance  of  grasshop- 

driven  by  powerful  muscles  to  dig  out  pers,  for  instance,  in  a  given  locality 

insects,  and  a  long  extensible  tongue  soon  attracts  the  birds  from  a  wide 

to    still    further    explore    the    hidden  area,  and  as  a  rule  their  visits  cease 

retreats  of  insects  and  drag  forth  the  only  when  there  are  no  grasshoppers 

concealed  larvae,  safe  from  other  foes.  left.     So   also   a   marked   increase   in 

The  creepers,   titmice,   warblers,   fly-  the    number    of    small    rodents    in    a 


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given  neighborhood  speedily  attracts 
the  attention  of  hawks  and  owls, 
which,  by  reason  of  their  voracious 
appetites,  soon  produce  a  marked 
diminution  of  the  swarming  foe. 
The  sparrow  family 

One  of  the  most  useful  groups  of 
native  birds  is  the  sparrow  family. 
While  some  of  the  tribe  wear  gay  suits 
of  many  hues,  most  of  the  sparrows 
are  clad  in  modest  brown  tints,  and 
as  they  spend  nmch  of  the  time  in 
grass  and  weeds  are  commonly  over- 
looked. Unobtrusive  as  they  are, 
they  lay  the  farmer  under  a  heavy 
debt  of  gratitude  by  their  food  habits, 
since  their  chosen  fare  consists  largely 
of  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Selecting  a 
typical  member  of  the  group,  the  tree 
sparrow,  for  instance,  one-fourth  ounce 
of  weed  seed  per  day  is  a  conservative 
estimate  of  the  food  of  an  adult.  On 
this  basis,  in  a  large  agricultural  state 
like  Iowa  tree  sparrows  annually  eat 
approximately  875  tons  of  weed  seeds. 
Only  the  farmer,  upon  whose  shoulders 
falls  the  heavy  burden  of  freeing  his 
land  of  noxious  weeds,  can  realize 
what  this  vast  consumption  of  weed 
seeds  means  in  the  saving  and  cost  of 
labor.  Some  idea  of  the  money  value 
of  this  group  of  birds  to  the  country 
may  be  gained  from  the  statement  that 
the  total  value  of  the  farm  products  in 
the  United  States  in  1910  reached  the 
amazing  sum  of  $8,926,000,000.  If 
we  estimate  that  the  total  consump- 
tion of  weed  seed  by  the  combined 
members  of  the  sparrow  family  re- 
sulted in  a  saving  of  only  1  per  cent  of 
the  crops — not  a  violent  assumption — 
the  sum  saved  to  farmers  by  these 
birds  in  1910  was  $89,260,000. 
Hawks  and  owls 

The  current  idea  in  relation  to  hawks 
and  owls  is  erroneous.  These  birds 
are  generally  classed  as  thieves  and 
robbers,  whereas  a  large  majority  of 
them    are    the    farmers'    friends    and 


spend  the  greater  part  of  their  long 
lives  in  pursuit  of  injurious  insects 
and  rodents.  The  hawks  work  by 
day,  the  owls  chiefly  by  night,  so  that 
the  useful  activities  of  the  two  classes 
are  continued  practically  throughout 
the  twenty-four  hours.  As  many  as 
100  grasshoppers  have  been  found  in 
the  stomach  of  a  Swainson's  hawk, 
representing  a  single  meal;  and  in 
the  retreat  of  a  pair  of  barn  owls  have 
been  found  more  than  3000  skulls,  97 
per  cent  of  which  were  of  mammals, 
the  bulk  consisting  of  field  mice,  house 
mice,  and  common  rats.  Nearly  half 
a  bushel  of  the  remains  of  pocket 
gophers — animals  which  are  very  de- 
structive in  certain  parts  of  the  United 
States — was  found  near  a  nest  of  this 
species.  A  few  hawks  are  injurious, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  depredations  on 
birds  and  chickens  chargeable  against 
hawks  is  committed  by  three  species 
— the  Cooper's  hawk,  the  sharp- 
shinned  hawk,  and  the  goshawk. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  at  once 
appear  that  the  practice  of  offering 
bounties  indiscriminately  for  the  heads 
of  hawks  and  owls,  as  has  been  done 
by  some  states,  is  a  serious  mistake, 
the  result  being  not  only  a  waste  of 
public  funds  but  the  destruction  of 
valuable  birds  which  can  be  replaced, 
if  at  all,  only  after  the  lapse  of  years. 

The  majority  of  owls  are  usually 
purely  nocturnal — night  birds.  One 
or  two  species  usually  can  see  quite 
well  in  a  bright  light,  but  the  majority 
cannot.  Their  eyes  are  so  formed  that 
they  can  collect  light  from  what  to  us  is 
darkness.  They  can  see  when  the 
daylight  is  not  quite  gone;  but  in  the 
direct  light  of  the  sun  they  are  dazed. 

The  owl  works  and  feeds  when  we 
are  asleep.  It  has  eyes  differently 
placed  from  those  of  any  other  bird — 
close  together  in  front,  so  that  it  must 
look  straight  ahead.  To  make  up 
for  this,  it  can  turn  its  head  with  the 


THE    FIRST     COUSINS    OF     THE    OSTRICH 


^ 


The  cassowary  lives  in  Australia  and  Sow  Guinea.  Its 
glossy  feathers  are  like  hair,  and  its  head  is  crowned  with 
a  helmet.     The  male  Is  smaller  than  the  female. 


The  emu  is  a  kind  of  cassowary.  Its  neck  is  feathered, 
not  bare  like  the  cassowary's.  The  female  emu  is  bigger 
and  fiercer  than  the  male. 


South  America's  ostrich  is  called  the  rhea.  It  has  three  toes;  the  African  ostrich  has  only  two.  The  rhea  has  no 
tall,  but  it  has  larger  wings  than  the  ostrich.  Its  feathers  are  used  for  making  brushes.  Those  of  the  ostrich  are  more 
valuable,  and  the  ostrich  is  carefully  reared  by  ostrich  farmers  for  the  sake  of  Its  featUera.  These  big  birds  have  strange 
appetites,  and  eat  all  sorts  of  things,  broken  bottles,  etc.,  and  seem  none  the  worse. 

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greatest  ease  in  any  direction.  The 
power  of  its  eyes  in  the  darkness  is 
quite  wonderful.  Most  of  us,  if  we 
were  quite  close  to  a  field  mouse  or 
rat  moving  stealthily  over  a  field, 
would  do  well  to  see  it  against  the 
earth,  like  which  its  coat  is  colored. 
But  the  owl  sees  it  from  afar  through 
the  darkness,  pounces  noiselessly 
down,  and  seizes  it.  It  can  catch  the 
mouse  and  the  mole  and  the  rat;  it 
can  catch  fish  as  they  rise  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  water. 

How    THE   COURAGE    OF  THE   OWL    GOES 
IN  THE  DAYTIME 

There  are  about  two  hundred  species 
of  owls.  Some  are  tiny  owls;  some  are 
big  eagle  owls,  twenty-eight  inches  in 
length,  very  fierce  and  strong,  ready 
to  attack  a  man  who  goes  near,  able  to 
kill  fawns  and  large  game  birds,  and  to 
do  battle  with  the  golden  eagle.  The 
courage  of  one  of  these  owls  goes  in 
the  daytime,  and  then  little  birds,  led 
by  a  crow,  may  find  it  and  mob  it  out 
into  the  open,  and  lead  it  a  terrible 
dance.  But  when  night  comes,  and 
the  bird  can  see,  none  but  a  mighty 
eagle  dare  do  battle  with  it. 

The  hawk  owl  is  one  of  the  few  ow  Is 
which  work  by  day.  It  is  big  and 
strong  and  savage.  There  are  owls 
with  great  ear-tufts  of  feathers,  and 
owls  with  none  at  all;  some  are  snowy 
white,  others  are  mottled.  Some  live 
in  burrows  with  the  prairie  marmots; 
some  make  burrow^s  for  themselves. 
Mostly  they  live  in  hollow  trees,  or  in 
church  belfries  or  other  high  towers. 
Among  so  many  owls,  of  course,  there 
are  those  which  do  harm,  but  the  most 
of  them  do  more  good  than  evil. 

The  merciless  crow  that  robs  nests, 
and  the  jolly  little  jackdaw 

The  carrion  crow  has  a  nature  like 
the  vulture  and  the  raven,  but  the 
bird  is  smaller,  and  when  it  attacks  a 
big  living  animal  it  cannot  do  its  work 
single  handed,  but  advances  in  num- 


bers. Its  habit  of  eating  putrid  flesh 
is,  of  course,  unpleasant,  but  it  is  of 
importance  to  the  health  of  the  place 
in  which  the  crow  finds  its  meals. 
Crows  are  merciless  thieves.  They 
rob  other  birds'  nests,  killing  and  eat- 
ing the  young  ones,  and  even  carrying 
off  the  unhatched  eggs.  To  do  this 
the  crow  thrusts  his  strong  beak 
through  one  end  of  the  egg,  then 
carries  the  shell  and  its  contents  away 
as  on  a  spear. 

The  jolly  little  jackdaw  belongs  to 
this  family,  and  can  be  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  the  patch  of  gray 
on  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck.  It 
builds  in  the  steeples  of  churches  and 
other  high  buildings.  Everybody 
knows  its  relative,  the  magpie,  from 
its  handsome  plumage  of  glossy  black 
and  white.  We  are  all  fond  of  this 
bird  because  of  its  bright  ways;  but 
other  birds  hate  it,  for  it  robs  their 
nests  as  the  crows  do.  When  tamed, 
it  is  a  wonderful  talker. 

One  of  the  most  singular  of  the 
birds  of  prey  is  the  shrike,  or  butcher 
bird.  It  catches  small  birds,  mice, 
and  so  on,  and  fixes  their  bodies  upon 
thorns;  then  it  can  easily  skin  and  eat 
such  as  it  wants,  leaving  the  others 
for  the  time  to  come  when  it  is  once 
more  hungry. 

The  BIRDS'  MANNER  OF  LIVING 

As  a  rule  birds  do  not  live  very 
long,  but  they  live  fast.  They  breathe 
rapidly  and  have  a  higher  temperature 
and  a  more  rapid  circulation  than  other 
vertebrates.  This  is  a  fortunate  cir- 
cumstance, since  to  generate  the  req- 
uisite force  to  sustain  their  active 
bodies  a  large  quantity  of  food  is 
necessary,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
birds  have  to  devote  most  of  their 
waking  hours  to  obtaining  insects, 
seeds,  berries,  and  other  kinds  of 
food.  The  activity  of  birds  in  the 
pursuit  of  insects  is  still  further 
stimulated  by  the  fact  that  the  young 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


123 


of  most  species,  even  those  which  are  A  tree  swallow's  stomach  was  found 
by  no  means  strictly  insectivorous,  to  contain  40  entire  chinch  bugs  and 
require  great  quantities  of  animal  food     fragments    of    many    others,    besides 

10  other  species  of  insects.     A  bank 


ROBinS  MEST 


WIUOWWREM/ — \ 
SKY  LARK  \  ) 

KmCFISHER 


in  the  early  weeks  of  existence,  so 
that  during  the  summer  months — 
the  flood  time  of  insect  life — birds  are 
compelled  to  redouble  their  attacks 
on  our  insect  foes  to  satisfy  the  wants 
of  their  clamorous  young. 
What  birds  eat 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
hungry  birds — and  birds  are  hungry 
most  of  the  time — are  not  content  to 
fill  their 
stomachs 
with  insects 
or  seeds,  but 
after  the 
stomach  is 
stuffed  until 
it  will  hold 
no  more 
continue  to 
eat  till  the 
crop  or  gul- 
let also  is 
crammed. 
It  is  often 
the  case  that 
when  the 
stomach  is 
opened  and 
the  contents 
piled  up  the 
pile  is  two  or 
three  times 
as  large  as 
the  stomach 
when  filled. 
Birds  may 
truly  be  said 
to  have 
healthy  ap- 
petites. To 
show  the  astonishing  capacity  of  birds' 
stomachs  and  to  reveal  the  extent  to 
which  man  is  indebted  to  birds  for  the 
destruction  of  noxious  insects,  the 
following  facts  are  given: 


BULlFinCHS  HEST 


ClESTED  rrREM 
fllCHTIMUlh-^  ^-' <^ — ^ 

^-\      /^CRtATTITJl 

.MfADOtHim/^     ^    /^^^^ ^  /""^ 

y^    J/  fOLPfincH  /       \ 


/YciiortBuifTittc 


Nightjar  ]  /^^ 

\  /TRtE-riP 


\^^r^>5- 


TREE-riPIT 


"^     —     CHAf  finch's  NEST 


SIZE  OF  EGGS  OF  OUR  BEST-KNOWN  BIRDS 


swallow  in  Texas  devoured  68  cotton- 
boll  weevils,  one  of  the  worst  insect 
pests  that  ever  invaded  the   United 
States;  and  35  cliff  swallows  had  taken 
an  average  of   18  boll  weevils  each. 
Two   stomachs   of   pine   siskins   from 
Hay  wards,  California,  contained  1900 
black  olive  scales  and  300  plant  lice. 
A  killdeer's  stomach  taken  in  Novem- 
ber in  Texas 
contained 
over    300 
mosqu  i  to 
larvae .    A 
flicker's 
stomach 
held  28  white 
grubs.     A 
nighthawk's 
stomach  col- 
lec t ed  in 
Kentucky 
contained  34 
May  beetles, 
the    adult 
formofwhite 
grubs.     An- 
other night- 
hawk     from 
New     York 
had  eaten  24 
clover  -  leaf 
weevils    and 
375     ants. 
Still  another 
nighthawk 
had       eaten 
340  grass- 
hoppers,   52 
bugs,  3  bee- 
tles, 2  wasps,  and  a  spider.     A  boat- 
tailed  grackle  from  Texas  had  eaten  at 
one  meal  about  100  cotton  boll  worms, 
besides  a  few  other   insects.    A  ring- 
necked  pheasant's  crop  from  Washing- 


LANDRAIL  / 

V        lyCoRMORAMTl 

oodiarkI       1  I  / 

>  LinrtET  V        y^ 

/syvauow       /"     n. 

S/^^Sea-cuil  \ 
SPARROn-HAWK 


r^ 


X^BIACKCAP    /^  SHOTTED 


fLYCATCHER 


WREHSrjEST 


m 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


ton  contained  8000  seeds  of  chickweed 
and  a  dandelion  head.  More  than  72,000 
seeds  have  been  found  in  a  single  duck 
stomach  taken  inLouisiana  in  February. 

Important  in  this  connection  is  the 
planting  near  the  house  and  even  in 
out-of-the-way  places  on  the  farm  of 
various  berry-bearing  shrubs,  of  which 
many  are  ornamental,  which  will 
supply  food  when  snow  is  on  the 
ground.  Other  species  which  are  not 
berry  eaters,  like  the  woodpeckers, 
nuthatches,  creepers,  and  chickadees, 
can  be  made  winter  residents  of  many 
farms,  even  in  the  North,  by  putting 
out  at  convenient  places  a  supply  of 
suet,  of  which  they  and  many  other 
birds  are  very  fond,  even  in  summer. 
Hedges  and  thickets  about  the  farm 
are  important  to  furnish  nesting  sites 
and  shelter  both  from  the  elements 
and  from  the  numerous  enemies  of  birds. 

Few  are  aware  of  the  difficulty  often 
experienced  by  birds  in  obtaining 
water  for  drinking  and  bathing,  and 
a  constant  supply  of  water  near  the 
farmhouse  will  materially  aid  in  at- 
tracting birds  to  the  neighborhood 
and  in  keeping  them  there,  at  least 


till  the  time  of  migration.  Shallow 
trays  of  wood  or  metal  admirably 
serve  the  purpose,  especially  as  birds 
delight  to  bathe  in  them. 

One  of  the  worst  foes  of  our  native 
birds  is  the  house  cat,  and  probably 
none  of  our  native  wild  animals  de- 
stroys as  many  birds  on  the  farm, 
particularly  fledglings,  as  cats.  The 
household  pet  is  by  no  means  blame- 
less in  this  respect,  for  the  bird-hunting 
instinct  is  strong  even  in  the  well-fed 
tabby;  but  much  of  the  loss  of  our 
feathered  life  is  attributable  to  the 
half-starved  stray,  which  in  summer  is 
as  much  at  home  in  the  groves  and 
fields  as  the  birds  themselves.  Forced 
to  forage  for  their  own  livelihood, 
these  animals,  which  are  almost  as 
wild  as  the  ancestral  wildcat,  inflict  an 
appalling  loss  on  our  feathered  allies 
and  even  on  the  smaller  game  birds 
like  the  woodcock  and  bobwhite.  If 
cats  are  to  find  place  in  the  farmer's 
household,  every  effort  should  be 
made  by  carefully  feeding  and  watch- 
ing them  to  insure  the  safety  of  the 
birds.  The  cat  without  a  home  should 
be  mercifully  put  out  of  the  way. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SOME  FAMILIAR  AMERICAN  BIRDS 


BLUEBIRD     (Sialia  sialis) 

Length,*  about  6^  inches. 

Range:  breeds  in  the  United  States  (west  to 
Arizona,  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana), 
southern  Canada,  Mexico,  and  Guatemala; 
winters  in  the  southern  half  of  the  eastern 
United  States  and  south  to  Guatemala. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  bluebird  is 
one  of  the  most  familiar  tenants  of  the  farm  and 
dooryard.  Everywhere  it  is  hailed  as  the  har- 
binger of  spring,  and  wherever  it  chooses  to 
reside  it  is  sure  of  a  warm  welcome.  This  bird, 
like  the  robin,  phoebe,  house  wren,  and  some 
swallows,  is  very  domestic  in  its  habits.  Its 
favorite  nesting  sites  are  crannies  in  the  farm 
buildings  or  boxes  made  for  its  use  or  natural 
cavities  in  old  apple  trees.  For  rent  the  bird 
pays  amply  by  destroying  insects,  and  it  takes 
no  toll  from  the  farm  crop.  The  bluebird's 
diet  consists  of  68  per  cent  of  insects  to  32  per 
cent  of  vegetable  matter.  The  largest  items  of 
insect  food  are  grasshoppers  first  and  beetles 

*Measured  from  tip  of  bill  to  tip  of  tail 


next,  while  caterpillars  stand  third.  All  of 
these  are  harmful  except  a  few  of  the  beetles. 
The  vegetable  food  consists  chiefly  of  fruit 
pulp,  only  an  insignificant  portion  of  which  is 
of  cultivated  varieties.  Among  wild  fruits 
elderberries  are  the  favorite.  From  the  above 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  bluebird  does  no  essential 
harm,  but  on  the  contrary  eats  many  harmful 
and  annoying  insects.  (See  Farmers'  Bui.  54, 
pp.  46-48,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 
ROBIN     {Planesficus  migratorius) 

Length,  10  inches. 

Range:  breeds  in  the  United  States  (except 
the  Gulf  States),  Canada,  Alaska,  and  Mexico; 
winters  in  most  of  the  United  States  and  south 
to  Guatemala. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  in  the  North 
and  some  parts  of  the  West  the  robin  is  among 
the  most  cherished  of  our  native  birds.  Should 
it  ever  become  rare  where  now  common,  its 
joyous  summer  song  and  familiar  presence  will 
be  sadly  missed  in  many  a  homestead  The 
robin   is  an   omnivorous  feeder,   and  its  food 


BIRDS   OF   PREV   AND    GAME    BIRDS 


M 

'm 

lj#/' 

m 

Mf 

KING 

BIRD 

SPAR  R  OW 
HAWK 


BOB     WHITE 


RUFFED    grouse: 


SCREECH      OWL 


BARN         OW  l_ 


BIRDS    NOTED   FOR  SONG    OR    PLUMAGE 


ii^ 


•^■4 


BLUE      JAV 


R  O  B  I  Nl 


WOODPECKt W 


BOBOLINK 


MOCK  I  NG    BIRD 


MEADOW    LARK 


GROSBEAK 


BLUE   BIRD 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


125 


includes  many  orders  of  insects,  with  no  very 
pronounced  preference  for  any.  It  is  very  fond 
of  earthworms,  but  its  real  economic  status  is 
determined  by  the  vegetable  food,  which 
amounts  to  about  58  per  cent  of  all.  The  prin- 
cipal item  is  fruit,  which  forms  more  than  51 
per  cent  of  the  total  food.  The  fact  that  in 
the  examination  of  over  1200  stomachs  the 
percentage  of  wild  fruit  was  found  to  be  five 
times  that  of  the  cultivated  varieties  suggests 
that  berry-bearing  shrubs,  if  planted  near  the 
orchard,  will  serve  to  protect  more  valuable 
fruits.  In  California  in  certain  years  it  has 
been  possible  to  save  the  olive  crop  from  hungry 
robins  only  by  the  most  strenuous  exertions  and 
considerable  expense.  The  bird's  general  use- 
fulness is  such,  however,  that  all  reasonable 
means  of  protecting  orchard  fruit  should  be 
tried  before  killing  the  birds.  (See  Farmers' 
Bui.  54,  pp.  44-46,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.) 

MOCKING  BIRD     {Mimus  polyglottos) 

Length,  10  inches.  Most  easily  distinguished 
from  the  similarly  colored  loggerhead  shrike 
(opp.  p.  124)  by  the  absence  of  a  conspicuous 
black  stripe  through  the  eye. 

Range:  resident  from  southern  Mexico  north 
to  California,  Wyoming,  Iowa,  Ohio,  and  INIary- 
land;   casual  farther  north. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  Because  of  its 
incomparable  medleys  and  imitative  powers, 
the  mocking  bird  is  the  most  renowned  singer 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Even  in  confine- 
ment it  is  a  masterly  performer,  and  formerly 
thousands  were  trapped  and  sold  for  cage  birds, 
but  this  reprehensible  practice  has  been  largely 
stopped  by  protective  laws.  It  is  not  surpris- 
ing, therefore,  that  the  mocking  bird  should 
receive  protection  principally  because  of  its 
ability  as  a  songster  and  its  preference  for  the 
vicinity  of  dwellings.  Its  place  in  the  affections 
of  the  South  is  similar  to  that  occupied  by  the 
robin  in  the  North.  It  is  well  that  this  is  true, 
for  the  bird  appears  not  to  earn  protection  from 
a  strictly  economic  standpoint.  About  half  of 
its  diet  consists  of  fruit,  and  many  cultivated 
varieties  are  attacked,  such  as  oranges,  grapes, 
figs,  strawberries,  blackberries,  and  raspberries. 
Somewhat  less  than  a  fourth  of  the  food  is 
animal  matter,  and  grasshoppers  are  the  largest 
single  element.  The  bird  is  fond  of  cotton 
worms,  and  is  known  to  feed  also  on  the  chinch 
bug,  rice  weevil,  and  bollworm.  It  is  unfor- 
tunate that  it  does  not  feed  on  injurious  insects 
to  an  extent  sufficient  to  offset  its  depredations 
on  fruit.  (See  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 
1895,  pp.  415-416,  and  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  30, 
pp.  52-56.) 

ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK     {Zamelodia 
ludoviciana) 

Length,  8  inches. 

Range:  Breeds  from  Kansas,  Ohio,  Georgia 
(mountains),  and  New  Jersey,  north  to  southern 
Canada;  winters  from  Mexico  to  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  this  beautiful 
grosbeak  is  noted  for  its  clear,  melodious  notes. 


which  are  poured  forth  in  generous  measure. 
The  rosebreast  sings  even  at  midday  during 
summer,  when  the  intense  heat  has  silenced 
almost  every  other  songster.  Its  beautiful 
plumage  and  sweet  song  are  not  its  sole  claim 
on  our  favor,  for  few  birds  are  more  beneficial 
to  agriculture.  The  rosebreast  eats  some  green 
peas  and  does  some  damage  to  fruit.  But  this 
mischief  is  much  more  than  balanced  by  the 
destruction  of  insect  pests.  The  bird  is  so  fond 
of  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  that  it  has  earned 
the  name  of  "potato-bug  bird,"  and  no  less  than 
a  tenth  of  the  total  food  of  the  rosebreasts 
examined  consists  of  potato  beetles — evidence 
that  the  bird  is  one  of  the  most  important 
enemies  of  the  pest.  It  vigorously  attacks 
cucumber  beetles  and  many  of  the  scale  insects. 
It  proved  an  active  enemy  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain locust  during  that  insect's  ruinous  invasions, 
and  among  the  other  pests  it  consumes  are  the 
spring  and  fall  cankerworms,  orchard  and  forest 
tent  caterpillars,  tussock,  gipsy,  and  brown-tail 
moths,  plum  curculio,  army  worm,  and  chinch 
bug.  In  fact,  not  one  of  our  birds  has  a  better 
record.  (See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  32,  pp.  33-59.) 
BOBOLINK     {Dolichonyx  oryzivorus) 

Length,  about  7  inches. 

Range:  breeds  from  Ohio  northeast  to  Nova 
Scotia,  north  to  Manitoba,  and  northwest  to 
British  Columbia;   winters  in  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  when  American 
writers  awoke  to  the  beauty  and  attractiveness 
of  our  native  birds,  among  the  first  to  be  en- 
shrined in  song  and  story  was  the  bobolink. 
Few  species  show  such  striking  contrasts  in 
color  of  the  sexes,  and  few  have  songs  more 
unique  and  whimsical.  In  its  northern  home 
the  bird  is  loved  for  its  beauty  and  its  rich 
melody;  in  the  South  it  earns  deserved  hatred 
by  its  destructiveness.  Bobolinks  reach  the 
southeastern  coast  of  the  L^nited  States  the  last 
half  of  April  just  as  rice  is  sprouting  and  at  once 
begin  to  pull  up  and  devour  the  sprouting 
kernels.  Soon  they  move  on  to  their  northern 
breeding  grounds,  where  they  feed  upon  insects, 
weed  seeds,  and  a  little  grain.  When  the  young 
are  well  on  the  wing,  they  gather  in  flocks  with 
the  parent  birds  and  gradually  move  south- 
ward, being  then  generally  known  as  reed  birds. 
They  reach  the  rice  fields  of  the  Carolinas  about 
August  20,  when  the  rice  is  in  the  milk.  Then 
until  the  birds  depart  for  South  America  planters 
and  birds  fight  for  the  crop,  and  in  spite  of 
constant  watchfulness  and  innumerable  devices 
for  scaring  the  birds  a  loss  of  10  per  cent  of  the 
rice  is  the  usual  result.  (See  Biol.  Survey  Bui. 
13,  pp.  12-22.) 

BREWER'S  BLACKBIRD   {Euphagus  cyano- 
cephalus) 

Length,  10  inches.  Its  glossy  purplish  head 
distinguishes  it  from  other  blackbirds  that  do  not 
show  in  flight  a  trough-shaped  tail. 

Range:  Breeds  in  the  West,  east  to  Texas, 
Kansas,  and  Minnesota,  and  north  to  southern 
Canada;  winters  over  most  of  the  United  States 
breeding  range,  south  to  Guatemala. 


126 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Habits  and  economic  status:  Very  numerous 
in  the  West  and  in  fall  gathers  in  immense  flocks, 
especially  about  barnyards  and  corrals.  During 
the  cherry  season  in  California  Brewer's  black- 
bird is  much  in  the  orchards.  In  one  case  they 
were  seen  to  eat  freely  of  cherries,  but  when  a 
neighboring  fruit  raiser  began  to  plow  his  orchard 
almost  every  blackbird  in  the  vicinity  was  upon 
the  newly  opened  ground  and  close  at  the  plow- 
man's heels  in  its  eagerness  to  get  the  insects 
exposed  by  the  plow.  Caterpillars  and  pupte 
form  the  largest  item  of  animal  food  (about  12 
per  cent).  Many  of  these  are  cutworms,  and 
cotton  bollwornis  or  corn  earworms  were  found 
in  10  stomachs  and  codling-moth  pupie  in  11. 
Beetles  constitute  over  11  per  cent  of  the  food. 
The  vegetable  food  is  practically  contained  in 
three  items — grain,  fruit,  and  weed  seeds. 
Grain,  mostly  oats,  amounts  to  54  per  cent; 
fruit,  largely  cherries,  4  per  cent;  and  weed 
seeds,  not  quite  9  per  cent.  The  grain  is  prob- 
ably mostly  wild,  volunteer,  or  waste,  so  that 
the  bird  does  most  damage  bv  eating  fruit. 
(See  Biol.  Surv.  Bui.  34,  pp.  59-65.) 

MEADOWLARKS     {Stuniella     magna    and 
Sturnella  neglccta) 

Length,  about  lOf  inches. 

Range:  Breed  generally  in  the  United  States, 
southern  Canada,  and  Mexico  to  Costa  Rica; 
winter  from  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  Valleys  and 
British  Columbia  southward. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  Our  two 
meadowlarks,  though  differing  much  in  song, 
resemble  each  other  closely  in  plumage  and 
habits.  Grassy  plains  and  uplands  covered  with 
a  thick  growth  of  grass  or  weeds,  with  near-by 
water,  furnish  the  conditions  best  suited  to  the 
meadowlark's  taste.  The  song  of  the  western 
bird  is  loud,  clear,  and  melodious.  That  of  its 
eastern  relative  is  feebler  and  loses  much  by 
comparison.  In  many  localities  the  meadow- 
lark  is  classed  and  shot  as  a  game  bird.  From 
the  farmer's  standpoint  this  is  a  mistake,  since 
its  value  as  an  insect  eater  is  far  greater  than  as 
an  object  of  pursuit  by  the  sportsman.  Both 
the  boll  weevil,  the  foe  of  the  cotton  grower,  and 
the  alfalfa  weevil  are  among  the  beetles  it 
habitually  eats.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
diet  of  this  bird  is  beetles,  half  of  which  are 
predaceous  ground  beetles,  accounted  useful 
insects,  and  one-fifth  are  destructive  weevils. 
Caterpillars  form  11  per  cent  of  the  food  and 
are  eaten  in  every  month  in  the  year.  Among 
these  are  many  cutworms  and  the  well-known 
army  worm.  Grasshoppers  are  favorite  food 
and  are  eaten  in  every  month  and  almost  every 
day.  The  vegetable  food  (24  per  cent  of  the 
whole)  consists  of  grain  and  weed  seeds.  (See 
Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1895,  pp.  420-426.) 

RED-WIXGED  BLACKBIRD    {Agelaius 
phoen  iceus) 

Length,  about  9^  inches. 

Range :  Breeds  in  Mexico  and  North  America 
south  of  the  Barren  Grounds;  winters  in  south- 
ern half  of  United  States  and  south  to  Costa 
HiciJ.. 


Habits  and  economic  status:  The  prairies  of 
the  upper  Mississippi  Valley,  with  their  nu- 
merous sloughs  and  ponds,  furnish  ideal  nesting 
places  for  redwings,  and  consequently  this 
region  has  become  the  great  breeding  ground  for 
the  species.  These  prairies  pour  forth  the  vast 
flocks  that  play  havoc  with  grain-fields.  East  of 
the  Appalachian  Range,  marshes  on  the  shores 
of  lakes,  rivers,  and  estuaries  are  the  only  avail- 
able breeding  sites  and,  as  these  are  compara- 
tively few  and  small,  the  species  is  much  less 
abundant  than  in  the  West.  Redwings  are 
eminently  gregarious,  living  in  flocks  and  breed- 
ing in  communities.  The  food  of  the  redwing 
consists  of  27  per  cent  animal  matter  and  73 
per  cent  vegetable.  Insects  constitute  prac- 
tically one-fourth  of  the  food.  Beetles  (largely 
weevils,  a  most  harmful  group)  amount  to  10 
per  cent.  Grasshoppers  are  eaten  in  every 
month  and  amount  to  about  5  per  cent.  Cater- 
pillars (among  them  the  injurious  army  worm) 
are  eaten  at  all  seasons  and  aggregate  6  per  cent. 
Ants,  wasps,  bugs,  flies,  dragonflies,  and  spiders 
also  are  eaten.  The  vegetable  food  consists  of 
seeds,  including  grain,  of  which  oats  is  the 
favorite,  and  some  small  fruits.  When  in  large 
flocks  this  bird  is  capable  of  doing  great  harm  to 
grain.     (See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  13,  pp.  33-34.) 

COMMON  CROW   {Corvus  hrachyrhynchos) 

Length,  19  inches. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
and  most  of  Canada;  winters  generally  in  the 
United  States. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  general 
habits  of  the  crow  are  universally  known.  Its 
ability  to  commit  such  misdeeds  as  pulling  corn 
and  stealing  eggs  and  fruit  and  to  get  away 
unscathed  is  little  short  of  marvelous.  Much 
of  the  crow's  success  in  life  is  due  to  cooperation, 
and  the  social  instinct  of  the  species  has  its 
highest  expression  in  the  winter  roosts,  which 
are  sometimes  frequented  by  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  crows.  From  these  roosts  daily  flights 
of  many  miles  are  made  in  search  of  food.  In- 
jury to  sprouting  corn  is  the  most  frequent 
complaint  against  this  species,  but  by  coating 
the  seed  grain  with  coal  tar  most  of  this  damage 
may  be  prevented.  Losses  of  poultry  and  eggs 
may  be  averted  by  proper  housing  and  the 
judicious  use  of  wire  netting.  The  insect  food 
of  the  crow  includes  wireworms,  cutworms, 
white  grubs  and  grasshoppers,  and  during  out- 
breaks of  these  insects  the  crow  renders  good 
service.  The  bird  is  also  an  efficient  scavenger. 
But  chiefly  because  of  its  destruction  of  bene- 
ficial wild  birds  and  their  eggs  the  crow  must  be 
classed  as  a  criminal,  and  a  reduction  in  its 
numbers  in  localities  where  it  is  seriously  de- 
structive is  justifiable.  (See  Farmers'  Bui.  54, 
pp.  22-23.) 

BLUE  JAY     (Cijanocitta  cristata) 

Length,  11^  inches.  The  brilliant  blue  of  the 
wings  and  tail  combined  with  the  black  crescent 
of  the  upper  breast  and  the  crested  head  dis- 
tinguish this  species. 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


127 


Range:  Resident  in  the  eastern  United  States 
and  southern  Canada,  west  to  the  Dakotas, 
Colorado,  and  Texas. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  blue  jay 
is  of  a  dual  nature.  Cautious  and  silent  in  the 
vicinity  of  its  nest,  away  from  it  it  is  bold  and 
noisy.  Sly  in  the  commission  of  mischief,  it  is 
ever  ready  to  scream  "thief"  at  the  sHghtest 
disturbance.  As  usual  in  such  cases,  its  re- 
marks are  applicable  to  none  more  than  itself, 
a  fact  neighboring  nest  holders  know  to  their 
sorrow,  for  during  the  breeding  season  the  jay 
lays  heavy  toll  upon  the  eggs  and  young  of 
other  birds,  and  in  doing  so  deprives  us  of  the 
services  of  species  more  beneficial  than  itself. 
Approximately  three-fourths  of  the  annual 
food  of  the  blue  jay  is  vegetable  matter,^  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  composed  of  mast,  i.  e., 
acorns,  chestnuts,  beechnuts,  and  the  like. 
Corn  is  the  principal  cultivated  crop  upon 
which  this  bird  feeds,  but  stomach  analysis 
indicates  that  most  of  the  corn  taken  is  waste 
grain.  Such  noxious  insects  as  wood-boring 
beetles,  grasshoppers,  eggs  of  various  cater- 
pillars and  scale  insects  constitute  about  one- 
fifth  of  its  food.  (See  Farmers'  Bui.  54,  pp.  18-19.) 

NIGHTHAWK     {Chordeiles  virginianus) 

Length,  10  inches.  Not  to  be  confused  with 
the  whippoorwill.  The  latter  lives  in  woodland 
and  is  chiefly  nocturnal.  The  nighthawk  often 
flies  by  day,  when  the  white  bar  across  the  wing 
and  its  nasal  cry  are  distinguishing. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  most  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada;  winters  in  South 
America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  skilful 
evolutions  of  a  company  of  nighthawks  as  the 
birds  gracefully  cleave  the  air  in  intersecting 
circles  is  a  sight  to  be  remembered.  So  expert 
are  they  on  the  wing  that  no  insect  is  safe  from 
them,  even  the  swift  dragonfly  being  captured 
with  ease.  Unfortunately  their  erratic  flight 
tempts  men  to  use  them  for  targets,  and  this 
inexcusable  practice  is  seriously  diminishing 
their  numbers,  which  is  deplorable,  since  no 
birds  are  more  useful.  This  species  makes  no 
nest,  but  lays  its  two  spotted  eggs  on  the  bare 
ground,  sometimes  on  the  gravel  roof  of  the 
city  house.  The  nighthawk  is  a  voracious 
feeder  and  is  almost  exclusively  insectivorous. 
Some  stomachs  contained  from  30  to  50  differ- 
ent kinds  of  insects,  and  more  than  600  kinds 
have  been  identified  from  the  stomachs  thus  far 
examined.  From  500  to  1000  ants  are  often 
found  in  a  stomach.  Several  species  of  mos- 
quitoes, including  Anopheles,  the  transmitter  of 
malaria,  are  eaten.  Other  well-known  pests 
destroyed  by  the  nighthawk  are  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle,  cucumber  beetles,  chestnut,  rice, 
clover-leaf  and  cotton-boll  weevils,  billbugs. 
bark  beetles,  squash  bugs,  and  moths  of  the 
cotton  worm. 

FLICKER     {Colaptes  auratus) 

Length,   13  inches.     The  yellow  under  sur- 


face of  the  wing,  yellow  tail  shafts,  and  white 
rump  are  characteristic. 

Range:  Breeds  in  the  eastern  United  States 
west  to  the  plains  and  in  the  forested  parts  of 
Canada  and  Alaska;  winters  in  most  of  the 
eastern  United  States. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  flicker  in- 
habits the  open  country  rather  than  the  forest 
and  delights  in  park-like  regions  where  trees  are 
numerous  and  scattered.  It  nests  in  any  large 
cavity  in  a  tree  and  readily  appropriates  an 
artificial  box.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  insure 
the  presence  of  this  useful  bird  about  the  farm 
and  to  increase  its  numbers.  It  is  the  most 
terrestrial  of  our  woodpeckers  and  prociu*es  much 
of  its  food  from  the  ground.  The  largest  item 
of  animal  food  is  ants,  of  which  the  flicker  eats 
more  than  any  other  common  bird.  Ants  were 
found  in  524  of  the  684  stomachs  examined  and 
98  stomachs  contained  no  other  food.  One 
stomach  contained  over  5000  and  two  others 
held  over  3000  each.  While  bugs  are  not  largely 
eaten  by  the  flicker,  one  stomach  contained  17 
chinch  bugs.  Wild  fruits  are  next  to  ants  in 
importance  in  the  flicker's  dietary.  Of  these 
sour  gum  and  wild  black  cherry  stand  at  the 
head.  The  food  habits  of  this  bird  are  such  as 
to  recommend  it  to  complete  protection.  (See 
Biol.  Survey  Bui.  37,  pp.  52-58.) 

YELLOW-BELLIED  SAPSUCKER  (SpAj/rapi- 

cus  varius) 

Length,  about  85  inches.  Only  woodpecker 
having  top  of  head  from  base  of  bill  red,  com- 
bined with  a  black  patch  on  breast. 

Range:  Breeds  in  northern  half  of  the  United 
States  and  southern  half  of  Canada;  winters  in 
most  of  the  States  and  south  to  Costa  Rica. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  yellow- 
bellied  sapsucker  is  rather  silent  and  suspicious 
and  generally  manages  to  have  a  tree  between 
himself  and  the  observer.  Hence  the  bird  is 
much  better  known  by  its  works  than  its  ap- 
pearance. The  regular  girdles  of  holes  made  by 
this  bird  are  common  on  a  great  variety  of 
trees;  in  all  about  250  kinds  are  known  to  be 
attacked.  Occasionally  young  trees  are  killed 
outright,  but  more  loss  is  caused  by  stains  and 
other  blemishes  in  the  wood  which  result  from 
sapsucker  punctures.  These  blemishes,  which 
are  known  as  bird  pecks,  are  especially  numerous 
in  hickory,  oak,  cypress,  and  yellow  poplar. 
Defects  due  to  sapsucker  work  cause  an  annual 
loss  to  the  lumber  industry  estimated  at  $1,250,- 
000.  The  food  of  the  yellow-beUied  sapsucker 
is  about  half  animal  and  half  vegetable.  Its 
fondness  for  ants  counts  slightly  in  its  favor. 
It  eats  also  wasps,  beetles  (including,  however, 
very  few  wood-boring  species),  bugs,  and  spiders. 
The  two  principal  components  of  the  vegetable 
food  are  wild  fruits  of  no  importance  and  cam- 
bium (the  layer  just  beneath  the  bark  of  trees). 
In  securing  the  cambium  the  bird  does  the 
damage  above  described.  The  yellow-bellied 
sapsucker,  unlike  other  woodpeckers,  thus  does 
comparatively  little  good  and  much  harm. 
(See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  39.) 


H8 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


CHICKADEE     {Penthestes  atricapillus) 

Length,  about  53^  inches. 

Range:  Resident  in  the  United  States  (ex- 
cept the  southern  half  east  of  the  plains), 
Canada,  and  Alaska. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  Because  of  its 
delightful  notes,  its  confiding  ways,  and  its  fear- 
lessness, the  chickadee  is  one  of  our  best  known 
birds.  It  responds  to  encouragement,  and  by 
hanging  within  its  reach  a  constant  supply  of 
suet  the  chickadee  can  be  made  a  regular  visitor 
to  the  garden  and  orchard.  Though  insig- 
nificant in  size,  titmice  are  far  from  being  so 
from  the  economic  standpoint,  owing  to  their 
numbers  and  activity.  While  one  locality  is 
being  scrutinized  for  food  by  a  larger  bird,  10 
are  being  searched  by  tlie  smaller  species.  The 
chickadee's  food  is  made  up  of  insects  and 
vegetable  matter  in  the  proportion  of  7  of  the 
former  to  3  of  the  latter.  Moths  and  cater- 
pillars are  favorites  and  form  about  one-tliird 
of  the  whole.  Beetles,  ants,  wasps,  bugs,  flies, 
grasshoppers,  and  spiders  make  up  the  rest. 
The  vegetable  food  is  composed  of  seeds,  largely 
those  of  pines,  with  a  few  of  the  poison  ivy  and 
some  weeds.  There  are  few  more  useful  l)irds 
than  the  chickadees.  (See  Farmers'  Bui.  54, 
pp.  43-44.) 

HOUSE  WREN     {Troglodytes  edon) 

Length,  4|  inches.  The  only  one  of  our  wrens 
with  wholly  whitish  underparts  that  lacks  a 
light  line  over  the  eye. 

Range.  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States)  and 
southern  Canada;  winters  in  the  southern 
United  States  and  Mexico. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  rich,  bub- 
bling song  of  the  familiar  little  house  wren  is 
one  of  the  sweetest  associations  connected  with 
country  and  suburban  life.  Its  tiny  body,  long 
bill,  sharp  eyes,  and  strong  feet  peculiarly  adapt 
it  for  creeping  into  all  sorts  of  nooks  and  cran- 
nies where  lurk  the  insects  it  feeds  on.  A  cavity 
in  a  fence  post,  a  hole  in  a  tree,  or  a  box  will  be 
welcomed  alike  by  this  busybody  as  a  nestuig 
site;  but  since  the  advent  of  the  quarrelsome 
English  sparrow  such  domiciles  are  at  a  premium 
and  the  wren's  eggs  and  family  are  safe  only  in 
cavities  having  entrances  too  small  to  admit  the 
sparrow.  Hence  it  behooves  the  farmer's  boy 
to  provide  boxes  the  entrances  to  which  are 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  nailing  these  under 
gables  of  barns  and  outhouses  or  in  orchard 
trees.  In  this  way  the  niunbers  of  this  useful 
bird  can  be  increased,  greatly  to  the  advantage 
of  the  farmer.  Grasshoppers,  beetles,  cater- 
pillars, bugs,  and  spiders  are  the  principal  ele- 
ments of  its  food.  Cutworms,  weevils,  ticks, 
and  plant  lice  are  among  the  injurious  forms 
eaten.  The  nestlings  of  house  wrens  consume 
great  quantities  of  insects.  (See  Yearbook 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  1895,  pp.  416-418,  and  Biol. 
Survey  Bui.  30.  pp.  60-62.) 


CATBIRD     (Dumetella  carolinensis) 

Length,  about  9  inches.  The  slaty  gray 
plumage  and  black  cap  and  tail  are  distinctive. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
west  to  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington, and  in  southern  Canada;  winters  from 
the  Gulf  States  to  Panama. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  In  many  locali- 
ties the  catbird  is  one  of  the  commonest  birds. 
Tangled  growths  are  its  favorite  nesting  places 
and  retreats,  but  berry  patches  and  ornamental 
shrubbery  are  not  disdained.  Hence  the  bird 
is  a  familiar  dooryard  visitor.  The  bird  has  a 
fine  song,  unfortunately  marred  by  occasional 
cat  calls.  With  habits  similar  to  those  of  the 
mocking  bird  and  a  song  almost  as  varied,  the 
catbird  has  never  secured  a  similar  place  in 
popular  favor.  Half  of  its  food  consists  of 
fruit,  and  the  cultivated  crops  most  often  in- 
jured are  cherries,  strawberries,  raspberries,  and 
blackberries.  Beetles,  ants,  crickets,  and  grass- 
hoppers are  the  most  important  element  of  its 
animal  food.  The  bird  is  known  to  attack  a 
few  pests,  as  cutworms,  leaf  beetles,  clover-root 
curculio,  and  the  periodical  cicada,  but  the  good 
it  does  in  this  way  probably  does  not  pay  for  the 
fruit  it  steals.  The  extent  to  which  it  should  be 
protected  may  perhaps  be  left  to  the  individual 
cultivator;  that  is,  it  should  be  made  lawful  to 
destroy  catbirds  that  are  doing  manifest  damage 
to  crops.  (See  Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 
1895,  pp.  406-411.) 

BARN  SWALLOW     {Hirundo  erytkrogasta) 

Length,  about  7  inches.  Distinguished  among 
our  swallows  by  deeply  forked  tail. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States)  and 
most  of  Canada;   winters  in  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  This  is  one  of 
the  most  familiar  birds  of  the  farm  and  one  of 
the  greatest  insect  destroyers.  From  daylight 
to  dark  on  tireless  wings  it  seeks  its  prey,  and 
the  insects  destroyed  are  countless.  Its  favorite 
nesting  site  is  a  barn  rafter,  upon  which  it  sticks 
its  mud  basket.  Most  modern  barns  are  so 
tightly  constructed  that  swallows  can  not  gain 
entrance,  and  in  New  England  and  some  other 
parts  of  the  country  barn  swallows  are  much  less 
numerous  than  formerly.  Farmers  can  easily 
provide  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  birds 
and  so  add  materially  to  their  numbers.  It  may 
be  well  to  add  that  the  parasites  that  sometimes 
infest  the  nests  of  swallows  are  not  the  ones  the 
careful  housewife  dreads,  and  no  fear  need  be  felt 
of  the  infestation  spreading  to  the  houses. 
Insects  taken  on  the  wing  constitute  the  almost 
exclusive  diet  of  the  barn  swallow.  More  than 
one-third  of  the  whole  consists  of  flies,  including 
unfortunately  some  useful  parasitic  species. 
Beetles  stand  next  in  order  and  consist  of  a  few 
weevils  and  many  of  the  small  dung  beetles  of 
the  May  beetle  family  that  swarm  over  the 
pastures  ia  the  late  afternoon.  Ants  amount 
to  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  whole  food,  whil§ 
wasps  and  bees  are  well  representeci. 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


129 


PURPLE  MARTIN     {Progne  subis) 

Length,  about  8  inches. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
and  southern  Canada,  south  to  central  Mexico; 
winters  in  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  This  is  the 
largest  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
swallow  tribe.  It  formerly  built  its  nests  in 
cavities  of  trees,  as  it  still  does  in  wild  districts, 
but  learning  that  man  was  a  friend  it  soon 
adopted  domestic  habits.  Its  presence  about 
the  farm  can  often  be  secured  by  erecting  houses 
suitable  for  nesting  sites  and  protecting  them 
from  usurpation  by  the  English  sparrow,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  increase  the 
number  of  colonies  of  this  very  useful  bird. 
The  boxes  should  be  at  a  reasonable  height,  say 
15  feet  from  the  ground,  and  made  inaccessible 
to  cats.  A  colony  of  these  birds  on  a  farm 
makes  great  inroads  upon  the  insect  population, 
as  the  birds  not  only  themselves  feed  upon  in- 
sects but  rear  their  young  upon  the  same  diet. 
Fifty  years  ago  in  New  England  it  was  not 
uncommon  to  see  colonies  of  50  pairs  of  martins, 
but  most  of  them  have  now  vanished  for  no 
apparent  reason  except  that  the  martin  houses 
have  decayed  and  have  not  been  renewed. 
More  than  three-fourths  of  this  bird's  food 
consists  of  wasps,  bugs,  and  beetles,  their  im- 
portance being  in  the  order  given.  The  beetles 
include  several  species  of  harmful  weevils,  as  the 
clover-leaf  weevils  and  the  nut  weevils.  Be- 
sides these  are  many  crane  flies,  moths,  May 
flies,  and  dragonflies. 

ENGLISH  SPARROW     {Passer  domesticus) 

Length,  about  6J  inches.  Its  incessant  chat- 
tering, quarrelsome  disposition,  and  abundance 
and  familiarity  about  human  habitations  dis- 
tinguish it  from  our  native  sparrows. 

Range:  Resident  throughout  the  United 
States  and  southern  Canada. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  Almost  uni- 
versally condemned  since  its  introduction  into 
the  United  States,  the  English  sparrow  has  not 
only  held  its  own,  but  has  ever  increased  in 
numbers  and  extended  its  range  in  spite  of  all 
opposition.  Its  habit  of  driving  out  or  even 
killing  more  beneficial  species  and  the  defiling  of 
buildings  by  its  droppings  and  by  its  own  un- 
sightly structures,  are  serious  objections  to  this 
sparrow.  Moreover,  in  rural  districts,  it  is 
destructive  to  grain,  fruit,  peas,  beans,  and 
other  vegetables.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bird 
feeds  to  some  extent  on  a  large  number  of  insect 
pests,  and  this  fact  points  to  the  need  of  a  new 
investigation  of  the  present  economic  status  of 
the  species,  especially  as  it  promises  to  be  of 
service  in  holding  in  check  the  newly  introduced 
alfalfa  weevil,  which  threatens  the  alfalfa  in- 
dustry in  Utah  and  neighboring  States.  In 
cities  most  of  the  food  of  the  English  sparrow  is 
waste  material  secured  from  the  streets. 


SPARROW  HAWK     (Falco  sparverius) 

Length,  about  10  inches.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  known  and  handsomest,  as  well  as  the 
smallest,  of  North  American  hawks. 

Range :  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  northern  Mexico;  winters  in  the 
United  States  and  south  to  Guatemala. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  sparrow 
hawk,  which  is  a  true  falcon,  lives  in  the  more 
open  country  and  builds  its  nest  in  hollow  trees. 
It  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  West,  where 
telegraph  poles  afford  it  convenient  perching 
and  feeding  places.  Its  food  consists  of  insects, 
small  mammals,  birds,  spiders,  and  reptiles. 
Grasshoppers,  crickets,  and  terrestrial  beetles 
and  caterpillars  make  up  considerably  more  than 
half  its  subsistence,  while  field  mice,  house  mice, 
and  shrews  cover  fully  25  per  cent  of  its  annual 
supply.  The  balance  of  the  food  includes  birds, 
reptiles,  and  spiders.  Contrary  to  the  usual 
habits  of  the  species,  some  individuals  during  the 
breeding  season  capture  nestling  birds  for  food 
for  their  young  and  create  considerable  havoc 
among  the  songsters  of  the  neighborhood.  In 
agricultural  districts  when  new  ground  is  broken 
by  the  plow,  they  sometimes  become  very  tame, 
even  alighting  for  an  instant  under  the  horses 
in  their  endeavor  to  seize  a  worm  or  insect. 
Out  of  410  stomachs  examined,  314  were  found 
to  contain  insects;  129,  small  mammals;  and 
70,  small  birds.  This  little  falcon  renders  good 
service  in  destroying  noxious  insects  and  rodents 
and  should  be  encouraged  and  protected.  (See 
Biol.  Survey  Bui.  3,  pp.  115-127.) 

RED-TAILED  HAWK     {Buteo  borealis) 

Length,  about  2  feet.  One  of  our  largest 
hawks;   adults  with  tail  reddish  brown. 

Range:  Breeds  in  the  United  States,  Mexico, 
Costa  Rica,  Canada,  and  Alaska;  winters 
generally  in  the  United  States  and  south  to 
Guatemala. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  red-tailed 
hawk,  or  "hen-hawk,"  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
is  one  of  the  best  known  of  all  our  birds  of  prey, 
and  is  a  widely  distributed  species  of  great 
economic  importance.  Its  habit  of  sitting  on 
some  prominent  limb  or  pole  in  the  open,  or 
flying  with  measured  wing  beat  over  prairies 
and  sparsely  wooded  areas  on  the  lookout  for  its 
favorite  prey,  causes  it  to  be  noticed  by  the 
most  indifferent  observer.  Although  not  as 
omnivorous  as  the  red-shouldered  hawk,  it  feeds 
on  a  variety  of  food,  as  small  mammals,  snakes, 
frogs,  insects,  birds,  crawfish,  centipedes,  and 
even  carrion.  In  regions  where  rattlesnakes 
abound  it  destroys  considerable  numbers  of  the 
reptiles.  Although  it  feeds  to  a  certain  extent 
on  poultry  and  birds,  it  is  nevertheless  entitled  to 
general  protection  on  account  of  the  insistent 
warfare  it  wages  against  field  mice  and  other 
small  rodents  and  insects  that  are  so  destructive 
to  yoimg  orchards,  nursery  stock,  and  farm 
produce.  Out  of  530  stomachs  examined,  457, 
or  85  per  cent,  contained  the  remains  of  mammal 
pests  such  as   field  mice,   pine  mice,   rabbits,. 


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several  species  of  ground  squirrels,  pocket 
gophers,  and  cotton  rats,  and  only  6i  contained 
the  remains  of  poultry  or  game  birds.  (See 
Biol.  Survey  Bui.  3,  pp.  48-62.) 

COOPER'S  HAWK     {Accipiter  cooperi) 

Length,  about  15  inches.  Medium  sized, 
with  long  tail  and  short  wings,  and  without  the 
white  patch  on  rump  which  is  characteristic  of 
the  marsh  hawk. 

Range :  Breeds  throughout  most  of  the  United 
States  and  southern  Canada;  winters  from  the 
United  States  to  Costa  Rica. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  Cooper's 
hawk,  or  "blue  darter,"  as  it  is  familiarly  known 
throughout  the  South,  is  preeminently  a  poultrj-- 
and  bird-eating  species,  and  its  destructiveness 
in  this  direction  is  surpassed  only  by  that  of  its 
larger  congener,  the  goshawk,  which  occasionally 
in  autumn  and  winter  enters  the  United  States 
from  the  North  in  great  numbers.  The  almost 
universal  prejudice  against  birds  of  prey  is 
largely  due  to  the  activities  of  these  two  birds, 
assisted  by  a  third,  the  sharp-shinned  hawk, 
which  in  habits  and  appearance  might  well  pass 
for  a  small  Cooper's  hawk.  These  birds  usually 
approach  under  cover  and  drop  upon  unsuspect- 
ing victims,  making  great  inroads  upon  poultry 
yards  and  game  coverts  favorably  situated  for 
this  style  of  himting.  Out  of  123  stomachs 
examined,  38  contained  the  remains  of  poultry 
and  game  birds,  66  the  remains  of  other  birds, 
and  12  the  remains  of  mammals.  Twenty-eight 
species  of  wild  birds  were  identified  in  the  above- 
mentioned  material.  This  destructive  hawk, 
together  with  its  two  near  relatives,  should  be 
destroyed  by  every  possible  means.  (See  Biol. 
Survey  Bui."  3,  pp.'  38-43.) 

MOURNING  DOVE     {Zenaidura  macroura) 

Length,  12  inches.  The  dark  spot  on  the  side 
of  the  neck  distinguishes  this  bird  from  all 
other  native  doves  and  pigeons  except  the  white- 
winged  dove.  The  latter  has  the  upper  third  of 
wing  white. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  L'nited  States 
and  in  Mexico,  Guatemala,  and  southern  Can- 
ada; winters  from  the  central  United  States  to 
Panama. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  food  of  the 
mourning  dove  is  practically  all  vegetable 
matter  (over  99  per  cent),  principally  seeds  of 
plants,  including  grain.  Wheat,  oats,  rye,  corn, 
barley,  and  buckwheat  were  found  in  150  out 
of  237  stomachs,  and  constituted  32  per  cent  of 
the  food.  Three-fourths  of  this  was  waste 
grain  picked  up  after  harvest.  The  principal 
and  almost  constant  diet  is  weed  seeds,  which 
are  eaten  throughout  the  year  and  constitute 
64  per  cent  of  the  entire  food.  In  one  stomach 
were  found  7500  seeds  of  yellow  wood  sorrel,  in 
another  6400  seeds  of  barn  grass  or  foxtail,  and 
in  a  third  2600  seeds  of  slender  paspalum,  4820 
of  orange  hawkweed,  950  of  hoary  vervain, 
120  of  Carolina  cranesbill,  50  of  yellow  wood 
sorrel,  620  of  panic  grass,  and  40  of  various  other 
weeds.     None  of  these  are  useful,  and  most  of 


them  are  troublesome  weeds.  The  dove  does 
not  eat  insects  or  other  animal  food.  It 
should  be  protected  in  every  possible  way. 
(See  Farmers'  Bui.  54,  pp.  6-7.) 

KILLDEER     {Oxyechus  vocijerus) 

Length,  10  inches.  Distinguished  by  its 
piercing  and  oft-repeated  cry — kildce. 

Range:  Breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
and  most  of  Canada;  winters  from  central 
United  States  to  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  The  killdeer  is 
one  of  the  best  known  of  the  shorebird  family. 
It  often  visits  the  farmyard  and  commonly  nests 
in  pastures  or  cornfields.  It  is  rather  suspicious, 
however,  and  on  being  approached  takes  flight 
with  loud  cries.  It  is  noisy  and  restless,  but 
fortunately  most  of  its  activities  result  in  bene- 
fit to  man.  The  food  is  of  the  same  general 
nature  as  that  of  the  upland  plover,  but  is  more 
varied.  The  killdeer  feeds  upon  beetles,  grass- 
hoppers, caterpillars,  ants,  bugs,  caddis  flies, 
dragonflies,  centipedes,  spiders,  ticks,  oyster 
worms,  earthworms,  snails,  crabs,  and  other 
Crustacea.  Among  the  beetles  consumed  are 
such  pests  as  the  alfalfa  weevil,  cotton-boll 
weevil,  clover-root  weevil,  clover-leaf  weevil, 
pine  weevil,  billbugs,  white  grubs,  wireworms, 
and  leaf  beetles.  The  bird  also  devours  cotton 
worms,  cotton  cutworms,  horse-flies,  mos- 
quitoes, cattle  ticks,  and  crawfish.  One  stom- 
ach contained  hundreds  of  larva?  of  the  salt- 
marsh  mosquito,  one  of  the  most  troublesome 
species.  The  killdeer  preys  extensively  upon 
insects  that  are  annoying  to  man  and  injurious 
to  his  stock  and  crops,  and  this  should  be 
enough  to  remove  it  from  the  list  of  game  birds 
and  insure  its  protection.  fSee  Farmers'  Bui. 
497,  pp.  16-18.) 

UPLAND  PLOVER     {Bartramia  longicauda) 

Length,  12  inches.  The  only  plainly  colored 
shorebird  which  occurs  east  of  the  plains  and 
inhabits  exclusively  dry  fiekls  and  hillsides. 

Range:  Breeds  from  Oregon,  Utah,  Okla- 
homa, Indiana,  and  ^'irginia,  north  to  Alaska; 
winters  in  South  America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  This,  the  most 
terrestrial  of  our  waders,  is  shy  and  wary,  but  it 
has  the  one  weakness  of  not  fearing  men  on 
horseback  or  in  a  vehicle.  One  of  these  methods 
of  approach,  therefore,  is  nearly  always  used  by 
the  sportsman,  and,  since  the  bird  is  highly 
prized  as  a  table  delicacy,  it  has  been  hunted 
to  the  verge  of  extermination.  As  the  upland 
plover  is  strictly  beneficial,  it  should  no  longer 
be  classed  as  a  game  bird  and  allowed  to  be 
shot.  Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  food  of  this 
species  consists  of  animal  forms,  chiefly  of 
injurious  and  neutral  species.  The  vegetable 
food  is  mainly  weed  seeds.  Almost  half  of  the 
total  subsistence  is  made  up  of  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  and  weevils.  Among  the  weevils 
eaten  are  the  cotton-boll  weevil,  greater  and 
lesser  clover-leaf  weevils,  cowpea  weevils,  and 
billbugs.  This  bird  devours  also  leaf  beetles, 
wireworms,  white  grubs,   army  worms,  cotton 


THE  LONELY  TENANT  OF  A  LANE  BY    NIGHT— THE  BARN-OWL   OF   THE  COUNTRYSIDE 

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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


worms,  cotton  cutworms,  sawfly  larviie,  horse- 
flies, and  cattle  ticks.  In  brief,  it  injures  no 
crop,  but  consimies  a  host  of  the  worst  enemies 
of  agriculture  (See  Farmers'  Bui.  497,  pp. 
14-16.) 

KINGBIRD     (Tyrannus  tyrannus) 

Length,  about  SA  inches.  The  white  lower 
surface  and  white-tipped  tail  distinguish  this 
flycatcher. 

Range:  breeds  throughout  the  United  States 
(except  the  southwestern  part)  and  southern 
Canada;  winters  from  Mexico  to  South 
America. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  kingbird 
is  a  pronounced  enemy  of  hawks  and  crows, 
which  it  vigorously  attacks  at  every  oppor- 
tunity, thereby  affording  efficient  protection  to 
near-by  poultry  yards  and  young  chickens  at 
large.  It  loves  the  open  country  and  is  espe- 
cially fond  of  orchards  and  trees  about  farm 
buildings.  No  less  than  85  per  cent  of  its  food 
consists  of  insects,  mostly  of  a  harmful  nature. 
It  eats  the  common  rose  chafer  or  rose  bug,  and 
more  remarkable  still  it  devours  blister  beetles 
freely.  The  bird  has  been  accused  of  eating 
honeybees  to  an  injurious  extent,  but  there  is 
little  groimd  for  the  accusation,  as  appears  from 
the  fact  that  examination  of  034  stomachs 
showed  only  61  bees  in  22  stomachs.  Of  these 
51  were  useless  drones.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
devours  robber  flies,  which  catch  and  destroy 
honeybees.  Grasshoppers  and  crickets,  with  a 
few  bugs  and  some  cutworms,  and  a  few  other 
insects,  make  up  the  rest  of  the  animal  food. 
The  vegetable  food  consists  of  fruit  and  a  few 
weeds.  The  kingbird  deserves  full  protection. 
(See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  44.  pp.  11-19.) 

SCREECH  0\VL     {Otus  asio) 

Length,  about  8  inches.  Our  smallest  owl 
with  ear  tufts.  There  are  tv/o  distinct  phases 
of  plumage,  one  grayish  and  the  other  bright 
rufous. 

Range:  resident  throughout  the  United 
States,  southern  Canada,  and  northern  Mexico. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  IHtle  screech 
owl  inhabits  orchards,  groves,  and  thickets, 
and  hunts  for  its  prey  in  such  places  as  well  as 
along  hedge  rows  and  in  the  open.  During 
warm  spells  in  winter  it  forages  quite  extensively 
and  stores  up  in  some  hollow  tree  quantities  of 
food  for  use  during  inclement  weather.  Such 
larders  often  contain  enough  mice  or  other  prey 
to  last  it  over  a  week  or  more.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  burrowing  owl  it  is  probably  the  most 
insectivorous  of  the  noctural  birds  of  prey. 
It  feeds  on  small  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
batrachians,  fish,  spiders,  crawfish,  scorpions, 
and  earthworms.  Grasshoppers,  crickets, 
ground-dwelling  beetles,  and  eater-pillars  are 
its  favorites  among  insects,  as  are  field  mice 
among  mammals  and  sparrows  among  birds. 
Out  of  324  stomachs  examined,  169  were 
found  to  contain  insects;  142,  small  mam- 
mals, 56,  birds;  and  15,  crawfish.  The  screech 
owl  should  be  encouraged  to  stay  near  barns  and 


outhouses,  as  it  will  keep  in  check  house  mice 
and  wood  mice,  which  frequent  such  places. 
(See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  3,  pp.  163-173.) 

BARN  OWL     {Aluco  pratincola) 

Length,  about  17  inches.  Facial  disk  not 
circular  as  in  our  other  owls;  plumage  above, 
pale  yellow;  beneath,  varying  from  silky  white 
to  pale  bright  tawny. 

Range:  resident  in  Mexico,  in  the  southern 
United  States,  and  north  to  New  York,  Ohio, 
Nebraska,  and  California. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  barn  owl, 
often  called  monkey-faced  owl,  is  one  of  the 
most  beneficial  of  the  birds  of  prey,  since  it 
feeds  almost  exclusively  on  small  mammals  that 
injure  farm  produce,  nursery,  and  orchard  stock. 
It  hunts  principally  in  the  open  and  conse- 
quently secures  such  mammals  as  pocket 
gophers,  field  mice,  common  rats,  house  mice, 
harvest  mice,  kangaroo  rats,  and  cotton  rats. 
It  occasionally  captures  a  few  birds  and  insects. 
At  least  a  half  bushel  of  the  remains  of  pocket 
gophers  have  been  found  in  the  nesting  cavity 
of  a  pair  of  these  birds.  Remembering  that  a 
gopher  has  been  known  in  a  short  time  to 
girdle  seven  apricot  trees  worth  $100  it  is  hard 
to  overestimate  the  value  of  the  service  of  a 
pair  of  barn  owls.  One  thousand  two  hundred 
and  forty-seven  pellets  of  the  barn  owl  collected 
from  the  Smithsonian  towers  contained  3,100 
skulls,  of  which  3,004,  or  97  per  cent,  were  of 
mammals;  92  or  3  per  cent,  of  birds;  and  4 
were  of  frogs.  The  bulk  consisted  of  1,987 
field  mice,  656  house  mice,  and  210  common 
rats.  The  birds  eaten  were  mainly  sparrows 
and  blackbirds.  This  valuable  owl  should  be 
rigidly  protected  throughout  its  entire  range. 
(See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  3,  pp.  132-139.) 

RUFFED  GROUSE     {Bonasa  umhellus) 

Length,  17  inches.  The  broad  black  band 
near  tip  of  tail  distinguishes  this  from  other 
grouse. 

Range:  resident  in  the  northern  two-thirds 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the  forested  parts  of 
Canada. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  ruffed 
grouse,  the  famed  drummer  and  finest  game  bird 
of  the  northern  woods,  is  usually  wild  and  wary 
and  under  reasonable  protection  well  withstands 
the  attacks  of  hunters.  Moreover,  when  re- 
duced in  numbers,  it  responds  to  protection  in 
a  gratifying  manner  and  has  proved  to  be  well 
adapted  to  propagation  under  artificial  condi- 
tions. Wild  fruits,  mast,  and  browse  make  up 
the  bulk  of  the  vegetable  food  of  this  species. 
It  is  very  fond  of  hazelnuts,  beechnuts,  chest- 
nuts and  acorns,  and  it  eats  practically  all  kinds 
of  wild  berries  and  other  fruits.  Nearly  60 
kinds  of  fruits  have  been  identified  from  the 
stomach  contents  examined.  Various  weed 
seeds  also  are  consumed.  Slightly  more  than 
10  per  cent  of  the  food  consists  of  insects,  about 
half  being  beetles.  The  most  important  pests 
devoured  are  the  potato  beetle,  clover-root 
weevil,  the  pale-striped  flea  beetle,  grapevine 


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133 


leaf-beetle.  May  beetles,  grasshoppers,  cotton 
worms,  army  worms,  cutworms,  the  red-humped 
apple  worm,  and  sawfly  larvae.  While  the 
economic  record  of  the  ruffed  grouse  is  fairly 
commendable,  it  does  not  call  for  more  stringent 
protection  than  is  necessary  to  maintain  the 
species  in  reasonable  numbers.  (See  Biol. 
Survey  Bui.  24,  pp.  25-38.) 

BOBWHITE     {Colinus  virginianus) 

Length,  10  inches.  Known  everywhere  by 
the  clear  whistle  that  suggests  its  name. 

Range:  resident  in  the  United  States  east 
of  the  plains;  introduced  in  many  places  in  the 
West. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  the  bobwhite  is 
loved  by  every  dweller  in  the  country  and 
is  better  known  to  more  hunters  in  the 
United  States  than  any  other  game  bird.  It  is 
no  less  appreciated  on  the  table  than  in  the 
field,  and  in  many  states  has  unquestionably 
been  hunted  too  closely.  Fortunately  it  seems 
to  be  practicable  to  propagate  the  bird  in 
captivity,  and  much  is  to  be  hoped  for  in  this 
direction.  Half  the  food  of  this  quail  consists  of 
weed  seeds,  almost  a  fourth  of  grain,  and  about 
a  tenth  of  wild  fruits.  Although  thus  eating 
grain,  the  bird  gets  most  of  it  from  stubble. 
Fifteen  per  cent  of  the  bobwhite's  food  is  com- 
posed of  insects,  including  several  of  the  most 
serious  pests  of  agriculture.  It  feeds  freely 
upon  Colorado  potato  beetles  and  chinch  bugs; 
it  devours  also  cucumber  beetles,  wireworms, 
billbugs,  clover-leaf  weevils,  cotton-boll  weevils, 
army  worms,  bollworms,  cutworms,  and  Rocky 
Mountain  locusts.  Take  it  all  in  all,  bobwhite 
is  very  useful  to  the  farmer,  and  while  it  may  not 
be  necessary  to  remove  it  from  the  list  of  game 


birds  every  farmer  should  see  that  his  own  farm 
is  not  depleted  by  eager  sportsmen.  (See  Biol, 
Survey  Bui.  21,  pp.  9-46.) 

DOWNY  WOODPECKER   {Dryobates  pubes- 
scens) 

Length,  6  inches.  Our  smallest  woodpecker; 
spotted  with  black  and  white.  Dark  bars  on 
the  outer  tail  feathers  distinguish  it  from  the 
similarly  colored  but  larger  hairy  woodpecker. 

Range:  Resident  in  the  United  States  and 
the  forested  parts  of  Canada  and  Alaska. 

Habits  and  economic  status:  This  wood- 
pecker is  commonly  distributed,  living  in  wood- 
land tracts,  orchards  and  gardens.  The  bird 
has  several  characteristic  notes,  and,  like  the 
hairy  woodpecker,  is  fond  of  beating  on  a  dry 
resonant  tree  branch  a  tattoo  which  to  apprecia- 
tive ears  has  the  quality  of  woodland  music. 
In  a  hole  excavated  in  a  dead  branch  the  downy 
woodpecker  lays  four  to  six  eggs.  This  and  the 
hairy  woodpecker  are  among  our  most  valuable 
allies,  their  food  consisting  of  some  o"  the  worst 
foes  of  orchard  and  woodland,  which  the  wood- 
peckers are  especially  equipped  to  dig  out  of 
dead  and  living  wood.  In  the  examination  of 
723  stomachs  of  this  bird,  animal  food,  mostly 
insects,  was  found  to  constitute  76  per  cent  of 
the  diet  and  vegetable  matter  24  per  cent.  The 
animal  food  consists  largely  of  beetles  that  bore 
into  timber  or  burrow  under  the  bark.  Cater- 
pillars amount  to  16  per  cent  of  the  food  and 
include  many  especially  harmful  species.  Grass- 
hopper eggs  are  freely  eaten.  The  vegetable 
food  of  the  downy  woodpecker  consists  of  small 
fruit  and  seeds,  mostly  of  wild  species.  It  dis- 
tributes seeds  of  poison  ivy,  or  poison  oak, 
which  is  about  the  only  fault  of  this  very  useful 
bird.     (See  Biol.  Survey  Bui.  37,  pp.  17-22.) 


.<i 


ISJt 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


WHAT    HAPPENS    IN     A    HIVE    OF    BEES 


IF  YOU  have  ever  seen  a  swarm  of 
bees  issue  from  a  hive,  fill  the 
summer  morning  with  a  cloud  of 
flashing  wings  and  glad  riot  of  music, 
and  then  come  to  rest  at  last,  all  the 
thousands  of  reckless  truants  gathered 
in  one  dense,  silent  mass,  gently  sway- 
ing from  the  branch  of  a  tree,  you  have 
seen  one  of  the  most  mysterious  sights  in 
all  the  round  of  Nature. 

The  wonder  of  it  lies  not  so  much  in 
the  spectacle  itself,  although  that  is 
startling,  but  in  the  fact  that  the 
honey-bees,  of  all  creatures  on  earth, 
should  behave  in  this  surprising  way. 
If  the  honey-bees  were  in  the  habit 
of  congregating  in  this  way  on  fine 
summer  mornings,  returning  to  their 
hive  after  a  few  hours'  enjoyment  of 
the  air  and  sunshine,  it  would  be  inter- 
esting, yet  little  more;  but  that  is 
not  what  happens.  That  is  not  the 
habit  of  the  bees.  This  great  swarm 
of  theirs  ic  the  first  they  have  known, 
and  of  the  thousands  that  have  issued 
so  jubilantly  from  the  hive,  which  has 
been  home  to  them  from  their  first 
moment  of  life,  not  one  will  ever  re- 
turn. The  swarm,  from  how  onward, 
will  become  a  separate  colony  of  bees; 
and  even  if  the  new  home  should  be 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  old  home,  and 
hard  times  should  come  upon  it,  every 
bee  in  the  new  home  will  starve,  and 
die  at  her  post,  rather  than  go  back  to 
the  place  where  prosperity  and  plenty 
await  her  after  only  an  instant's  flight. 

Moreover,  we  are  faced  with  this 
mysterious  thing.  Today,  before  the 
swarm  has  issued,  the  twenty  or  thirty 
thousand  worker  bees,  destined  to  go 
forth  in  a  few  hours,  would  instantly 
defend  the  mother  hive  against  an 
assailant  with  their  last  energy  and  the 
last  drop  of  venom  in  their  stings.  But 
tomorrow  when  the  new  colony  has 
come  into  existence,  not  a  single  one 


of  those  bees  would  stir  a  wing  to  save 
the  old  home  that  was  all-in-all  to 
them  but  yesterday,  no  matter  what 
danger  might  threaten  it.  As  far  as 
they  are  concerned,  the  old  home  has 
now  utterly  ceased  to  exist. 


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^ji 

Swarm  of  Bees  Hanging  From  a  Beam 

We  see  the  hive  at  one  moment 
going  about  its  business  in  a  quiet  and 
orderly  fashion,  and  the  next  suddenly 
throwing  a  dark  and  living  stream 
upon  the  air.  We  see  the  winged 
multitude  flinging  itself  broadcast 
overhead  in  what  appears  to  be  a  mad 
confusion.  But  then  we  see  a  com- 
mon purpose  gradually  reveal  itself 
amid  this  chaos.  The  madly  pirouet- 
ting, vociferating  crew,  after  sailing 
about  bodily  hither  and  thither  against 
the  blue  sky,  at  length  seems  to  be 
concentrating  at  one  spot.  At  the  tip 
of  a  branch  a  little  knot  of  bees  has 
formed  itself,  no  bigger  than  a  single 
leaf;  but  even  as  we  gaze  this  black 
spot  doubles  its  volume.  A  moment 
more,  and  it  has  doubled  again,  and  it 
grows  and  grows,  as  we  watch,  at 
amazing  speed.  We  note  now  that, 
from  all  quarters,  the  flying  bees  are 
streaming  towards  this  common  center. 
In  an  incredibly  brief  interval,  the  air 
is  empty  of  winged  life.  Every  bee 
has  attached  herself  to  the  cluster,  and 
the  branch  is  bowed  down  with  the 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


135 


The  upper  and  lower  wings  of  the  honey  bee 

mm 

f^           llHll'       '"  1    i"?!?!-'!-!  'Illl 

\                      '                                  "-^; 

^^ 

^^ 

m 

""f 

IP 

W 

1  he  hiM.k.s  thut  liuld  the  upper  and  lower  wings  oi  a  bee  togetuer  wuen  in  flight 


The  empty  pollen  pocket  of  the  bee,  In  the  joint  ol  ita  leg    The  pollen  pocket  ol  the  bee  laden  after  a  visit  to  the  garden 


THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  HONEY-BEE  IN  THE  TINY  CELL 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BEE   FROM   THE   EGG   LAID  IN  THE  CELLS 


THE  EGGS  LAID  BY  THE  QUEEN  IN  THE  CELLS.  SHOWN  IN  VARIOUS  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT 


THE  WISE  LITTLE  CREATURES  THAT  EMERGE   FROM  THE  EGGS   SEEN     ABOVE — THE     QUEEN   BEE 
IS  IN  THE  MIDDLE,  WITH  A  DRONE  ON  HER  LEFT  AND  A  WORKER  ON  THE  RIGHT. 

136 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        137 

weight  of  it,   almost  to  the  ground,  in  the  late  spring.     The  store-houses 

There  it  hangs,  a  dark  brown,  glisten-  are  full   to   overflowing;    the  hive   is 

ing,  cigar-shaped  mass,  idly  swaying  crowded  to  the  very  door  with  a  great 

to  and  fro  in  the  sun.  population  of  bees ;  thousands  more  are 

And  now  let  us  see  what  manner  of  being  born  every  day.  And  then  this 
creature  it  is  that  has  done  this  thing,  strange  thing  happens.  The  creatures 
For  364  days  out  of  365  in  the  year  a  who  have  been  at  such  infinite  pains 
hive  of  bees  presents  an  almost  perfect  to  bring  about  all  this  fullness  and  pros- 
example  of  law  and  order,  prudence,  perity,  whose  industry  and  ingenuity 
and  untiring  industry.  Every  member  have  resulted  in  such  an  amazing 
of  the  colony — and  in  the  height  of  structure,  such  an  abounding  accumu- 
summer  a  colony  may  consist  of  fifty  lation  of  wealth,  appear  suddenly  to 
or  sixty  thousand  individuals — has  its  go  back  on  all  their  long-cherished 
allotted  work  to  do,  and  does  it  in  a  principles.  They  throw  work  to  the 
very  fever  of  conscientiousness,  resting  winds,  rush  madly  to  sport  and  play, 
neither  day  nor  night.  The  queen,  abandon  forever  all  their  possessions, 
the  one  mother  bee  in  the  hive,  passes  and  utterly  beggar  themselves — all,  as 
incessantly  over  the  combs,  deposit-  far  as  we  can  see,  for  the  wild  frolic  of 
ing  eggs  in  the  little  cells  to  the  num-  an  hour.  And  tomorrow  we  shall  see 
ber  of  several  thousands  in  a  single  them  sober  and  industrious  again,  as 
day.  The  worker  bees  hurry  in  and  forgetful,  apparently,  of  their  wild  es- 
out  of  the  hive,  bringing  in  nectar  capade  as  they  are  of  the  very  existence 
from  the  flowers,  to  be  brewed  into  of  the  home  of  plenty  they  have  for- 
thick,  golden  honey;  or  bringing  pollen  saken  for  all  time,  beginning  life  afresh, 
to  be  made  into  food  for  the  young  with  a  feverish  accession  of  energy,  as 
bees  when  they  are  only  tiny  white  they  attach  the  first  atom  of  wax 
grubs  with  staring  black  eyes,  lying  to  their  empty  house,  and  hurry  forth 
inert  in  the  cells;  or  bringing  water,  to  gather  the  first  drop  of  nectar,  or 
which  is  indispensable  at  nearly  all  first  pollen-loads,  to  feed  the  children 
stages  of  the  life  of  a  bee.     Even  the  yet  unborn. 

drones,  of  which  there  are  only  a  few  The  issue  of  a  swarm  is  inevitably 
hundreds  in  each  hive,  have  their  ap-  connected  with  another  thing  perhaps 
pointed  tasks.  The  drone  is  by  no  more  curious  still.  Though  a  great 
means  the  idle,  dissolute  fellow  he  is  army  of  bees  has  come  surging  out  of 
made  out  to  be  in  the  old-fashioned  the  hive,  many  have  remained  behind. 
Nature  books.  He  does  not  work  If  we  look  into  the  hive  immediately 
simply  because  he  has  not  been  pro-  after  the  departure  of  the  swarm,  we 
vided  with  any  tools  of  labor — his  find  there  still  a  great  gathering.  The 
tongue  is  too  short  to  reach  the  nectar  ordinary  daily  affairs  of  the  colony 
at  the  base  of  the  flower-cups,  he  has  seem  to  go  forward  in  the  old  way,  in 
no  baskets  on  his  thighs  in  which  to  spite  of  the  upheaval.  The  combs  are 
transport  the  pollen,  he  cannot  make  covered  with  bees  engaged  in  the  usual 
wax  or  build  up  honeycomb.  But  he,  occupations— storing  the  nectar,  feed- 
as  well  as  the  workers,  has  many  im-  ing  the  young  grubs,  sealing  over  the 
portant  offices  vital  to  the  well-being  ripe  honey-cells,  and  closing  up  the 
of  the  hive.  cells  in  which  the  larvse  have  reached 

So  the  hive  goes  on,  day  after  day,  full  growth.     And  the  question  at  once 

month  after  month,  until  the  colony  rises  in  the  mind — why  did  all  those 

reaches    its    high    tide   of   prosperity  bees   rush  from   the  home,   never   to 


THE  LIFE   OF   THE  BEE   IN  ITS    WONDERFUL  HIVE 


The  queen  bee  deposits  an  egg  In  each  cell  In  this  comb.    The  royal  cells  are  all  constructed  like  the  large  cell  at  the 
bottom. 

1S8 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


139 


return,  while  all  these  others  remained 
at  their  tasks,  apparently  uncon- 
cerned? By  what  means  were  some 
chosen  and  the  others  left? 

As  far  as  is  known,  no  man  has  ever 
been  able  to  answer  that  question.  It 
is  certain  that  the  bees  to  go  are 
chiefly  mature  workers  accustomed  to 
fly  abroad,  and  that  they  take  with 
them  the  queen  of  the  old  colony. 
It  is  certain,  also,  that  the  majority 
of  the  bees  that  remain  are  young 
w^orkers  and  drones,  whose  experience 
of  out  of  doors  has  been  mostly  con- 
fined to  short  airing  flights  in  the 
midday  sunshine  round  the  hive.  But 
that  is  all  we  know — that  the  stock 
does  divide  itself  in  this  way,  and  the 
phenomenon  must  depend  on  urgent, 
definite  laws — it  must  fulfil  some 
imperious  need,  for  it  is  obviously 
brought  about  by  forces  that  are 
instant  and  irresistible. 

Yet,  though  the  life  of  the  honeybee 
must  ever  rouse  a  spirit  of  wonder,  it 
is  not  always  fraught  with  mystery. 
There  are  aspects  of  it  that  the  wisest 
of  us  may  never  come  to  understand; 
but,  considered  as  an  intelligent  sys- 
tem, it  is  far  from  being  mysterious; 
intricate  and  ingenious  as  it  appears 
to  us,  its  meaning  and  purpose  stand 
out  clear  as  day. 

Bees  are  ordained  to  live  together 
in  a  dense  community,  all  the  energy 
and  ability  of  thousands  of  individuals 
united  for  the  common  good.  What, 
then,  do  we  see  in  a  hive?  The  first 
things  we  see  are  the  unique  systems 
of  rearing  the  young,  and  methods  of 
making  and  storing  honey,  which  is 
merely  food  laid  by  for  the  coming 
winter.  For  both  of  these  purposes  a 
continuous  high  temperature  is  needed, 
and  the  hive  is  therefore  a  closed 
receptacle,  so  that  heat  may  be  re- 
tained. But  this  warmth  must  first 
be  generated  and  then  economized, 
and    both    objects    are    attained    by 


restricting  the  enclosed  space  to  the 
least  dimensions  needed  for  the  combs 
and  the  living  heat-producers,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  hive.  Limitation 
of  space  being  thus  necessary,  it  follows 
that  the  cells,  which  are  needed  for 
rearing  the  brood  and  storing  the 
honey,  must  be  made  of  the  thinnest 
material,  and  of  such  a  shape  that 
they  will  pack  together  in  the  least 
possible  compass.  How  does  the  hon- 
eybee solve  this  problem? 

First,  the  bee  proceeds  to  create 
within  her  own  body  a  material  which 
is  lighter,  tougher,  and  more  elastic 
than  anything  that  can  be  obtained 
out  of  doors.  Then  she  ascertains 
the  size  of  cell  necessary  for  a  full-sized 
grub,  and  proceeds  to  fashion  a  series 
of  these  cells.  She  makes  each  cell 
six-sided  in  form,  because  cells  of  this 
shape  will  fit  together  side  by  side  over 
a  given  surface  without  leaving  any 
waste  spaces  between.  Moreover,  a 
larger  number  of  six-sided  cells  will 
go  into  a  given  area  than  cells  of  any 
other  shape. 

And  now  the  bee  perfects  her  scheme 
for  greatest  efficiency  and  economy  by 
two  crowning  strokes.  Every  cell 
must  be  closed  in  at  one  end.  Instead 
of  grouping  her  cells  in  horizontal 
planes  mouth  upwards,  as  do  the  wasps, 
she  places  them  on  their  sides,  building 
a  vertical  wall  with  them,  and  sets  two 
of  these  walls  back  to  back,  so  that  one 
partition  will  suffice  to  close  two  cells. 
But  a  still  more  ingenious  economy  in 
material  is  now  brought  about.  In- 
stead of  making  the  cell-bottom  flat, 
the  bee  constructs  it  of  three  diamond- 
shaped  plates  which  fit  together, 
forming  a  blunt  pyramid.  The  result 
is  that  the  cells,  while  retaining  their 
necessary  length  in  their  centers,  fit 
together  where  they  meet  back  to 
back,  like  the  teeth  of  a  rat-trap,  over- 
lapping each  other,  and  thus  saving 
considerable  in  both  space  and  ma- 


IW 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


terial.  The  comb  of  the  honeybee  ex- 
ists today,  in  this  age  of  mechanical 
wonders,  as  one  of  the  most  ingenious 
mechanical  contrivances  in  the  world. 

But  perhaps  the  most  wonderful 
thing  about  a  beehive  consists  not  in 
any  custom  or  achievement  of  its 
inhabitants,  but  in  the  bodily  structure 
of  the  worker  bee  herself.  The  fact 
that  she  accomplishes  so  many  great 
works  and  overcomes  so  many  diffi- 
culties seems  less  of  a  miracle  when  we 
watch  her  under  the  microscope,  see 
how  wonderfully  she  is  made,  and  with 
what  a  sheaf  of  ingenious  implements 
she  is  provided.  She  is  first  of  all  to 
be  a  honeymaker,  and  is  therefore 
equipped  with  a  tongue  which  can  be 
used  either  as  a  sort  of  sponge  to  take 
up  minute  quantities  of  nectar,  or  as  a 
tube  which  can  be  thrust  into  the  finest 
apertures,  and  by  which  the  most  care- 
fully hidden  stores  can  be  sucked  up. 
For  the  conveyance  of  these  sweets  to 
the  hives,  she  has  within  her  body  an 
elastic  reservoir  whose  contents  can 
be  discharged  through  the  mouth  at 
will. 

On  the  worker  bee  devolves  the 
duty  of  supplying  the  pollen,  an  indis- 
pensable ingredient  of  the  food  given 
to  the  young  larvae,  to  the  stay-at- 
home  queen,  to  the  drones,  and  some- 
times to  the  workers  themselves.  For 
the  purpose  of  collecting  this  pollen, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  body  of  the 
bee  is  covered  with  curiously  branched 
hairs,  like  herring-bones,  to  which  the 
grains  of  pollen  adhere  as  the  bee 
climbs  into  the  flower.  From  these 
hairs  the  pollen  is  removed  every 
moment  or  two  by  a  process  of  groom- 
ing, which  the  bee  carries  out  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  beautifully  constructed 
curry-combs  carried  on  the  hind  legs. 
From  these  combs  the  pollen  grains 
are  again  removed  and  kneaded  to- 
gether, after  which  the  mass  is  packed 
into  baskets  formed  by  the  stiff  bristles 


on  the  thigh.  The  pollen  thus  ac- 
cumulated often  makes  a  lump  of 
immense  size  compared  with  that  of 
its  bearer,  and  the  bees  may  be  seen 
fairly  staggering  into  the  hive  under 
the  weight  of  their  golden  loads. 

The  method  of  constructing  the 
cells  is  even  more  remarkable  than  the 
method  of  provisioning  them.  These 
have  to  be  made  of  excessive  thinness 
in  order  that  as  little  space  as  possible 
may  be  taken  up,  but  they  must  be 
capable  of  bearing  immense  strains, 
and  of  resisting  the  high  temperature 
of  the  hive.  There  is  no  natural  sub- 
stance affording  all  the  qualities  needed 
by  the  bee  for  her  building  work,  so  she 
must  create  it  for  herself.  This  she 
does  by  means  of  her  wax-pockets — 
six  tiny  crucibles  lying  under  the  hard 
plates  of  the  lower  part  of  her  body. 
In  these  pockets  are  generated  tiny 
oval  scales  looking  like  flakes  of  clear 
glass,  and  this  is  the  raw  material  of 
the  comb.  The  bee  has  two  pairs  of 
pincers,  one  on  each  of  her  hind  legs, 
and  with  these  she  draws  out  the 
brittle  scales  from  her  wax-pockets, 
and  proceeds  to  chew  them  up, 
mingling  with  the  substance  a  strong 
acid  secreted  by  certain  glands  in  the 
jaws.  Then,  and  only  then,  does  the 
material  we  know  as  beeswax  come 
into  existence,  and  the  worker  imme- 
diately sets  about  the  task  of  molding 
it  into  comb. 

But  all  this  marvelous  work  of 
comb-building,  with  its  exquisite  regu- 
larity of  form  and  accuracy  of  dimen- 
sion, is  carried  on  in  what  seems  to  us 
total  darkness.  How  is  it  possible  for 
the  bees  to  construct  it  so  perfectly, 
working  in  crowded  comjDanies  to- 
gether, the  whole  comb  growing  out- 
ward and  downward  in  all  directions 
at  one  and  the  same  time.f*  Here, 
again,  we  are  faced  with  a  question 
which  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  failed 
to    answer.     A    partial    explanation 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


Ul 


may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  bee 
is  provided  with  eyes  which  actually 
make  light  of  what  we  regard  as  com- 
plete darkness,  but  this  will  not  solve 
the  difficulty.  Vision  alone,  however 
perfect,  could  never  guide  the  bee  in 
all  the  tasks  she  performs  within  the 
hive.  Perhaps  she  has  not  only  our 
own  five  senses,  but  other  senses  of 
which  we  can  form  little  conception. 
An  examination  of  her  antennae — the 
curious  flail-like  organs  protruding 
from  the  middle  of  her  forehead, 
which  she  incessantly  uses  in  all  her 
affairs — discloses  evidence  of  this.  On 
these  antennae  we  find  no  less  than 
six  distinct  kinds  of  implements,  all 
obviously  organs  of  sense,  and  all  per- 


haps conveying  different  impressions. 
We  cannot  be  far  wrong,  therefore,  in 
imagining  that  the  bee  has  faculties, 
inconceivable  in  ourselves,  which  are 
necessary  in  her  own  special  place  in 
the  scheme  of  life. 

It  would  be  easy  to  go  on  thus 
multiplying  instances  of  the  bee's 
amazing  equipment  for  the  work  she 
does  in  the  world.  Many  books  have 
been  filled  with  stories  of  this  little 
friend  of  ours,  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting creatures  in  the  universe.  But 
we  must  study  the  bee,  not  in  books 
only,  but  in  the  hive  itself,  for  though 
it  is  good  to  read  of  what  other  eyes 
have  seen,  it  is  better  to  see  for  our- 
selves. 


HOW  INSECTS  GUARD  THEIR  YOUNG 


THE  noblest  thing  in  all  the 
world  is  your  mother's  love 
for  you,  and  this  beautiful 
thing,  without  which  the  world  could 
not  have  been,  runs  through  creation. 
The  great  love  which  moves  a  mother 
to  live  or  die,  if  need  be,  for  her  chil- 
dren, has  its  root  deep  in  the  universe, 
and  from  this  seed  springs  the  hap- 
piness of  our  race  and  the  future 
of  all  life. 

It  is  really  true,  as  Charles  Dickens 
said,  that  it  is  love  that  makes  the 
world  go  round.  Throughout  the  an- 
imal world,  as  in  the  human  race,  runs 
this  golden  thread  of  love.  Even  the 
fierce  spider,  which  gobbles  up  her 
husband,  is  a  loving  mother  to  her 
children;  the  savage  crocodile  val- 
iantly defends  the  eggs  she  has  laid; 
the  cold-blooded  serpent,  which  will 
kill  every  other  living  thing,  coils  her 
form  around  the  eggs  from  which  her 
children  will  emerge.  The  mother 
bear  is  never  so  much  to  be  feared  as 
when  her  cubs  need  defending;  the 
mother  elephant  is  never  so  skilful 
and  clever  as  when  her  baby  gambols 
clumsily  at  her  side. 


Yet  crocodile  and  bear  and  elephant, 
admirable  as  they  are  in  motherhood, 
are  not  more  admirable  than  the 
humble  earwig,  and  not  so  laborious  in 
their  nursery  duties  as  the  bee  and  the 
ant  and  the  wasp.  Such  insects,  in- 
deed, rank  next  to  mankind  as  wise 
and  loving  parents.  All  that  they  do 
in  planning  and  organizing  their  lives 
is  prompted  by  the  love  of  their  little 
ones.  The  homes  they  make,  marvels 
of  accurate  design  and  finish,  are  not 
for  themselves,  but  for  their  helpless 
young. 

We  remember  that  many  kinds  of 
insects  never  see  their  children,  and  we 
ask  ourselves,  can  it  be  love  for  their 
unknown  little  ones  which  prompts 
these  insects  to  labor  in  constructing 
nurseries  and  laying  up  stores  of  food? 
Nobody  can  answer  that  with  cer- 
tainty. Man  is  wise,  but  he  does  not 
know  all  things.  The  senses  of  insects 
are  not  like  our  own,  and  we  do  not 
know  how  insects  feel  towards  one  an- 
other, whether  love  guides  them,  or 
what  we  call  instinct.  What  is  in- 
stinct? It  is  described  by  one  of  our 
highest  authorities  as  "reasoning  which 


OFFER    OF    LIFE    TO    THE    EARTH   AND    SUN 


Grasshopper  depositing  her  eggs  in  a  nest  under  the  ground 


bpider  mother  holding  up  her  egg  to  the  sun,  turning  it  round  and  round — A  wonderful  photograph  taken  by  a  French 

naturalist. 


142 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        US 

is  organized,  systematized,  automatic."  leave  large  families  behind,  and  these 

Let  us  bear  that  in  mind,  for  it  helps  would  learn  to  deposit  their  eggs  in 

us  to  understand  the  puzzling  question  the  right  place.     Those  not  profiting 

which  rises  to  the  mind.  Can  insects  by   experience   would   see   their   little 

be  said  to  love  their  children  whom  ones   perish,   and   would   die  without 

they  never  see?     Some  children's  ques-  leaving  families  behind.     In  course  of 

tions  perplex  the  most  learned  phil-  time,    as   the   right   and   wise   choice 

osophers,  and  this  is  one  of  them.     Let  grew   into   a   habit,    the   care   of   the 

us  follow  it  up  for  a  moment.  parents  for  their  young  would  become 

We  know  that  millions  of  moths,  less  and  less  necessary, 
butterflies,  midges,  and  other  winged  Mothers  who  live  just  long  enough 
insects  die  soon  after  leaving  the  to  lay  their  eggs  and  die 
chrysalis  stage.  These  can  never  see  The  process  of  laying  eggs  would  be 
their  little  ones,  yet,  in  due  season,  in  hurried  on;  the  insect  would  live  its 
place  of  the  parents  the  children  ap-  life  at  a  greater  rate,  as  we  say;  and, 
pear.  Many  insects  do  not  eat,  can-  a  great  amount  of  work  being  crowded 
not  eat.  Their  mouths  are  imperfect,  into  shorter  space,  the  little  body  of 
There  is  a  food  reserve  in  their  bodies  the  fragile  insect  would  wear  out 
on  leaving  the  chrysalis,  and  when  that  sooner.  So  the  lives  of  the  parents 
is  exhausted  they  die.  How  does  such  grew  shorter  and  shorter,  until  today 
a  mother,  which  does  not  eat,  under-  many  insect  mothers  have  nothing  to 
stand  the  kind  of  food  its  caterpillar  do  but  lay  their  eggs  and  die.  Let  us 
will  require?  How  can  the  midge,  take  one — the  clothes  moth.  She 
whose  life  as  a  perfect  insect  is  passed  never  eats,  because  she  cannot,  yet 
on  the  wing,  know  that  its  eggs  must  there  is  not  a  living  creature  in  the 
be  laid  in  water?  How  does  the  lordly  world  that  takes  greater  care  in  select- 
dragonfly  know  the  same  thing?  Is  ing  a  nursery  for  her  young.  She 
it  love  for  the  children  who  will  not  chooses  a  garment  of  wool  or  hair, 
be  born  until  they  themselves  are  dead  and  from  her  eggs  come  forth  the 
which  guides  them,  and  prompts  this  tiniest  of  caterpillars.  The  garment 
marvelous  selection  of  place  for  the  chosen  by  the  careful  little  mother  is 
eggs?  The  answer  to  this  has  taken  a  the  luxuriant  pasture  of  the  baby  cater- 
long  time  to  discover,  and  it  is  a  fasci-  pillar,  which  eats  the  fabric  upon 
nating  one.  which  it  is  hatched  with  as  great  a 

It  is  believed  that  long,  long  ago  the  delight  as  a  beautiful  deer  eats  the 

insects  which  now  die  as  soon  as  they  grass  of  the  park, 

have  laid  their  eggs  lived  much  longer.  bees    and   ants   industrious  little 

Those    of  today,    which  cannot  eat,  creatures 

had  ancestors  that  could  eat,  and  did  The  queen  bee  and  the  queen  ant 

eat,  and  may  have  lived  long,  and  in  are  at  the  pinnacle  of  insect  organiza- 

that  age  insects  would  learn  to  choose  tion,  but  there  are  equal  wonders  to 

the   right   food   for   their   little   ones,  be  found  among  bees  and  wasps  which 

They  would  see  the  eggs  hatch,  and  do  not  assemble  in  cities, 

the   little   ones   grow   up   and   thrive  Here  each  mother  has  to  make  a 

when  their  food  and  their  surroundings  little  dwelling  of  her  own,  and  it  is 

were  favorable.   Gradually  they  would  strange   to   trace   the   different   plans 

learn  by  experience  the  place  to  choose  followed.     Some    of    the    wasps — our 

and  the  kind  of  food  to  select.     Those  common     wasps,     for     example — are 

insects,  profiting  by  experience,  would  social  in  their  habits.     They  do  not 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


dwell  in  hives  in  the  midst  of  a  popula- 
tion which  goes  on  from  year  to  year, 
but  create  a  family  round  themselves 
during  the  summer,  and  for  a  few 
months  have  a  properly  organized 
city,  such  as  the  first  of  the  old-world 
beehives  must  have  been.  There 
comes  a  time  in  every  year  when  all 
the  worker  wasps  die;  only  the  queens 
live  through  the  winter.  In  the  spring 
the  queen  seeks  a  site  for  her  nest. 
It  may  be  a  hole  in  the  ground,  or  a 
hollow  tree,  it  may  even  be  a  position 
beneath  the  roof  of  a  house.  She 
chews  woody,  fibrous  substances  into  a 
paste,  which  hardens  into  a  sort  of 
paper,  and  of  this  her  cells  are  made. 
In  each  of  these  she  lays  an  egg,  from 
which  a  worker  wasp  appears  in  a  very 
short  time.  Each  worker  at  once  be- 
gins to  build  new  cells,  and  to  help  its 
mother  with  the  labor  of  the  home. 
The  nest  grows  bigger  and  bigger,  tier 
upon  tier.  In  each  cell  the  queen 
wasp  places  an  egg.  More  workers 
are  born,  and  when  all  is  ready  the 
new  queen  wasps  and  the  drones  are 
hatched.  These  fly  forth  and  do  not 
return.  The  labor  of  the  home  is 
completed.  The  workers  have  done 
their  task.  They  have  seen  the  queens 
and  the  princes  depart,  and  they  are 
ready  for  death. 

Many  kinds  of  homes  are  made  by 
wasps  and  bees  whose  organization 
runs  upon  these  lines.  Some  of  the 
wasps  hang  splendid  nests  from  the 
boughs  of  bushes  and  trees.  The 
queen  begins  the  work;  the  workers 
help  her  to  finish  it.  The  best  ex- 
ample of  this  kind  is  that  of  the  wood 
wasps,  of  which  there  are  many 
species.  One  kind  of  wood  wasp  has 
so  many  chi'dren  that  the  united 
labors  of  all  produce  a  nest  five  feet 
in  length.  What  an  enormous  struc- 
ture to  be  made  by  such  little  insects! 

Another  interesting  nest  is  that  of 
what    we    call    the    solitary    wasps. 


Here  the  mother  wasp  has  the  entire 
responsibility  of  providing  for  her 
family,  and  she  makes  the  nursery  in 
all  sorts  of  places.  It  may  be  a  little 
home  tunneled  in  sandstone,   or  in  a 


Eggs  of  the  common  bumble-bees  in  their  underground 

nests. 


The  mud  nest  of  a  solitary  wasp,  showing  the  comb  In 
which  it  lays  its  eggs. 


The  carpenter  bee's  house  of  many  stories  In  the  branch 
of  a  tree. 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


U5 


mud  wall,  or  in  timber;  sometimes 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  an  inviting 
keyhole.  The  house  may  be  fashioned 
of  paper  made  from  wood  or  fiber,  or 
of  mud,  or  even  of  little  pellets  of  sand 
cemented  together  by  a  fluid  from  the 
mouth  of  the  insect.  An  example  that 
we  may  all  study  is  the  common  wall 
wasp. 

She  makes  her  cradle  in  a  wall,  in 
which  she  constructs  a  tunnel,  and 
lines  it  with  paper,  forming  the  snug- 
gest little  dwelling  imaginable.  Here 
she  lays  her  egg.  The  mother  will  not 
be  there  when  the  larva  leaves  the  egg ; 
she  will  never  see  the  little  creature 
for  which  she  is  making  a  home,  so 
she  must  prepare  a  food  supply  to  last 
it  through  its  infant  life.  Bees  can 
make  honey,  wasps  cannot,  so  the 
wasp  must  provide  an  artificial  food 
supply.  This  is  done  in  an  extraor- 
dinary way.  The  mother  wasp 
attacks  another  insect;  it  may  be 
caterpillar,  spider,  or  moth.  Now, 
if  the  insect  were  simply  walled  up  in 
the  nest  until  such  time  as  the  wasp 
grub  hatched  and  could  eat,  the 
prisoner  would  die  and  become  poison- 
ous. To  prevent  that,  the  wasp  stings 
it  in  a  vital  place.  The  wound 
paralyzes  the  insect  so  that  it  cannot 
move,  and  cannot  feel  any  pain. 
Paralyzed  and  insensible,  the  insect 
will  retain  just  enough  life  to  last 
until  the  young  grub  emerges  from 
the  egg  of  the  mother  wasp,  and  its 
body  will  be  there  ready  to  form  a 
meal  for  the  little  creature  emerging 
into  life.  The  cells  stocked  by  a 
solitary  wasp  may  contain  a  number 
of  such  victims,  each  cell  possessing  a 
supply  of  food  sufficient  to  last  the 
infant  until  it  passes  from  the  larva 
stage  into  a  complete  wasp.  The 
idea  of  leaving  a  wounded  insect  alive 
and  lingering  in  this  way  seems 
horrible  to  us,  but  there  is  consolation 
in  the  thought  that  the   victim  in- 


Thirteen  hundred  moths'  eggs  on  a  leaf,  and  eggs  largely 
magnified. 


The  lace-wing  moth's  egg  on  the  end  of  a  stalk,  and 
wasps'  eggs  in  a  paper  nursery. 


The  cradle  ot  a  bee  made  from  a  leaf,  and  a  grub  feeding 
In  it. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


stantly  loses  all  sense  of  pain,  and 
knows  nothing  of  what  happens. 
Insects  using  sting  and  poison  are 
unerring  in  their  aim.  They  know 
exactly  where  to  strike,  and,  as  it  is  a 
great  nerve-center  which  is  maimed, 
there  can  be  no  feeling  or  sensation 
afterwards. 

The  solitary  bees  have  prettier 
ways  than  this.  They  leave  honey  for 
their  babies,  and  leave  it  in  models 
of  skilful  contrivance.  When  we  see 
holes  in  the  rose  leaves — clean-cut, 
semicircular  holes — we  know  that  one 
of  the  leaf-cutting  bees  has  been  there 
for  a  cradle.  Very  cleverly  she  makes 
a  tunnel  in  the  ground  or  in  the  trunk 
of  a  tree  or  in  a  wooden  post;  then  she 
flies  to  a  rose  leaf  or  a  willow  leaf, 
hangs  by  her  legs  to  the  edge  of  it, 
and  with  her  strong  jaws  cuts  away  a 
piece  the  exact  size  required.  Just 
before  she  makes  the  last  cut  she  sets 
her  wings  in  motion,  and  hovers 
steadily  in  the  air.  Then  she  flies  to 
her  tunnel,  shapes  the  piece  of  leaf 
like  a  thimble,  and  lines  the  bottom 
of  the  boring  with  it.  When  it  is 
made  quite  secure,  she  flies  off  to  the 
flower-bed,  collects  nectar  and  pollen, 
kneads  a  little  loaf  of  "bee-bread," 
deposits  it  in  the  leaf,  and  lays  an  egg 
in  the  larder-cradle.  Next  she  cuts 
another  piece  of  leaf,  and  with  this 
roofs  over  the  cell.  Afterwards  she 
cuts  still  more  leaf,  and  with  that 
makes  a  second  cell,  which  she  rests  on 
top  of  the  first,  the  bottom,  shaped 
like  the  nose  of  a  thimble,  fitting  per- 
fectly into  the  hollowed  roof  of  the 
one  below.  With  great  care  she  seals 
up  all  the  places  from  which  honey 
might  leak,  and  to  this  cell  also  she 
gives  an  egg  and  a  supply  of  pollen  and 
honey.  From  six  to  ten  cells,  one  on 
top  of  another,  may  be  made  in  this 
way,  until  the  shaft  is  filled  with 
cradles.  The  top  of  the  tunnel  is  then 
covered  over,  and  the  bee  flies  away. 


knowing,  we  may  imagine,  that  she 
has  done  her  duty  to  the  children  that 
are  to  come  to  life  in  this  marvelous 
home  she  has  made. 

The  wonderful  house  that  the  car- 
penter BEE  BUILDS 

Carpenter  bees  make  still  more 
elaborate  homes.  They  bore  deep 
tunnels  inside  the  trunks  of  trees.  At 
the  lowest  depth  a  little  chamber  is 
prepared.  Here  the  bee  deposits  an 
egg  with  a  proper  food  supply.  Then 
the  chamber  is  tightly  roofed  over  with 
water-tight  paper  made  by  the  bee 
from  the  wood  of  the  tree.  Above 
this  first  chamber  a  second  is  made,  and 
this  in  turn  is  stored  with  an  egg  and 
food  before  the  roof  is  put  on.  The 
roof  of  the  cell  below  serves  for  the 
floor  of  the  chamber  above.  It  is  a 
beautiful  piece  of  work,  about  as  thick 
as  a  cent,  and  made  in  rings,  the  outer 
ring  being  cemented  to  the  wood  of 
the  tree,  the  inner  rings  gradually 
filling  up  the  opening  until  the  cell  is 
completely  closed.  The  chewed  wood 
of  which  the  ceiling  is  formed  is 
rendered  watertight  by  a  fluid  from 
the  bee's  mouth,  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  the  honey  stored  in  one  cell 
leaking  into  the  one  below  and  leaving 
the  little  tenant  to  starve.  A  car- 
penter bee  may  make  two  or  three 
such  tunnels,  each  with  from  seven  to 
eight  cells,  so  that  we  may  imagine 
with  what  great  determination  she 
works  for  the  good  of  the  children  she 
will  never  see. 

The  leaf-cutting  bee  is  not  the  only 
insect  to  employ  leaves  for  the  cradles 
of  her  young  ones.  Leaves  form  the 
homes  of  many  of  Nature's  tiny 
children;  some  tiny  moths  pass  their 
caterpillar  stage  actually  within  leaves, 
tunneling  the  leaves  and  eating  the 
parts  they  excavate,  just  as  the  great 
fat  larvae  of  the  wood-boring  beetles 
eat  the  pulped  fragments  of  wood  that 
they  gnaw  in  the  interior  of  tree  trunks. 


INSECT    MOTHERS    AND    THEIR    FAMILIES 


Mother  spider  carrjing  her  yoving 


A  mother  mole  cricket  with  her  family 


An  earwig  guarding  her  little  ones 
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U8  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

The  clever  cradle  made  by  a  mother  Some  spiders  are  not  by  any  means 

BEETLE  FROM  A  LEAF  Content   merely   to  guard   and   guide 

But  we  come  now  to  work  upon  their  babies,  but  actually  carry  them 

leaves  performed  not  by  the  larvae  but  about  on  their  backs,  so  that  they  may 

by    their    parents  —  the    leaf-rolling  not  stray  into  danger.     Two  kinds  of 

beetles.     These  beetles   make  cuts  in  spiders  have  really  wonderful  homes 

the  leaves  as  the  bees  do,  but  for  a  for  their  young.     One  is  the  raft  spider, 

different  purpose.     Beginning  at  the  which  binds  leaves  and  fragments  of 

top  of  a  leaf,  they  bite  a  semicircular  weed  together,  and  floats  it  on  water, 

track  down  to  the  tough  center  of  the  The  eggs  are  carried  on  this  raft,  and 

leaf,  which  we  call  the  midrib.     Half  the  young  ones,  which  in  due  course 

the    leaf,    detached    from    its    upper  will   pop    out   to   dine    on   land   just 

support,  hangs  limp,  and  this  half  is  as  freely  as  they  will  run   upon  the 

rolled    down    by    the    beetle    into    a  water,  are  actually  born  upon  the  deep ! 

series  of  coils,  which  hang  parallel  to  The  water-spider  constructs   a  lovely 

the    midrib.     Then    the    second    half  little  palace  of  silk  actually  beneath  the 

of  the  leaf  is  cut  in  the  same  way  as  water,  fills  it  with  air  carried  down 

the  first,  but  is  wound  round  the  first  from    above,    and    in    this    beautiful 

half.     The  beetle  lays  her  eggs  inside  dwelling   lays   her  eggs.     The  young 

the  folded  leaf,  fastens  down  the  outer  ones  are  born  in  a  silken  diving-bell, 

fold  upon  the  first,  seals  up  the  bottom  and  the  faithful  mother  rests  in  her 

of  the  home,  then  gives  a  sharp  bite  to  fairy  dwelling  with  them,  going  aloft 

the  upper  part  of  the  midrib,  to  make  only  at  intervals  to  catch  food  and 

the  entire  leaf  limp  and  easy  for  the  bring  down  fresh  supplies  of  air. 

baby   beetles   to   eat   when   they   are  We  must  all  wish  that  the  gnat  or 

hatched.     Then    her    work    is    done,  mosquito,  were  not  so  clever  and  careful 

The   little  ones   will   never  see   their  in  her  treatment  of  her  eggs,  for  while 

mother,  but  when  they  issue  from  the  the  many  gnats  merely  bite  and  cause 

eggs  they  will  find  the  wilted  leaf  that  one  to  smart,   some  of  their  relatives 

she  has  prepared,  and  will  find  it  not  carry  poison  germs  which  kill  thousands 

only  a  cradle  but  food.     They  will  eat  of  people.     The  female  gnat  constructs 

and  be  merry,  change  from  grubs  into  a  raft.     She  may  make  use  of  a  piece 

the  pupa  form,  drop  to  the  ground,  of  floating  leaf,  or  may  make  a  raft  of 

and  bury  themselves  in  the  soil  for  the   eggs   themselves.     The   eggs   are 

the  winter.     Then,  in  the  spring,  they  cigar-shaped,  and  are  glued  together 

will  come  forth   as   beetles,   and  the  to  the  number  of  200  or  more,  and 

females  will  attack  other  leaves.  stand   upright   in    a   solid   mass,    the 

But  it  is  not  all  insects,  of  course,  heavier  part  pointing  downwards,  the 

who  never  see  their  children;   many  light  part  at  the  top.     Owing  to  the 

insect  parents  have  the  joy  of  seeing  tiny  spaces  between  the  tops  of  the 

their  babies  about  them.     Some  spi-  eggs,  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  sink 

ders  carry  their  eggs  about  with  them  in  or  get  wet.     If  they  are  driven  under 

a  little  yellowish-white  bundle  of  silk,  water   a   bubble   of   air   accompanies 

and  great  is  their  distress  if  they  mis-  them,  forming  a  shield  for  the  tops  of 

place  it  or  if  it  is  taken  from  them,  the  eggs,  and  so  keeping  them  dry. 

When  the  little  ones  are  hatched,  the  In    places    where    these    mosquitoes 

mother  keeps  careful  watch  over  them,  cause  disease,  men  fight  them  by  cover- 

and  shows  the  most  desperate  courage  ing  the  water  with  petroleum,  which, 

in  defending  them.  being  lighter  than  water,  floats  on  the 


MARVELOUS    HOMES    OF    THE    WATER    SPIDER 


The  water  spider  comes  up  for  an  air  bubble 


And  carries  the  bubble  to  its  nest 


The  sil^  air  chamber,  In  which  the  water  spider  lives  down  In  the  water — Spiders  bringing  down  Iresh  air  Irom  the  surface 

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150  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

surface,  so  that  w  hen  the  larvae  come  the  home  and  providing  for  the  future 

to  the  surface  they  cannot  breathe,  of   the   httle   ones.     Even   when   the 

and  die  at  once.  mother  insect  does  not  trouble  herself 

As    the    great    water-beetle    is    the  with  the  task  of  rearing  her  family, 

monarch  of  the  pond,  we  might  expect  she  has  to  undertake  the  great  respon- 

her  to  lay  her  eggs  in  the  water,  as  the  sibility  of  finding  the  exact  position 

mosquito  does;  but  she  does  not.    The  in  which  her  children  will  thrive.     The 

mother    beetle    weaves    a    wonderful  mother   scarab,   or   sacred   beetle,    of 

cocoon,    which    contains    upwards    of  which   our   common    dor   beetle   is   a 

a    hundred    eggs.     This    cocoon    she  cousin,  displays  the  greatest  skill  in 

places  on  the  soil  by  her  pond,  care-  her  effort  to  preserve  her  little  one 

fully  hidden,  in  such  a  position  that  from  death  before  it  is  old  enough  to 

the  larvae,   when  hatched,   can   enter  withstand  the  rough  usage  of  the  world, 

the  water  as  soon  as  they  desire.     The  These     beetles,     which     the    ancient 

larvae  pass  their  infancy  in  the  water,  Egyptians    regarded    as    sacred,    eat 

but   to   make   their   change   into   the  unpleasant  forms  of  food,  but  prepare 

chrysalis  stage  they  have  to  go  ashore  a  special  compound  for  their  young, 

again,    and    bury    themselves    in   the  The  food  is  formed  into  a  little  sphere, 

damp    earth,    finally    to    emerge    as  and  the  small  egg  is  placed  in  the  food, 

winged  beetles,  equally  at  home  in  the  but  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  mass, 

air  and  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  at  that  end  a  tiny  opening  is  left, 

handsome  and  interesting  to  all  but  not  actually  bare,  but  guarded  by  a 

the  living  things  which  they  seek  as  fine  lattice-work,  just  enough  to  admit 

prey.     The    common    smaller    water-  air. 

beetle  makes  for  herself  a  cocoon  of  silk  The    rest    of    the    food    supply    is 

for   her   eggs   actually   in   the   water,  coated  with  a  hard  substance  resem- 

The   eggs   do   not   need    their   gauzy  bling  clay,  and  the  whole  is  placed  in  a 

little  yacht  to  enable  them  to  hatch,  tunnel  under  the  ground.     Unless  the 

for  they  come  to  life  in  the  water;  but  site  were  carefully  chosen,  the  food- 

the    silken    covering    protects    them  mass  encased  in  clay,  the  heat  from 

from  carnivorous  creatures,  and  that  the  burning  sun  would  dry  up  the  ball 

is  why  the  painstaking  mother  labors  of  food,  so  that  the  grub  would  starve 

to  prepare  this  dainty  cradle  for  them,  in   its   cradle,     A   French   naturalist. 

So  far  we    have    found    that    only  M.  Fabre,  has  given  us  the  remarkable 

female  insects  look  to  the  care  and  story  of  this  insect  in  full,  and  for  the 

upbringing   of   the   children,    but   we  first  time  has  shown  that  the  ancient 

must  note  that  in  certain  sea-spiders  Egyptians  were  right  in  believing  that 

known  as  the  Pycnogonida  the  males  the  little  scarab  comes  from  this  ball 

are  the  nurses.     In  these  the  males  of  matter. 

carry  the  eggs  attached  to  their  legs  It  is  wonderful  to  find  this  sense  of 

vmtil   the  baby   spiders   are   hatched,  duty  in  such  lowly  creatures,  and  we 

Generally      speaking,     however,     the  find    it    running   widely    through    the 

mother  is  solely  responsible  for  making  insect  world. 


BEAUTIFUL  FORMS  OF  SHELL  SAND  OF  THE  SEASHORE 


When  we  examine  the  sand  on  the  seashore  it  reveals  millions  of  little  shells  so  tiny  that  we  need  the  help  of  a  micro- 
scope to  see  them.  These  little  creations  are  marvels  of  form  and  color.  The  illustrations  above  show  a  number  of  forms 
as  revealed  under  a  powerful  microscope,  while  the  color  shadings  are  so  wonderful  that  man  with  all  his  skill  cannot  imitate 
them.  Many  of  the  cliffs  and  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  the  English  Channel  were  formed  from  these  sand  shells  which  througb 
millions  of  years  were  gradually  changed  into  solid  forms. 


151 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  OCEAN  DEPTHS 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  DEEP 

We  know  that  all  life  began  in  the  sea,  and  we  have  read  how  life  came  out  of  the 
sea  to  cover  the  land.  But  life  did  not  leave  the  sea  forever.  There  is  still  more  life 
in  the  depths  of  the  ocean  than  on  the  land.  The  sea  teems  with  unnumbered  forms 
of  life — life  as  simple  as  that  which  first  swam  in  the  waters,  and  life  as  wonderful 
as  that  of  the  whales  and  dolphins  and  seals.  There  are  fishes  that  sail  through  the 
air  high  enough  above  the  water  that  we  call  them  flying  fishes.  There  are  fishes 
that  are  found  out  of  the  water.  There  are  fishes  that  build  nests  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sea;  and  in  cliffs  and  mountains  we  find  myriads  of  skeletons  of  tiny  creatures 
that  once  lived  and  breathed  on  the  ocean-bed.  In  these  pages  we  read  of  the  many 
wondrous  forms  of  life  in  the  seas  today. 


NOT  the  wisest  men  on  earth 
know  the  full  story  of  the 
sea  and  its  wonders.  How 
can  they?  They  have  to  seek  knowl- 
edge from  the  things  that  their  dredges 
bring  up.  That  is  as  if  we  set  to  work 
to  examine  some  great,  deep  lake  by 
bringing  up  things  from  its  depths  in 
a  teaspoon.  However,  patient  work 
is  constantly  bringing  new  learning 
to  us.  We  know  that  there  is  no  place 
in  the  ocean  where  life  is  not  possible. 
The  waters  of  the  equatorial  regions 
and  the  seas  of  the  temperate  zone 
abound  with  life,  but  so  also  do  the 
silent  waters  of  the  frozen  Arctic 
Circle. 

Nature  will  have  no  blank  spaces. 
There  is  a  place  for  everything,  and 
we  find  everything  in  its  place.  We 
find,  swimming  upon  the  surface, 
creatures  which  cannot  descend.  In 
the  middle  depths  we  find  fish  which 
cannot  come  to  the  surface  lest, 
without  the  proper  pressure  of  water 
upon  their  bodies,  they  should  burst. 
Those  same  creatures  cannot  descend 
beyond  a  certain  level;  and  below 
these  there  are  creatures  which  never 
see  the  light,  fulfilling  in  the  unlit 
depths  of  ocean  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  created. 

For  the  present  it  will  be  interesting 
for  us  to  glance  at  some  of  the  lowest 
forms  of  life  in  the  sea.  We  shall  find 
it  as  wonderful  as  anything  in  the 
whole  of  Nature's  fascinating  story. 


Let  us  consider  the  marvels  of  that 
class  of  tiny  organisms  called  infusoria. 
They  exist  in  fresh  water  and  in  the 
water  of  the  sea.  In  a  single  cupful 
of  pond-water,  such  as  certain  in- 
fusorians  love,  there  may  be  more  of 
them  than  there  are  people  in  the  whole 
world.  The  rate  at  which  they  grow 
is  astounding.  One  infusorian  breaks 
up  into  two;  two  become  four;  four 
become  eight;  eight  become  sixteen, 
and  so  on,  almost  as  we  watch. 

Given  the  proper  temperature  and 
nourishment,  a  single  infusorian  may 
become  in  four  days  the  ancestor  of 
a  million  like  itself,  in  six  days  of  a 
billion,  in  seven  and  a  half  days  of 
a  hundred  billions.  From  that  tiny 
speck  we  have  in  seven  and  a  half 
days  this  countless  host,  weighing 
over  200  lbs.  Of  course,  the  numbers 
do  not  work  out  like  this,  for  there 
are  merciful  checks,  or  the  whole 
earth  and  its  seas  would  not  hold  the 
creatures  that  are  born. 

Floating  upon  the  surface  of  the 
sea,  and  stacked  high  over  its  bed, 
are  countless  billions  of  these  and 
similar  tiny  creatures,  dead  and  living. 
Of  what  are  the  beautiful  chalk  cliffs 
of  England  composed?  Of  nothing 
but  the  shells  of  the  tiniest  little 
creatures,  which  we  call  foraminifera. 
They  were  all  living  creatures  millions 
of  years  ago. 

They  were  born  and  had  their  day, 
and    they    died,    piles    upon   piles    of 


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SECRET   OF   THE   PAST   LOCKED   IN  A    PEBBLE 


The  wearing  down  of  the  cliffs  in  which  lie  buried  creatures  of  ages  past — the  top  layer  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years 
old,  the  bottom  layer  a  hundred  million  years  old. 


At  high  ti;le  the  waves  beat  against  the  cliffs  and  roll  the  great  boulders  about,  wearing  down  the  corners  and  edges 
i:ito  the  shape  ol  pebbles. 


THE  PEBBLES  AS  THEY  LIE  ON  THE  BEACH  TODAY.  OFTEN  CONTAINING  A  FOSSIL  WHICH  MAY  BE 
DISCOVERED  AND  PRESERVED  BY  CAREFUL  SPLITTING  OF  THE  STONE 

The  fossils  in  these  pictures  are,  of  course,  shown  very  large.    Those  marked  a  and  b  help  us  to  follow  the  history  ol 
one  pebble. 


15S 


m 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


them,  and  their  hmy  shells  turned  to 
chalk.  And  other  white  cliffs,  which 
will  some  day  rise  above  the  waters, 
are  still  being  built  up  beneath  the 
sea  today.  The  tiny  specks  of  life 
in  their  little  shells  are  still  being  born, 
and  are  still  dying  down  in  the  sea, 
and  they  are  forming  ooze  which  will 
some  day  be  solid  chalk.  It  would 
take  about  ten  millions  of  them  to 
make  a  pound  of  chalk,  but  there  have 
been  enough  to  make  millions  of  tons 
of  chalk. 

The  little  animals  that  built  up 
the  stones  of  paris  and  berlin 

Some  of  the  greatest  mountain 
ranges,  the  Alps  and  the  Balkans,  con- 
sist largely  of  the  shells  of  little 
creatures  like  these,  called  nummulites. 
Among  the  greatest  wonders  in  the 
world  are  the  Sphinx  and  the  Pyramids 
in  Egypt,  built  of  dead  nummulites. 
They  grew  in  seas  which  ran  where  dry 
land  now  is.  They  formed  the  Arabian 
chain  of  mountains;  from  these  moun- 
tains men  cut  the  great  blocks  of  which 
the  Sphinx  and  Pyramids  are  com- 
posed. Paris  is  built  of  stone  from  a 
similar  source,  and  Berlin  stands  upon 
foundations  made  up  entirely  of  the 
skeletons  of  tiny  animals. 

In  view  of  all  this,  we  shall  not  be 
surprised  to  learn  of  the  wonders  of  the 
coral  builders.  These  are  very  tiny 
sea  animals,  which  appear  in  their 
glory  only  in  the  warm  waters  of 
sunny  seas.  We  all  know  what  coral 
is,  the  beautiful  pink  polished  sub- 
stance of  which  necklaces,  bracelets, 
and  scores  of  pretty  ornaments  are 
made.  We  know  what  coral  is,  but 
the  way  in  which  it  is  made  was  for 
two  thousand  years  a  mystery. 
The    little    coral  builders    that 

WORK  DOWN   in  THE  SEA 

Long,  long  ago,  men  had  been  in  the 
habit  of  bringing  it  up  from  the  sea  in 
nets  and  by  other  means.  The  com- 
mon fishermen  could  not  be  expected 


to  know  a  great  deal  about  its  com- 
position, but  the  wise  men  thought 
they  knew  more,  and  they  all  agreed 
that  coral  was  simply  a  sort  of  rocky 
flower  grown  in  the  sea.  But  how 
could  a  flower  be  hard.f*  That  was 
quite  simple,  they  said.  The  fisher- 
men told  them  that  coral,  when  in  the 
sea,  was  quite  soft  like  any  other 
flower,  but  that  as  soon  as  it  reached 
the  air  it  became  as  hard  as  rock.  And 
for  ages  that  was  believed.  But  a 
man  who  wished  to  know  more  sent 
down  a  diver,  who  found,  of  course, 
that  coral  beneath  the  waves  is  as  hard 
as  coral  above  the  waves.  The  good 
man  could  not  believe  the  word  of  his 
diver,  but  went  down  in  the  water  to 
see  for  himself. 

We  know  now  that  the  coral  builder 
is  one  of  the  tiny,  tireless  workers  of 
the  deep.  The  coral  animals  are  as 
numerous  as  the  stars  of  heaven. 
When  born,  they  are  quite  soft,  jelly- 
like little  things.  But  they  have  the 
power  to  extract  carbonate  of  lime 
from  the  sea-water,  and  to  build  with 
it  the  most  wonderful  structures.  As 
a  bee  makes  its  wax,  or  as  the  oyster 
builds  its  shell,  so  the  coral  polyps 
make  lime  from  their  food,  building 
up  slowly  and  laboriously  a  most 
beautiful  and  curious  framework. 

The    WONDERFUL    animal    wall    THAT 
RISES  FROM  THE  BOTTOM  OF  THE  OCEAN 

Some  form  structures,  looking  like 
flowers.  The  colors  are  not  always 
the  same.  There  are  browns  and 
blues  and  greens,  as  well  as  the  more 
common  pink.  This  coral  is  not  made 
as  a  bird  makes  its  nest,  not  as  the 
mud  plaster  in  which  the  rhinoceros 
loves  to  bury  himself  in  a  swamp;  the 
coral  is  part  of  the  coral  animal  itself. 
It  issues  from  the  soft  interior  of  the 
little  animal's  body,  and  is  its  stony 
covering  or  skeleton. 

Countless  hosts  of  coral  polyps 
working  together  join  their  skeletons 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


155 


or  coverings  to  each  other.  They 
build  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
until  they  reach  the  top  of  the  waves. 
They  make  great  reefs  or  barriers  in 
the  sea  where,  before,  the  waves  flowed 
unchecked.  The  coral  polyps  build 
islands.  They  put  a  great  ring  of 
coral  around  a  tract  of  water,  and  make 
a  lake  within  the  boundaries  of  their 
work.  In  places  where  they  are  most 
numerous  they  quite  change  the  char- 
acter of  the  sea.  The  reefs  and  islands 
are  the  actual  coverings  of  millions  of 
coral  polyps'  bodies.  They  become 
solid  rock  forming  dry  land  for  thou- 
sands of  miles  in  the  sea.  It  is  a 
most  wonderful  work  that  these  little 
animals  do  by  their  own  efforts. 

We  kriv>Ar  how  very  difficult  men, 
with  all  til^ir  skill  and  fine  tools,  find 
it  to  build  a  lighthouse  in  the  sea,  but 
here  these  tiny  animals,  working  in 
the  depths  of  the  furiously  tossing 
waves,  build  structures  which  have 
no  likeness  in  the  world.  One  of  their 
works  consists  of  a  barrier  reef  along 
the  shores  of  New  Caledonia,  400 
miles  long,  and  another,  along  the 
northeast  coast  of  Australia,  1000 
miles  in  extent.  As  a  great  man 
points  out,  this  means  a  work  by  these 
tiny  things  beside  which  the  wall  of 
China  and  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt  are 
like  children's  toys.  The  work  has 
been  going  on  for  many  ages,  it  is 
going  on  today.  Of  course,  the  result 
is  often  very  serious  to  ships,  which  run 
on  the  coral  reefs  and  get  wrecked. 
But  that  should  not  happen,  for  we 
have  charts  of  the  seas  to  guard  our 
sailors  against  wreck  in  such  a  manner. 
Living  and  building  and  dying  in  the 

BLUE  SEA 

If  they  do  damage  in  this  manner, 
the  coral  builders  are  friends  to  man- 
kind in  another  way — they  provide 
homes  for  men  where  only  the  angry 
sea  once  appeared.  Sea  animals  of 
various  sorts  bore  into  the  coral  and 


loosen  it,  so  that  the  waves  break  it 
up.  The  great  waves  pick  up  huge 
blocks  of  the  loosened  coral,  and 
throw  it  high  up  on  the  reefs,  grinding 
much  of  it  to  powder.  Shells  and 
sand  collect  and  are  ground  up  to- 
gether by  the  action  of  the  waves. 
The  powdered  mass  collects  in  the 
crevices  of  the  reef,  and  presently 
seeds  blown  from  afar,  or  carried  by 
the  sea,  or  brought  by  birds,  take  root 
in  the  soil  that  has  been  slowly  form- 
ing. Entire  trunks  of  trees,  that  have 
been  torn  up  and  carried  down  the 
rivers  and  out  to  sea,  find  a  lodging 
here.  With  these  trees  come  small 
animals,  like  lizards  and  insects. 
Trees  grow,  sea-birds  settle;  tired 
land-birds,  blown  out  to  sea,  take  rest; 
and  at  last  man  comes,  to  find  trees 
and  fruit  and  birds  and  other  forms 
of  life.  Here  is  a  home  ready  made 
for  him.  He  cuts  down  the  trees  and 
builds  himself  a  house,  and  there  we 
have  a  new  part  of  the  world  prepared 
for  human  habitation.  But  the  cre- 
ators of  it  were  the  myriads  of  coral 
animals,  living  and  building  and  dying 
in  the  blue  sea. 
The  living  flowers   that  grow  on 

THE  living  walls  OF  THE  SEA 

Growing  on  the  coral  reefs  and 
adding  to  their  beauty,  we  find  a 
great  many  sea-anemones.  At  first 
sight  we  should  say  that  these  are 
vegetable  growths.  Their  very  name 
suggests  it. 

The  wood-anemone  we  all  know,  the 
pretty  flower  of  the  country  wood- 
lands. Surely,  then,  the  sea-anemone 
must  be  the  wood-anemone's  cousin, 
growing  in  the  sea?  But  the  anemone 
of  the  sea  is  an  animal,  which  can  kill 
and  eat  other  forms  of  animal  life  and 
by  some  process  of  instinct  too  mys- 
terious for  us  to  understand,  can  enter 
into  partnership  with  other  animals, 
just  as  birds  enter  into  partnership 
with    crocodiles,    buffaloes,    and    rhi- 


STARFISH       AND       SEA       ANEMONES 


The  brittle  starash 


A  big  sea  slug 


Delicate  feather  starfish 


A  group  of  sea  anemones  which  resemble  flowers,  but  which  hunt  and  kill 


These  pictures  of  sea  anemones  have  their  mouths  open  and  tentacles  spread  out  ready  to  grasp  the  tiny  animals  of  the 
sea  upon  which  they  feed.  They  hunger,  and  hunt  and  kill  living  prey  to  satisfy  their  hunger.  They  take  into  part- 
nership other  animals  like  the  hermit  crab,  which  helps  them  to  obtain  food.  The  Portuguese  man-of-war  is  a  beautiful 
thing,  but  stings  painfully. 

156 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        157 

noceroses.  This  animal-plant  or  plant-  the  top  of  the  anemone  with  a  finger, 
animal,  as  we  think  it,  grows  in  the  It  closes  at  once  upon  our  finger,  and 
most  elaborate  and  gorgeous  forms,  we  feel  that  each  little  spike  of  the 
A  fairy  wand  could  not  create  more  fringe  is  roughened  at  the  end,  and 
charming  pictures  than  the  sea-anem-  gives  a  distinct  pull  at  our  finger,  like 
ones  present.  Some  of  them  appear  the  rasped  claw  of  some  insect.  They 
to  have  a  sense  of  sight,  for  what  look  are  not  strong  enough  to  take  in  our 
like  eyes  appear.  They  depend,  how-  finger,  but  they  have  received  the 
ever,  on  touch  for  their  food.  They  necessary  impulse  which  sets  them  at 
have  long,  sensitive  feelers,  which  look  work.  The  anemone  shuts  up,  be- 
like petals  or  fringe.  These,  when  lieving — if  we  may  use  that  word — 
anything  fit  for  a  sea-anemone  to  eat  that  it  has  caught  a  meal,  and  for 
touches  them,  close  like  a  flash  upon  some  minutes  you  will  find  that  it  will 
it,  and  draw  it  down  the  tube  leading  not  attempt  to  reopen, 
to  the  sea-anemone's  stomach.  It  is  a  humble,  lowly  form  of  life. 

Let  us  watch  them  in  a  sea  aqua-  yet  there  seems  so  much  purpose  and 
rium.  The  sea-anemone,  glistening  and  set  plan  about  the  way  of  the  sea- 
gay,  grows  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  anemone  that  we  are  amazed  and 
or  on  the  side  of  the  glass,  like  some  bewildered  at  such  apparent  method 
extraordinary  fringed  mushroom  with  and  skill.  But  the  wonder  only  be- 
its  head  the  wrong  way  up.  There  is  gins  here.  The  partnerships  of  the 
nothing  to  suggest  that  this  is  a  sea-anemone  are  the  most  wonderful 
hungry  little  animal.  But  wait!  feature  of  its  life.  Let  us  consider 
How  THE  ANEMONE  LIVES  WITH  THE  ^OT  a  moment  Messrs.  Crab,  Anemone 
CRAB,  AND  THE  CRAB  WITH  SPONGES  &    Co.     The    hermit    crab,    while    a 

A  lively  shrimp  darts  through  the  vicious,  quarrelsome  little  rascal,  has 
water.  The  tentacles  of  the  anemone  no  shell  to  cover  his  tail.  That  is  the 
are  instantly  all  of  a  quiver,  ready  to  spot  which  his  enemies  attack.  His 
catch  the  little  shrimp.  The  shrimp's  one  hope  in  life  is,  therefore,  to  win 
instinct  or  experience  tells  him  what  and  retain  a  secure  covering  for  his 
that  means,  and  he  darts  away  if  he  unprotected  tail.  He  and  the  sea- 
can.  But  he  cannot  always  do  so.  anemone  seem  to  come  to  an  agree- 
The  sea-anemone  must  live  and  have  ment.  The  sea-anemone  affords  him 
his  shrimps,  or  other  form  of  food,  and  just  the  cover  that  he  needs  for  his  tail, 
the  tentacles  close  rapidly  in,  causing  and  he  in  exchange  carries  the  sca- 
the sea-anemone  to  shut  up  like  a  anemone  about  on  his  back, 
flower  which  is  going  to  sleep  for  the  The  tentacles  of  the  sea-anemone 
night.  And  if  the  effort  made  is  are  towards  the  nippers  of  the  crab, 
quick  enough,  the  poor  shrimp  is  and  when  he  goes  in  pursuit  of  his 
encircled  by  those  terrible  tentacles,  prey,  the  anemone  helps  to  kill  it. 
and  drawn  in  to  make  a  good  meal  for  The  anemone  has  stings  which  para- 
the  deceitful  fisher.  lyze  or  kill  a  little  living  animal.     The 

There   are   countless    sea-anemones  crab   has,   therefore,   a  powerful   ally 

growing   upon    our    seashores.     Some  to  help  him  in  killing  his  food,  and 

look  like  rosettes,  others  like  bobbins  as   he  eats,   the  anemone   shares   his 

with    a    frayed,     fringed    top.     The  meal.     It  is  a  profitable  partnership, 

fringe  of  tentacles  lies  widely  expanded.  The  crab  gets  his  tail  protected;  he 

and    we    should    never    dream    how  is   largely   hidden   from   his   enemies; 

quickly  they  can  move.     Let  us  touch  he  is  hidden,  too,  from  the  things  that 


LIVING    LIGHT    OF    THE    OCEAN    DEPTHS 


No  man  has  been  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean  in  which  such  strange  creatures  as  these  live;  but  w«  Inow  that  the  be(l 
of  the  seas  swarm  with  phosphorescent  fishes  which  live  in  great  depths. 

158 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                        159 

he  desires  to  attack.     The  sea-anem-  by  a  growing  whelk.     Then  comes  a 

one  is  carried  about,  and  is  kept  in  young  sponge,   sent  forth  on  its  hfe 

constant  touch  with  an  ample  supply  journey  by  its  parent.     It  settles  upon 

of  food.     Thus  we  have  a  life  partner-  the  whelk  shell  in  which  the  crab  has 

ship  between  the  simple-looking  plant-  sheathed  his  tail.     There  the  sponge 

animal  and  a  desperate  warrior  who  grows  and  grows  until  it  quite  covers 

is  always  battling.  the  shell,  but  it  leaves  open  a  channel 

The  study  of  sea-anemones  is  a  most  by    which    the    crab    can    enter    and 

interesting    one,    and    one    which    all  depart.     Then  as  the  sponge  and  the 

who  reside  by  the  seashore  can  pursue,  crab    grow    bigger    they    take    into 

Think  of  them  not  as  plants,  but  as  partnership  a  little  assistant,  which  is 

animals,    of    which    the    larger    will  admitted    into    the    interior    of    the 

swallow   a  cent   piece,   or  perhaps   a  sponge,  simply  that  it  may  devour  any 

shell  the  size  of  a  saucer,  and  then  refuse  which  may  collect  in  the  home 

divide  into  two  living  animals  rather  of     the     crab.     Even     such     humble 

than  lose  the  booty  it  has  managed  to  things  as  crabs  and  sponges  have  to 

secure.  guard    against    unclean   homes;    thus 

The  sea-anemone  is  not  the  only  sea  they    are    more    careful    than    many 

animal  with  which  the  crab  goes  into  human  beings.     And  that  is  why  we 

partnership.     There  is  a  certain  sponge  find  the  interior  of  the  sponge  occupied 

in   which   he   makes   his   home.     We  by  a  shell,  a  wormlike  animal,  and  a 

know  that  sponges  are  not  vegetables,  crab. 

but    animals.     They   admit   the   sea-  Where  the  corals  abound,  fishes  of 

water    through    the    canals    in    their  the  most  brilliant  color  are  always  to 

bodies.     From  this  they  extract  tiny  be  found.     The  fishes  protect  them- 

forms  of  life  for  their  food,  and  at  the  selves  by  becoming  colored  like  their 

same  time  take  the  oxygen  which  the  surroundings,  just  as  the  animals  do. 

water    contains.     That    is    the    way  But  swimming  with  them  are  marvels 

fishes  breathe.     They  have  no  lungs,  of  colored  jelly,  as  they  seem.     They 

except  in  rare  cases.     They  have  gills,  are    the    jellyfish.     We    may    all    see 

over  and  through  which  the  sea-water  jellyfish  at  the  seaside  when  the  tide 

washes.     These  gills  take  the  oxygen  goes  out.     Better  still,  on  a  favorable 

from  the  water,  and  pass  it  into  the  day,   we  may  see  hundreds  of  them 

bloodvessels,  so  that  the  fishes  may  floating  on  the  sea  as  we  go  by  steamer, 

breathe  as  we  breathe.     The  method  Those  round  our  coasts  look  like  great 

is,  of  course,  very  different,  but  the  white  or  transparent  leaves,   with  a 

purpose    and    result    are    the    same,  little   dash   of  red   in   the   center,   as 

Well,   that  is  the  way  in  which  the  though   they   had   been   darned   with 

sponge,  no  matter  what  its  name  or  colored  wool.     We  do  not  have  the 

size,   breathes  and  feeds   and  grows,  jellyfish  of  brilliant  color.     They  be- 

In   some   of   the   channels   running  long  to  the  warm  seas  of  the  tropics, 

through  the  sponge  the  hermit  crab  But  the  nature  of  all  jellyfishes  is  much 

may  make  its  home.     Higher  up  in  the  same. 

the  same  channel  may  be  discovered  Those  of  the  tropics  give  off  a  bril- 

a   little   shell,    and    some   other   tiny  liant    silvery    light    at    night,    which 

animal.     In    this   collection   we   have  helps  to  make  the  sea  like  a  gleaming 

the    history    of    four    forms    of    life,  mirror  of  liquid  metal.     Others  are  not 

First  of  all  the  hermit  crab  pops  his  so  attractive.     If  we  catch  one  and  lay 

naked  taU.  into  the  empty  shell  left  it   on   a   piece  of   blotting-paper   for 


A  NEW  WAY  OF  EXPLORING  THE  OCEAN  BEU  AND  RECOVERING  LOST  TREASURE   FROM  WRECKS 

The  explorers  go  down  a  tube,  five  feet  wide,  to  a  kind  of  diving  bell,  fitted  with  a  powerful  searclilight. 


The  tiny  specks  of  life  in  the  sea,  lutown  as  diatoms.  One  diatom,  magnified  over  a  quarter  ot  a  mUUon  tlmeg. 

160 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


161 


examination,  we  have  to  be  very  quick 
with  the  examination,  for  the  jellyfish 
is  composed  largely  of  water,  and  it 
simply  dries  up  before  our  eyes.  They 
are  not  nice  things  to  handle;  they  can 
sting  very  badly,  as  all  sea-bathers 
know.  The  scientific  name  of  the 
jellyfishes  and  their  kin  is  taken  from 
the  Greek  word  which  means  nettle, 
and  sea-nettles  is  an  English  name  for 
the  jellyfishes  that  sting. 

By  far  the  most  alarming  of  the  sea- 
nettles  is  the  Portuguese  man-of-war, 
or  yhysalis.  This  looks  like  an  in- 
flated bladder,  six  inches  long.  Be- 
neath it  streams  a  number  of  organs, 
important  to  the  animal  in  gathering 
and  distributing  food.  The  tentacles 
which  we  most  wish  to  avoid  are  those 
which  carry  the  stings.  These  are 
intended  to  numb  the  prey  of  the 
physalis,  but  woe  to  the"  man  who 
comes  in  contact  with  them.  They 
flow  out  from  the  body  of  the  animal 
for  some  feet  into  the  water,  and  are 
heavily  charged  with  stings  and  a 
poisonous  fluid.  The  merest  touch 
from  them  will  raise  a  white  swelling 
on  the  hand,  and  for  long  afterwards 
the  hand  and  arm  experience  an 
aching  pain,  which  gradually  extends 
to  the  muscles  of  the  chest,  causing 
some  trouble  in  breathing. 

The  sea-anemones,  the  corals,  the 
jellyfish,  and  many  other  plant-like 
sea  animals,  all  belong  to  the  same 
family.  We  have  another  interesting 
family,  including  the  starfishes,  sea- 
urchins,  sand-stars,  brittle-stars,  feath- 
er-stars, and  so  forth. 

The  wonderful  starfish  that  walks 
along  the  bottom  of  the  sea 

^Ye  may  see  hundreds  of  star-fish 
at  the  seaside.  There  is  not  a  simpler, 
more  innocent-looking  thing  to  be 
found  by  the  sea  than  the  starfish,  par- 
ticularly that  commonest  of  all,  the 
five-fingered  jack,  or  crossfish.  Yet 
it  is  really  a  rather  wonderful  creature. 


Its  organs  are  in  the  center  of  its  body, 
and  the  fingers  branch  out  from  that 
center.  The  fingers  are  really  the 
legs,  for  there  are  tubular  feet  under- 
neath them  by  means  of  which  they 
walk  as  comfortably  along  the  sea- 
bottom  as  we  walk  along  the 
beach. 

The  starfish  has  a  terrible  appetite, 
and  oysters,  mussels,  scallops,  and 
other  shell-fish  are  its  food.  It  seizes 
its  prey  with  its  long  and  strong  arms 
or  fingers,  and,  no  matter  how  power- 
ful the  shell  may  be,  by  persistent 
pressure  the  starfish  manages  to  force 
it  open,  and  eat  the  fleshy  interior. 
Fisherman  hate  the  starfish,  and, 
when  they  catch  them,  tear  them  in 
two  and  fiing  them  into  the  sea.  That 
is  not  only  cruel  but  stupid.  Though 
you  tear  a  starfish  in  halves,  the 
animal  can  recover.  Each  of  the 
two  halves  heals  and  grows  new 
fingers,  and,  instead  of  a  dead  star- 
fish in  two  halves,  you  soon  have  two 
starfishes,  fully  equipped  and  very 
much  alive. 

The  SEA-CUCUMBER  THAT    THE  CHINESE 
PEOPLE  LIKE 

What  we  call  the  sea-cucumber  is, 
like  all  the  other  things  we  have 
been  considering,  an  animal.  Its  other 
names  are  the  sea-pudding,  the  sea- 
slug,  and  the  trepang.  It  has  the 
same  sort  of  feet  that  the  starfishes 
possess — suckers  which  protrude  from 
tubes,  and  can  get  along  over  places 
which  seem  quite  impossible  to  it. 

The  common  name  of  the  sea- 
cucumber  suggests  the  idea  which  its 
appearance  presented  to  those  who 
bestowed  the  title  upon  it.  The 
Chinese  consider  it  a  great  delicacy  for 
the  table.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
sea-cucumbers,  and  the  rarest  bring 
quite  big  prices.  It  does  not  sound 
nice  to  eat  sea-slug,  and  we  in  this 
country  are  content  to  leave  it  to  the 
Chinese. 


162 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


The  mystery  of  the  lowest  forms 
of  life  in  the  sea 

We  have  now  glanced  briefly  at 
some  of  the  lowest  forms  of  life  in  the 
sea.  It  is  quite  as  wonderful  as  life 
among  the  higher  animals.  We  do  not 
expect  much  of  animals  that  seem  to 


be  no  more  highly  gifted  with  life 
than  plants;  but,  as  we  have  now  seen, 
there  is  a  mystery  and  fascination  about 
these  lowly  creatures  sufficient  to 
make  even  the  wisest  men  marvel  at 
their  habits. 


SEA  HORSE  AND  PIPE  FISH 

One  peculiarity  of  the  sea  horse  is  that  the  apex  of  the  head  is  at  an  angle  with  the  rest  of  the  body.  Its  superficial 
resemblance  to  the  Icnight  of  the  chess  board  is  striking.  It  is  chiefly  found  in  eel-grass  or  other  vegetation  and  is  wont  to 
twist  its  very  prehensile  tail  around  some  stalk  and  there  remain  in  an  upright  position. 


TIGER      OF      THE      DEEP 


ON  ACCOUNT  of  its  size,  activ- 
ity and  strength,  the  Bengal 
Tiger  should  undoubtedly 
share  equal  honors  with  the  lion, 
which  has  been  awarded  the  kingship 
of  all  the  land  animals  for  a  long  time. 
When,  however,  we  come  to  consider 
the  headship  of  the  innumerable 
tribes  of  the  ocean,  we  are  under  no 
difficulty  whatever,  and  the  more 
we  learn  about  the  monarch,  the  less 
do  we  doubt  his  right  to  the  title. 


True  it  is  that  to  most  people  it  is 
sufficient  to  call  the  "sea-shouldering 
whale"  the  sovereign  of  the  seas,  after 
man,  and  the  idea  that  among  whales 
there  are  many  varieties  does  not 
disturb  the  placid  verdict. 

Only  naturalists  as  a  rule,  and  those 
who  have  dared  to  hunt  and  slay  this 
gigantic  sea-mammal  for  the  sake  of 
the  spoil  his  vast  carcass  yields, 
realize  how  far  in  every  detail  the 
sperm    whale    towers    above    every 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


163 


other  member  of  the  brute  creation. 
Only  in  the  one  factor  of  size  does  be 
yield  place  to  two  other  kinds  of 
whales,  the  gigantic  Bowhead  or 
Arctic  whale,  and  the  vast  Rorqual, 
known  to  whalemen  as  the  Sulphur 
Bottom.  Both  of  these  occasionally 
produce  specimens  half  as  large  again 
as  the  greatest  Sperm  whale  ever 
measured,  which  was  about  70  feet 
long,  50  feet  in  largest  girth,  and 
weighed  in  the  neighborhood  of  150 
tons,  or  as  heavy  as  twenty-five  large 
elephants. 

But  the  Arctic  whale  and  Rorqual 
have  their  only  preeminence  in  size; 
they  are  peaceful,  unaggressive,  stupid, 
and  slow,  while  they  have  no  weapon 
for  attack  or  defence  save  the  enor- 
mous tail-fin  or  flukes. 

The  Sperm  whale,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  all  the  highest  characteris- 
tics of  a  warrior.  He  is  brave  and 
well  armed,  for  his  chief  feature  is  his 
enormous  head  with  its  huge,  pendent 
lower  jaw,  a  shaft  of  bone,  often 
reaching  20  feet  in  length  and  bristling 
with  teeth  set  sparsely  on  either  side 
of  it,  and  averaging  six  inches  in 
length  above  the  gum.  They  are 
conical  and  about  six  inches  in  their 
largest  circumference,  and  fit  into 
sockets  in  the  upper  jaw,  there  being 
no  teeth  there  to  oppose  them. 

Unlike  any  other  whale  known,  the 
female  of  the  Sperm  whale  is  never 
more  than  half,  more  generally  one- 
third,  the  size  of  the  male.  In  most 
other  whales  the  females  are  the 
larger.  That  mysterious  substance 
known  as  ambergris,  even  now  valued 
at  $15  per  ounce,  is  produced  solely 
by  the  Sperm  whale.  Alone  among 
all  whales  this  wonder  carries  a  great 
reservoir  of  liquid  spermaceti  in  his 
head — pure,  bland,  snowy,  and  limpid 
until  exposed  to  the  air,  when  it 
concretes.  Science  has  dethroned  it 
from  its  high  place  among  lubricants. 


for  it  has  no  properties  not  shared  by 
pure  lard  or  vaseline.  But  think  of 
having  500  to  1000  gallons  of  that 
stuff  floating  around  in  a  head — not  as 
brains,  for  the  brains  of  the  Sperm 
whale  are  not  larger  than  those  of  a 
bull.  Practically  blind,  deaf,  and 
without  sense  of  smell,  this  lordly 
ocean  monarch  pursues  his  amazing 
way,  and  thrives  beyond  belief  until 
he  meets  man 

These  wonderful  creatures,  alone 
of  all  the  sea  people,  have  no  efficient 
foes  save  man  and  one  another. 
Among  themselves  Sperm  whales  fight 
tremendously  for  the  headship  of  a 
"school,"  and  the  vanquished  ones  are 
thenceforward  condemned  to  roam 
the  wastes  of  ocean  solitary  and 
morose.  These  "lone  whales"  are 
exceedingly  dangerous  to  attack,  if 
indeed  they  do  not  attack  first,  there- 
by playing  havoc  with  otherwise  well- 
laid  plans. 

But  the  knowledge  of  that  fierce 
fact  has  never  deterred  the  Yankee 
whale-fighters  from  attacking  them. 
Indeed  one  hardly  imagines  any 
characteristic  of  a  whale  that  would 
have  hindered  an  old-time  "whale- 
man" from  New  England  from  "saihng 
in"  when  prey  was  in  sight. 

A  FIGHTING  WHALE 

A  monster  fighting  whale  had  been 
twice  harpooned  and  had  gone  off  at 
top  speed  for  several  miles,  drawing 
two  boats  behind  him  in  his  foaming 
wake.  When  the  great  mammal  tired, 
at  last  with  exultant  shouts  the  boats' 
crews  gained  upon  their  prey  and  drew 
alongside  while  the  mate  hurled  a 
lance  its  whole  length  deep  into  the 
leviathan's  body. 

"Starn  all!  Starn  all!"  he  yefled  a 
moment  later. 

With  a  will  the  men  tugged  at  their 
oars,  and  the  boats  shot  clear  to  avoid 
a  great  peril  that  threatened.  From 
the    extreme    urgency    of   the    mate's 


164  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

tone  they  guessed  that  the  whale  was  orders  given,  they  wielded  their  oars, 

about  to  "breach."  while  the  boats  both  headed  for  the 

It  needs  a  strong  effort  of  the  im-  spot.  Suddenly  the  long  slender  lance 
agination  to  picture  that  dark,  solemn  flew  from  the  hands  of  the  foremost 
sea,  only  lighted  by  tiny  splashes  of  boat-leader,  and  as  if  in  instant  re- 
phosphorescent  light  where  wavelets  sponse,  both  boats  whirled  about  and 
broke  in  obedience  to  some  hidden  sped  away  through  the  darkness  at  a 
suasion,  or  by  an  occasional,  fleeting,  speed  of  some  ten  miles  an  hour.  It 
brilliant  band  of  light  that  marked  was  evident,  though,  that  the  enor- 
the  swift  passage  of  some  great  fish  mous  effort  made  by  the  whale  had  not 
through  the  highly  charged  water,  been  without  a  certain  exhausting 
And  then,  without  a  sound,  like  the  effect  upon  him,  for  the  speed  soon 
sudden  extrusion  of  some  gigantic  slackened, 
flame  cone  from  the  uncanny  depths,  A  narrow  escape 

there  rose  majestically  a  vast  luminous  Then,  without  a  moment's  warning, 

body  whose  brightness   poured  from  the    two    boats    suddenly    rushed    at 

it  in  floods  of  light,  revealing  the  black  each  other,   the  boat-leaders  in  each 

central  mass;    and,  as  it  soared  the  just  averting  a  frightful  calamity  by 

light  fell  from  it  in  glowing  waves  to  snatching  up   in  their  arms  the  two 

the  illuminated  whirlpool  from  whence  or  three  lances  which  were  pointing 

it  arose.     At  last  the  leviathan  fell,  diagonally    from    each    bow.     There 

and  at  the  impact  a  blazing  sea  rose  was  a  hubbub  of  voices,  a  rending  and 

in  many  a  sudden   fountain,  an  im-  crashing  of  oars,  and  the  boats  shot 

mense   boom   as   of   muffled   thunder  past  each  other  as  the  whale,  having 

broke  the  awed  stillness  of  the  night,  doubled  back  upon  his  previous  path, 

and  over  a  great  area  wave  upon  wave  reappeared  again  with  a  commotion 

of  light  rushed  any  whither  and  broke  like  heavy  waves  beating  upon  a  rock, 

upon  their  fellows,  until  stillness  and  Nearly  out  of  the  water,   with  jaws 

darkness  resumed  their  momentarily  wide  open,  he  came  straight  for  the 

interrupted  reign.  boat,  intent  on  biting  it  in  half. 

For  a  few  minutes  the  awe-stricken  But  the  whalers  bore  in  upon  him 

boats'  crews  sat  at  their  oars  unable  vigorously,  and  again  and  again  the 

to   think,   benumbed,   not   with   fear,  lances  flew  into  the  dense  blackness, 

but    bewilderment    at    this    terrible  fringed  with  green  light,  that  marked 

manifestation  of  energy.     After  that  the  position  of  the  whale, 

brief   space   the   sea-surface   gave   no  Meanwhile   the  harpooners   at   the 

sign  of  anything  unusual  beneath  it,  steer  oars  never  for  a  moment  relaxed 

no  sound  save  a  faint  moaning  as  of  their    vigilance,    swinging    the    boats 

gathering  wind  afar  off  broke  the  cosmic  this  way  and  that,  w^hile  ever  keeping 

silence  of  the  night.     Then  a  sound  them    "on"    the    whale    if    possible, 

like  a  gigantic  sigh  broke  upon  their  Soon    there    came    a    strangled    roar, 

ears,   and   they   saw,   within   a   short  and  hoarse  triumphant  shouts  arose 

distance,  a  greenish  break  in  the  dark  of  "Stern  all,  he's  in  his  flurry." 

surface  of  the  waters,  accompanied  by  The  exertions  indulged  in  previously 

a  slight  plashing  noise  as  when  a  lazy  had  so  weakened  the  monarch  that 

breaker  lolls  upon  a  reef  on  a  calm  day.  the  death  agony  was  feeble,  and  an 

But,  slight  as  it  was,  the  appearance  exultant  cheer  went  up  as  it  became 

roused  them  to  instant  energy,   and  manifest  that  the  great  sea  beast  was 

with  ready  obedience  to  the  hoarse  dead. 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


165 


A  sensitive  plant  before  and  after  having  been  breathed  upon 


SOME    INTELLIGENT   PLANTS 


WE  ARE  accustomed  to  associ- 
ate the  idea  of  intelligence 
with  such  animals  as  have  a 
somewhat  highly  developed  brain,  but 
it  is  an  extremely  difficult  matter  to 
lay  down  any  line  of  distinction  to  in- 
dicate where  intelligence  first  makes 
its  appearance.  Looking  at  the 
idea  of  intelligence  in  the  widest 
possible  manner,  and  understanding 
the  doing  of  something  for  a  particular 
end  in  view,  we  should  be  ready  to 
admit  that  many  of  the  processes  go- 
ing on  in  the  leaves  of  plants  can  only 
be  described  as  intelligent. 

It  was  in  that  sense  that  Darwin 
compared  the  tip  of  the  root  to  the 
brain  of  the  lower  animals.  He  said 
it  was  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say 
that  the  tip  of  the  root,  thus  endowed, 
"having  the  power  of  directing  the 
movements  of  the  adjoining  parts,  acts 
like  the  brain  of  one  of  the  lower  an- 
imals, the  brain  being  seated  within 
the  anterior  end  of  the  body,  receiving 
impressions  from  the  sense-organs,  and 
directing  the  several  movements." 

In  this  sense,  plants  have  well-de- 
fined intelligence,  which  manifests 
itself  in  a  thousand  ways,  particularly 
in  the  movements  which  their  various 
parts  display,  either  in  search  of  food 
or  for  some  other  vital  purpose.     We 


shall  study  in  detail  some  of  the  more 
striking  of  these  movements. 
Wisdom  displayed  by  root  tips 

We  may  first  notice  the  fact  that 
the  growth  of  a  plant  is  not  equal  in  all 
of  its  parts.  Some  portions  exhibit  a 
much  more  rapid  growth  than  others, 
or  grow  during  a  longer  period  of  time; 
and  one  of  the  results  of  this  inequality 
of  growth  in  different  tissues  is  to  pro- 
duce movements  in  the  various  parts 
which  are  sometimes  described  as 
spontaneous.  In  both  stems  and  roots 
the  growth  is  usually  more  rapid  on 
one  side  than  on  the  other,  and  this 
results  in  the  production  of  curvatures, 
or  bends,  unless  the  variation  is  such 
that  the  extra  growth  produced  on 
one  side  is  at  once  compensated  for 
by  a  corresponding  growth  on  the 
other.  That  is  what  actually  happens 
at  the  tip  of  the  root;  and  it  has  the 
result  of  making  the  root  describe  a 
spiral  course  through  the  soil,  instead 
of  a  directly  downward  one.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  most  stems  in  their 
upward  growth  also  have  a  similar 
spiral  movement,  commonly  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  hands  of  a 
watch.  The  movement  itself  is  termed 
"nutation." 

If  these  spontaneous  movements,  of 
roots  especially,  be  carefully  studied, 


166  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

the  observer  cannot  help   being   im-  in  response  to  their  environment,  form 

pressed  with  the  idea  that  they  have  a  an  obvious  and  interesting  study.   One 

very  definite  object  in  view.     Hence  can  see  in  any  such  cutting  of  ground  a 

the  justification  for  the  use  of  the  ex-  root  turning  away  from  dry,  sandy,  or 

pression  "the  intelhgence  of  plants."  inhospitable  soil,  until  it  comes  to  a 

Obviously  the  end  and  object  of  the  richer  deposit;    and  here,  not  having 

movements  is  to  attain  that  position  any  necessity  to  turn  further,  it  will 

in  the  soil  which  is  best  suited  for  the  grow  now  straight  downwards,  through 

furnishing  of  the  nourishment  required,  good  material.     Arrived  at  the  further 

Seeds  which  lie  under  water  sometimes  boundary  of  this  deposit,  it  will  once 

send  roots  directly  upwards.     In  all  more  change   its   direction,  and  may 

these  cases  the  primary  direction  of  even  bend  round  and  round,  so  as  to 

the  root-growth— the  movement  of  the  keep  in  such  a  desirable  neighborhood, 

root-tip,  that  is — is  extremely  definite.  Changes  in  the  color  of  leaves 

The  directions  taken  by  the  second-  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  interesting 
ary  roots,  however,  from  whichever  of  all  the  many  examples  of  the  intel- 
part  of  the  plant  they  may  arise,  are  ligence  of  plants,  in  reference  to  the 
not  so  definitely  circumscribed,  though  movements  of  their  parts,  is  to  be 
here,  too,  it  is  obvious  that  the  move-  found  in  connection  with  the  attitude 
ments  are  directed  to  reaching  such  and  arrangements  of  their  chlorophyll 
positions  as  will  give  either  security  of  granules  in  relation  to  sunlight.  These 
attachment  or  moisture  for  nourish-  granules,  it  must  be  remembered,  float 
ment.  Study  of  all  these  movements  freely  within  the  protoplasm,  which 
shows  that  both  those  which  take  place  can  move  them  to  different  places, 
in  the  aerial  structures,  and  those  This  permits  of  their  being  either 
which  take  place  in  the  root,  follow  equally  distributed  throughout  the 
the  same  guiding  principle,  though  the  cell,  or  aggregated  together  in  clumps, 
latter,  of  course,  are  made  much  more  or  otherwise  arranged.  Perhaps  the 
restricted,  from  the  nature  of  their  best  example  of  these  movements  can 
environment.  If  the  root  were  to  be  seen  in  plants  like  the  liverworts,  or 
grow  straight  down,  it  would  not  come  in  the  mosses,  where  the  green  of  the 
in  contact  with  nearly  so  much  ma-  leaf  is  noticed  to  be  lighter  or  darker, 
terial  as  it  does  by  following  a  spiral  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  light 
course.  This  latter  evidently  offers  which  falls  upon  it.  The  same  thing 
the  best  means  of  encountering  the  takes  place  in  many  flowering  plants, 
most  desirable  food-supplies.  This  is  The  darker  tint  is  observed  when  the 
part  of  what  is  meant  by  the  intelli-  light  is  weakest,  whereas,  under  the 
gence  of  plants.  action  of  the  most  intense,  direct  sun- 
How  A  ROOT  SEEKS  MOISTURE  light,  the  leaf  appears  yellowish.  These 

Further,   one   may   readily   observe  alterations  in  color-appearance  are  due 

that    the    growing    portions    of    roots  to  actual  movements  of  the  chlorophyll 

invariably    turn    aside    from    dry    or  granules,  which  take  up  different  po- 

barren  soils  in  favor  of  a  part  in  which  sitions  as  the  light  varies, 
there    is    more    moisture    and    more         A  very  simple  experiment  may  be 

nourishment.  This  movement  towards  performed  by  anyone  in  this  connec- 

the  moisture  is  called  "hydrotropism."  tion.     If  a  piece  of  black  paper  be 

In   any    considerable    section   of    soil  placed  on  a  leaf  which  is  exposed  to 

which  has  much  vegetation  growing  at  the  sun,  in  such  a  way  as  to  cover  up 

its  surface,  these  movements  of  roots,  a  part  of  the  leaf,  after  a  time  it  is 


BOOK  OF  NATURE 


167 


observed,  on  removing  the  strip  of 
paper,  that  the  portion  of  leaf  under- 
neath is  dark  green,  in  comparison 
with  that  which  was  left  exposed  and 
unprotected.     That  is  light  green. 

A  reference  to  the  diagram  will  ex- 
plain  this.     We  find  that  when  the 


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THE  MOVEMENT  OF  CHLOROPHYLL  GRANULE 
IN  A  LEAF 

This  diagram  of  part  of  a  section  of  a  green  leaf  repre- 
sents roughtly  the  change  in  the  movements  of  the  chloro- 
phyll granules  in  response  to  the  stimulus  of  (1)  darkness, 
(2)  direct  sunlight,  and  (3)  diffused  light. 

light  is  diffuse,  the  chlorophyll  granules 
so  arrange  themselves  as  to  cover  those 
walls  of  the  cells  on  which  the  light 
falls  perpendicularly.  This  gives  such 
portions  of  the  leaf  a  dark-green  ap- 
pearance. When  such  a  cell  becomes 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight,  the  granules 
leave  these  walls  parallel  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  and  accumulate  on 
those  which  are  parallel  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  light  (2).  The  tissue,  as 
the  result,  assumes  a  much  paler  color. 

A  word  or  two  may  be  added  in 
connection  with  leaves,  concerning  the 
movements  of  compound  leaves,  which 
exhibit  interesting  changes  of  attitude 
in  places  where  they  are  exposed  to 
considerable  cooling  during  the  night 
temperatures. 

During  the  ordinary  hours  of  sun- 
shine such  leaves  are  placed  more  or 
less  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  with  the  upper  surface  open 
to  the  sky,  and  thus  catching  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  obvious 
that  if  the  leaf  were  to  remain  in  this 
attitude  during  the  hours  of  the  night, 
there  would  be  great  loss  of  heat,  on 
account  of  radiation.  The  intelligence 
of  the  plant,  as  we  have  agreed  to 
understand  that  term,  here  shows 
itself  by  the  leaflets  which  compose 
the  compound  leaf  folding  themselves 


together  either  upwards  or  down- 
wards, according  to  the  species  con- 
cerned, so  that  their  broad  aspect  is 
placed  vertically.  In  this  manner 
there  is  much  less  loss  from  radiation 
than  there  would  otherwise  be. 
Creeping  and  climbing  plants 

We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to 
an  entirely  different  class  of  plant 
movement,  namely,  that  which  is 
associated  with  climbing  plants,  of 
which  there  are  a  large  number  whose 
stems  are  not  sufficiently  woody  in 
texture  to  maintain  a  vertical  or  erect 
attitude.  In  a  plant  which  has  such 
a  nature,  one  of  two  things  may  hap- 
pen :  the  stem  of  the  plant  may  con- 
tinue to  grow  along  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  bending  or  arching,  as  it  does 
so,  but  coming  in  contact  with  the  soil 
at  intervals.  Such  plants  have  what 
are  termed  prostrate  stems.  On  the 
other  hand,  however,  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  species  which,  in  their  efforts  to 
reach  the  erect  attitude,  have  devel- 
oped vaj-ious  structures  which  enable 
them  to  grasp  any  neighbormg  object 
that  may  afford  a  means  of  support, 
and  to  this  object  the  plant  attaches 
itself. 

A  good  example  is  that  of  the  hop, 
but  in  this  case  the  whole  plant  par- 
ticipates in  the  movement,  the  entire 
stem  twisting  to  the  right. 
The  habits  of  sensitive  plants 

Next  we  may  turn  our  attention  to 
an  entirely  different  aspect  of  what 
we  have  referred  to  as  plant  intelli- 
gence. There  are  movements  which 
take  place  in  plants  during  the  hours 
of  night,  to  which  the  name  of  "sleep 
movements"  has  been  given;  and  it 
will  be  remembered  that  these  con- 
sisted in  the  adoption  of  certain  atti- 
tudes of  the  leaves  or  leaflets.  A 
somewhat  similar  phenomenon  is  to 
be  noted  in  connection  with  some 
plants  that  exhibit  these  sleep  move- 
ments, and  also  in  others  that  do  not. 


SOME    EXAMPLES    OF     CLIMBING    PLANTS 


WILD  CLEMATIS,   OR   VIRGINS   BOWER 


THE   TWISTING    STEM    OF   THE   HOP 


FLOWERS  OF  THE  TRUE,  OR  ENGLISH,  DAISY,  CLOSED  AT  NIGHT  BUT  OPEN  IN  FULL  DAYLIGHT 


We  refer  to  plants  known  by  the 
general  name  of  sensitive  plants,  from 
their  different  manifestations  of  this 
sensitive  phenomenon.  A  number  of 
the  plants  which  assume  the  sleep 
position  in  the  night  exhibit  a  similar 
movement  when  they  are  either  shaken 
or  merely  lightly  touched,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  they  appear  to  be  even 
more  sensitive  to  this  disturbance  than 
to    darkness.     The    onset    of    a    very 


slight  breeze  of  air  may  be  sufficient 
to  cause  the  leaflets  to  fold  up. 

Although  this  curious  change  occurs 
in  some  of  the  same  plants  that  adopt 
the  sleep  position  at  night,  it  is  not  to 
be  therefore  inferred  that  the  two 
things  are  the  same.  The  attitude  of 
the  leaf  is  determined  by  the  condition 
of  a  little  cushion  of  tissue,  called  the 
pidvinus.  This  cushion  remains  quite 
rigid  in  the  sleep  position,  while  on  the 


168 


BOOK  OF  NATURE                                       169 

other  hand,  it  undergoes  a  very  re-  from  the  fact  that  quite  other  oon- 
markable  change  in  the  movements  ditions  than  rain  produce  the  same 
produced  by  shaking  the  plant.  It  movements,  particuhirly  such  factors 
becomes  less  turgid,  by  discharging  as  hot,  dry  winds,  impregnated  with 
some  of  its  water  into  another  part,  particles  of  dust  or  sand.  Here  it  is 
and  the  result  of  this  is  to  cause  a  obviously  to  prevent  excessive  trans- 
bending  of  the  leaflet.  piration  that  the  leaves  fold  together. 

Under  natural  conditions  practically  So  we  may  safely  conclude  that  several 

the  only  two  things  which  stimulate  different    advantages    accrue    to    the 

the  protoplasm  to  act  in  this  way  are  plant  in  virtue  of  the  powers  of  move- 

the  action  of  the  wund,  and  still  more  ment  we   have   been   describing.     At 

emphatically,   perhaps,   the  irritation  night  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation  is 

caused  by  the  falling  of  drops  of  rain  minimized.     In  the  heat  of  the  day 

on  to  the  leaf.     In  the  Indian  plant  extreme  transpiration  is  kept  in  check, 

already  referred  to,  most  remarkable  In  wet  weather,  injury  to  the  leaves, 

movements  immediately  follow  a  show-  or  possibly  to  the  whole  plant,  which 

er  of  rain.     The  leaves  which  first  come  might   collapse   under   the   weight   of 

in  contact  with  the  drops  fold  together  accumulated  water,  is  prevented, 

downwards,    but   not    only    do    these  The  bursting  open  of  flowers 

leaves  do  so,  but  actually,  also,  those  A    movement    which    may    be    ob- 

in   closest   proximity    to   them,    even  served  in  almost  all  flowering  plants  is 

though  no  actual  drops  fall  thereon,  that  which  takes  place  at  the  onset  of 

Well  might  such  a  plant  be  termed  daylight,   or  at  some  varying  period 

"sensitive."      Even     the     leaf-stalk,  during  the  day  afterwards.     This   is 

which  bears  the  mass  of  leaves,  bends  the   opening   of    the   passage   to    the 

in  the  direction  of  the  earth;  and  the  interior  of  the  flower.     Very  detailed 

practical  consequence  of  these  move-  observations  have  been  made  on  the 

ments  is  that  the  drops  of  rainwater  times  at  which  this  separation  of  the 

flow  over  the  bent  stalk,  and  over  the  petals  takes  place,  and  the  following 

hanging  leaves,  so  that  all  the  moisture  examples,  quoted  by  Kerner,  may  be 

is  immediately  drained  off,  and  none  noted  here. 

remains  upon  the  surface.     No  better  In   the   case    of    the    honey-suckle, 

example  can  be  imagined  illustrative  the   whole     series    of    movements    in 

of   plant   intelligence,    or   movements  the  process  begins  by  the  lowest  lobe 

directed  by  some  principle  towards  the  of  the  corolla  folding  back,  this  being 

attainment  of  a  definite  purpose.  followed   by   the   same   thing   in   the 

Why  the  leaves  fold  up  other  lobes,  which  liberates  the  sta- 

Very  similar  processes  are  seen  in  mens,  and  they  spread  out  like  fingers, 

the  leaves  of  the  sundew,  and  in  those  This  series  of  movements  takes  about 

of  Venus's  fly-trap,  as  well  as  in  some  two  minutes.     The  evening  primrose 

of  the   mimosas.     The   actual   move-  is  still  more  rapid  in  its  opening,  the 

ments  are  not  identical  in  all  these  petals  springing  apart,  and  being  wide 

cases,  but  they  are  produced  by  the  open   in    half    a    minute.     This    may 

same  sort  of  influences,  and  for  pre-  truly  be  described  as  the  bursting  open 

cisely  analogous  purposes.     The  free-  of    the    flower.     In    some    cases    this 

ing  of  the  plant  from  raindrops,  how-  opening  occurs  quite  quickly  enough 

ever,    though    obviously    one    of    the  to  be  followed  with  the  naked  eye,  and 

objects   in   these   movements,    is   not  in  one  or  two  instances  is  accompanied 

the  only  one.     This  may  be  concluded  by  a  slight  noise. 


170 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Hours  when  flowers  open  their  lips 

With  regard  to  the  times  during  the 
day  when  these  opening  movements 
may  be  noted,  Kerner  gives  the  fol- 
lowing instances:  "There  are  flowers 
which  open  so  early  in  the  morning 
that  they  greet  the  first  rays  of  the 
rising  sun  with  fully  expanded  corollas. 
That  common  garden  climber,  Morning 
Glory,  opens  its  buds  at  four  a.  m. 
Wild  roses  also  open  between  four  and 
five  a.  m.  Between  five  and  six  many 
species  of  flax  open.  Between  six  and 
seven,  willow-herbs;  between  seven 
and  eight,  bindweed.  Between  eight 
and  nine,  many  gentians,  and  wood- 
sorrels.  Between  nine  and  ten,  most 
tulips  open;  between  ten  and  eleven, 
the  centaury  and  chaffweed 

"From  noon  till  evening  comes  a 
long  interval.  No  plant  is  known  in 
our  latitude  which,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  opens  during  the  after- 
noon. Towards  sunset,  however,  it 
recommences.  About  six  p.  m.  the 
honeysuckle  opens,  shortly  followed 
by  the  evening  primrose.  Between 
nine  and  ten,  the  Queen  of  the  Night, 
the  Mexican  cactus,  opens." 
Weapons  of  insectivorous  plants 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  sub- 
ject of  plant  defences  we  shall  have  to 
make  reference  to  poisonous  and 
insectivorous  plants.  One  or  two  of 
these,  however,  must  be  noted  here 
from  the  point  of  view  of  their  move- 
ments. We  may  take  those  to  which 
we  have  already  referred.  The  whole 
of  the  genus  sundew  are  excellent 
examples  of  plants  whose  movements 
are  directed  to  the  capturing  of  small 
insects.  The  plants  themselves  are 
common  enough,  and  especially  preva- 
lent on  damp  soil  and  marsh  land. 
There  are  some  forty  species  of  sun- 
dew, all  of  which  show  as  their  most 
conspicuous  character  a  slender  red 
filament,  that  is  club-shaped  at  its 
free  end,  and  carries  a  refractile  globlet 


of  fluid.  These  filaments  project  from 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  the  under 
aspect  of  which  is  smooth,  and  very 
often  rests  upon  the  damp  ground. 
The  filaments  have  been  compared  in 
their  appearance  to  pins  stuck  in  a 
cushion.  They  are  various  sizes,  the 
shortest  being  in  the  middle  of  the 
leaf,  the  longest  at  the  outer  edge,  and 
each  leaf  carries  about  two  hundred  of 
these  little  filaments.   The  club-shaped 


THE     TRAPS     OF     THE     BLADDERWORT    THAT 
CAPTURE  TINY  AQUATIC  ANIMALS 

swelling   at   the   end   is   in   reality   a 

gland,  which  secretes  a  clear  globlet, 

that  looks  very  like  a  drop  of  dew,  but 

is  really  a  sticky,  viscous  substance. 

Discriminative  intelligence  of  sun- 
dew 

A  wonderful  example  of  plant  in- 
telligence is  to  be  found  here.  The 
movements  we  have  mentioned  above 
in  connection  with  wind  and  rain  and 
dust  are  utterly  ignored  by  the  sun- 
dew. Experimentally,  one  may  irri- 
tate these  filaments  with  minute 
particles  of  ordinary  foodstuffs,  such 
as  sugar,  or  with  solid  particles  of 
sand,  and  so  forth,  and  the  only  result 
is   to   increase   the   secretion   of   the 


A     PLANT    THAT     BREAKS     THE    RULES 


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This  orchid  from  Mexico,  reverses  nearly  all  the  normal  conditions  that  govern  plant  growth.  It  flourishes  on  a 
piece  of  dry  bark,  with  its  roots  in  the  air,  instead  of  in  the  soil.  The  atmosphere  provides  it  with  sufficient  moisture, 
combined  with  that  stored  in  its  bulbs.     It  grows  upside  down,  with  its  leaves  towards  the  ground. 


171 


172 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


gland,  which  assumes  an  acid  reaction. 
The  leaf  itself  does  not  move,  nor  does 
there  follow  any  attempt  at  digestion. 

Let  a  small  insect,  however,  in  its 
search  for  honey,  impinge  upon  the 
leaf  and  touch  the  gland,  and — won- 
derful to  relate — the  composition  of 
the  secretion  is  at  once  changed,  in  so 
far  as  it  becomes  a  digestive  ferment, 
the  object  of  which  is,  of  course,  to 
appropriate  the  unfortunate  insect  as 
food.  Remarkable  movements  take 
place  in  the  filaments,  or  tentacles,  and 
they  close  in,  so  to  speak,  as  the  tips  of 
the  fingers  would  do  if  bent  towards  the 
palm  of  the  hand. 

Gradually  all  the  filaments  bend  over 
towards  the  insect  which  has  been 
caught  in  the  sticky,  glandular  secre- 
tion, and  in  a  time  varying  from  one 
to  three  hours  all  of  them  are  foimd 
bending  upon  it.  No  matter  where 
the  insect  may  alight,  the  tentacles 
move  down  upon  it  exactly  to  the  right 
spot,  whether  it  be  in  the  center  or 
otherwise.  Should  there  be  two  in- 
sects for  the  same  leaf,  at  the  same 
time,  in  different  parts,  then  some 
tentacles  will  converge  on  the  one,  and 
some  on  the  other. 
Digestion  of  insects  by  sundew 

The  result  of  the  whole  process  is 
that  the  captured  little  creature  is 
covered  with  secretion  and  digested. 
The  whole  process  of  absorption  is 
complete  in  a  couple  of  days.  What  is 
left  behind  is  carried  away  by  the  wind 


when  the  tentacles  reassume  their 
original  attitude.  Small  midges  are 
the  usual  victims  of  the  sundews, 
but  flies,  and  ants,  and  beetles  also 
suffer  a  similar  fate.  As  many  as 
thirteen  different  species  of  captured 
animals  have  been  found  on  a  single 
leaf  at  the  same  time. 

The  really  interesting  fact  about 
these  wonderful,  intelligent  move- 
ments is  not  merely  that  they  con- 
tribute to  the  nutrition  of  the  plant, 
but  that  the  movements  take  place  in 
tissues  other  than  those  which  are 
actually  the  first  to  be  stimulated  by 
the  insect.  In  other  words,  there  is  a 
transmission,  or  carrying,  of  the  origi- 
nal impulse  from  cell  to  cell  through 
many  cells  at  a  speed  which  can  be 
actually  measured. 

This  suggests  at  once  to  the  mind 
an  analogy  to  the  transmission  of  a 
nerve  impulse  from  the  brain  to  a 
distant  muscle  in  the  arm  or  leg. 
How  sensitive  the  leaves  of  the  sun- 
dew are  may  be  imagined  when  it  is 
stated  that  "a  particle  of  a  woman's 
hair,  O.'^  mm.  long,  and  weighing 
0.0008"22  nig.,  when  placed  upon  a 
gland  of  round-leaved  sundew,  caused 
a  movement  of  the  tentacle  belonging 
to  the  excited  gland." 

A  similar  experiment  on  the  human 
tongue  would  fail  to  give  any  indica- 
tion of  the  presence  of  the  hair, 
though  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  very 
sensitive. 


Marvels  of  Modern 
Mechanism 


ROENTGEN  OR  X-RAYS 

THE  MASTER  ENERGY  OF  RADIUM 

MOVING  PICTURES— THE  WORLD  IN  REVIEW 

MEASUREMENTS  OF  TIME 

TELEGRAPHY— MESSAGES  BY  LAND,  SEA  AND  AIR 

MODERN  WAR'S  MAILED  HAND— GUNS  AND  SHELLS 

FUTURE  SOURCES  OF  POWER 


178 


RADIOGRAPH   OF  THE    STRUCTURE    OF   THE    HAND 


This  picture  explains  the  mechanism  by  which  X-rays  are  produced  in  a  Crooke's  tube  for  the  purpose  of  radiographing 
a  band  plAced  on  a  box  containing  a  sensitized  plate. 

174 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


175 


THE    X-RAY  — MAGIC    TUBE    OF    MODERN    SCIENCE 

IF  THE  discharge  of  a  fairly  large 
induction-coil  be  made  to  pass 
through  a  Hittorf  vacuum-tube, 
or  through  a  Lenard  tube,  a  Crooke's 
tube,  or  other  similar  apparatus  which 
has  been  sufficiently  exhausted,  the 
tube  being  covered  with  thin,  black 
cardboard,  which  fits  it  with  tolerable 
closeness,  and  if  the  whole  apparatus 
be  placed  in  a  completely  darkened 
room,  there  is  observed  at  each  dis- 
charge a  bright  illumination  on  the 
paper    screen    covered    with    barium 


Figure  1.     William  Konrad  Roentgen,  the  discoverer  of 
the  X-  or  Roentgen  rays. 

platino-cyanide,  placed  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  induction-coil,  the  fluorescence 
thus  produced  being  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  fact  whether  the  coated 
or  the  plain  surface  is  turned  toward 
the  discharge  tube."  With  these 
words.  Professor  W.  K.  Roentgen,  in 
December,  1895,  announced  to  the 
world  one  of  the  most  profound  dis- 
coveries of  the  nineteenth  century, 
a  discovery  that  for  far-reaching  re- 
sults must  rank,  indeed,  as  one  of  the 
greatest  events  of  all  times. 


How  THE  DISCOVERY  WAS  MADE 

Roentgen's  discovery  was  the  cul- 
mination of  a  long  series  of  experi- 
ments with  the  vacuum  tube.  So 
long  ago  as  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  Abbe  Nollet  arranged  an  electrical 
apparatus  in  such  a  manner  as  to  send 
a  spark  through  a  glass  globe  which 
he  gradually  emptied  of  air.  Experi- 
ments continued  on  into  the  next 
century,  but  it  was  not  until  1859 
that  noteworthy  results  were  obtained. 
In  this  year  Plucker  succeeded  in 
obtaining  a  far  higher  vacuum  than 
any  heretofore  known,  and  produced 
with  it  another  "curious"  phenome- 
non— a  greenish  phosphorescence  that 
lined  the  walls  of  the  tube — attributed 
to  the  action  of  cathode  rays. 
Cathode  Rays  explained 

The  "cathode,"  the  reader  will 
bear  in  mind,  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  negative  pole  (see  e,  figure 
3),  or  the  point  at  which  the  elec- 
tric current  leaves  the  tube;  the  posi- 
tive pole,  or  the  point  at  which  the 
current  enters  the  tube,  being  called 
the  "anode."  This  deduction  of 
Plucker's  forms,  really,  the  starting 
point  of  the  observations  that  led  up 
to  the  discovery  of  the  x-ray  itself, 
as  also  the  further  fact  that  the 
"cathode"  rays  respond  readily  to  a 
magnet  placed  outside  the  tube, 
changing  their  direction  as  the  posi- 
tion of  the  magnet  was  changed. 

In  1879,  Professor  Crookes  (now 
Sir  William),  with  a  remarkably  high 
vacuum,  obtained  powerful  rays  which 
he  directed  against  a  sort  of  windmill, 
or  vane,  placed  within  the  tube,  the 
vane  revolving  under  the  impact  of 
the  rays.  This  and  other  experiments 
led  Crookes  to  announce  the  theory 
that  the  cathode  ray  was  a  stream  of 
infinitesimally  minute  particles  of  mat- 
ter charged  with  negative  electricity. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


ROENTGEN'S 


Laboratory 
its  secret 


GIVES      UP 


A  year  later  Professor  Wilhelm  Kon- 
rad  Roentgen,  Professor  of  Physics  at 
Wiirzburg  University,  was  one  day 
making  experiments  in  his  laboratory 

DESCRIPTIVE  X-RAY  TUBE 


A — Anode 

B — Assistant  Anode 

C — Cathode 

D — Regulating  Chamber 

F — Regulating  Adjuster 

G — Hemisphere 


H — Connection  Wire 
I — Assistant  Anode  Cap 
K — Anode  Cap 
L — Cathode  Cap 
M- — -Cathode  Stream 
N — Focal  Point 


with  the  vacuum  tube.  Beside  the 
tube  lay  a  small  quantity  of  crystals  of 
barium  platino-cyanide,  placed  there 
quite  by  accident.  Happening  to 
glance  down  at  the  screen,  he  observed 


that  under  some  influence  exerted  by 
the  tube,  they  were  aglow  with  phos- 
phorescence. To  ascertain  whether 
the  phosphorescence  could  be  due  to 
the  cathode  rays,  he  covered  both  the 
tube  and  the  screen,  and  lo!  not  only 
the  phosphorescence  continued,  but 
dark  shadows  were  cast  on  the  screen 
by  the  hand  and  other  objects  placed 
between  the  tube  and  the  screen. 
Thus  was  discovered,  quite  by  acci- 
dent, a  new  ray,  which  because 
nothing  whatever  was  known  of  it, 
and  X  being  the  symbol  of  unknown- 
ness,  was  called  by  Professor  Roentgen 
the  "x-ray." 

Wild  was  the  excitement  that  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  scientific  world, 
and  many  and  ingenious  were  the 
theories  that  arose  to  account  for  the 
new  phenomenon. 

The  MYSTERY  OF  MATTER 

Later  experiments  by  Sir  J.  J. 
Thomson,  conducted  in  the  Cavendish 
Laboratory  at  Cambridge,  showed  that 
the  powerful  electric  discharge  as  it 
passed  through  the  tube  not  only  broke 
up  into  atoms  the  molecules  of  matter 
which  happened  to  be  in  the  tube,  but 


The  theoretical  diflerence  between  an  atom  of  ordinary  matter  and  an  atom  of  radio-active  matter 


MARVELS  OF  MODERM  MECHANISM  177 

further      separated    them     into     the  consisting    of    the    original    negative 

infinitely    minute  particles    of    nega-  electrons,  to  each  of  which  is  attached 

live    electricity    known    as    electrons  a  small  charge  of  positive  electricity. 

— now     recognized    as    the    unit     of  And  this  is  the  x-ray.     Being  neither 

matter.  positive  nor  wholly  negative,  it  does 

The  cathode  ray  Thomson  found  not  answer  to  an  electro-magnet, 
to  be  merely  a  stream,  or  beam  of  And,  moreover,  it  is  not  impeded  by 
these  electrons  shooting  out  from  the  the  electrical  attractions  of  the  atoms 
cathode  at  the  inconceivable  speed  of  through  which  it  passes  on  its  shining 
60,000  miles  a  second,  a  third  that  of  march  through  matter.  We  must  re- 
light. The  fact  that  these  rays  can  member  that  an  atom  consists  of  an 
be  bent  or  deflected  at  will,  whereas  empty  space — somewhat  like  our  solar 
the  Roentgen-ray  resists  every  at-  system  on  a  very  small  scale — in 
tempt  to  alter  its  course,  penetrating  which  a  few  infinitesimal  negative 
with  the  utmost  readiness  the  densest  electrons  are  spinning  round  a  large 
materials,  showed  it  to  be  different  positive  electron.  There  is  therefore 
from  the  cathode  rays.  The  further  at  times  ample  room  for  the  x-ray 
fact  that  the  Roentgen-ray  cannot  be  to  pass  through  atom  after  atom, 
refracted,  diffracted,  or  polarized,  throwing  on  the  screen  only  a  faint 
showed  that  the  Roentgen-ray  is  not,  shadow  of  the  substances  through 
as  many  supposed,  identical  with  which  it  swiftly  travels, 
ordinary  light,  although  in  certain  Yet,  sooner  or  later,  there  is  a 
respects  it  is  akin  to  light.  collision.     One  of  the  results  is  that 

These  and  later  experiments  by  the  x-ray  is  robbed  of  its  stolen  proper- 
Thomson  and  by  Sir  George  Stokes,  of  ty — its  positive  electrical  charge — and 
Cambridge  University,  demonstrated  reduced  to  its  original  character  of  a 
the  propagation  of  Roentgen-rays  by  cathode  ray.  The  same  thing  happens 
showing  that  the  stream  of  cathode  with  the  x-ray  that  proceeds  from 
rays  by  impinging  upon  a  hard  sub-  radium.  As  its  speed  slows  down, 
stance,  as  against  the  wall  of  just  before  its  work  is  done,  it  becomes 
vacuum,  was  converted  into  an  a  cathode  ray  of  negative  electrons, 
electrical  pulse  of  irregular  length  with  a  diminishing  energy  of  velocity; 
and  rhythm.  The  manner  of  this  and  at  last  its  particles  penetrate  into 
may  be  observed  from  the  pre-  an  atom  from  which  they  have  no 
ceding  illustration  which  shows  the  longer  the  power  to  emerge.  And 
main  features  of  the  Roentgen-ray  that  is  practically  the  end  of  it.  It  is 
tube  as  employed  today.  absorbed  in  the  existing  and  perma- 

Professor       Bragg        has        lately  nent  structure  of  the  universe — in  the 

worked     out     the     most     fascinating  gases  of  the  air  or  in  the  atoms  of  the 

idea    of  the  nature  of  the  marvelous  walls,  ceiling,  or  floor  of  the  room  in 

x-ray.  which   the   x-ray   apparatus   is   being 

He  supposes  that  when  the  stream  used, 

of  negative  electrons  of  the  cathode  From  a  medical  point  of  view,  when 

ray  strikes  against  the  platinum  point  the  x-ray  comes  to  an  end  in  human 

in   the   modern   glass   x-ray   tube,    it  flesh  and   is  re-transformed  into  the 

breaks  up   some  atoms  of  platinum,  original  cathode  ray  that  produced  it, 

and  robs  them  of  some  of  their  posi-  it  often  may  have  a  serious  effect  upon 

tive   electrons.     Thus   is   fashioned   a  the   flesh   of   the   x-ray   operator.     It 

stream    of     doubled-natured    bodies,  breaks  up  the  cells  of  that  part  of  the 


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human  body  on  which  it  has  been 
constantly  falling.  The  consequence 
is  that  dreadful  sores  are  sometimes 
formed  upon  the  hands  of  an  operator 
who  is  continually  exposed  to  the 
x-rays.  Even  the  constant  study  of 
the  action  of  x-rays  by  means  of  a 
fluorescent  screen  hurts  the  eyes  of  an 
operator,  causing  an  inflammation  of 
the  outer  portion  of  the  eyeball.  The 
fact  is,  the  x-ray  is  so  intense  a  form  of 
energy  that  it  gives  rise  to  what  are 
called  secondary  radiations.  It  breaks 
bits  off  the  atom  against  which  it 
strikes  continually;  and  when  these 
atoms  are  the  elements  of  substances 
in  the  living  flesh  of  the  x-ray  operator 
the  result  is  at  times  serious. 

Several  brave  men  who  worked  the 
x-rays  in  hospitals,  with  great  benefit 
to  thousands  of  injured  patients,  have 
now  lost  their  fingers,  hands,  or  arms 
through  the  strange,  spreading,  and 
terrible  sores  produced  by  continual 
daily  exposure  to  the  extraordinary 
power  of  the  x-rays. 

Yet  it  must  not  be  thought  that  a 
patient  nowadays  is  in  any  danger 
when  the  x-ray  is  used  upon  him  by 
a  skilled  operator  to  find  some  broken 
bone,  or  some  diseased  organ,  or  some 
foreign  body,  such  as  a  needle  or  bullet 
that  has  got  embedded  in  his  flesh. 
If  a  very  long  exposure  of  some  hours 
is  necessary,  his  skin  may  feel  a  little 
sore,  but  the  soreness  will  pass  away. 
It  is  only  the  heroic  operator,  day 
after  day  exposing  himself  to  the  weird 
force  of  the  ray,  who  is  in  peril  of 
great  and  permanent  injury.  In  an 
ordinary  way  the  action  of  the  ray  on 
human  flesh  is  said  to  be  often  bene- 
ficial. There  is,  for  instance,  an 
ulcerous  disease  of  the  skin  produced 
by  the  same  tubercle  microbe  that 
causes  consumption  of  the  lungs.  A 
careful  application  of  the  rays  brings 
about  an  inflammatory  reaction,  which 
causes  the  tubercles  to  become  visible. 


This  is  followed  by  a  loosening  of  the 
tubercles;  they  are  then  sloughed  off 
in  masses,  and  a  healthy  scar  tissue 
grows  underneath. 

A  similar  beneficial  result  is  often 
produced  by  means  of  the  Finsen  light, 
but  the  x-rays  are  quicker  in  action, 
and  less  expensive  in  use,  and  they 
can  be  applied  to  cavities  which  are 
inaccessible  to  the  Finsen  light.  Sev- 
eral other  skin  diseases  and  various 
kinds  of  malignant  growths  have  been 
cured  by  treating  the  sufferers  with 
x-rays.  Some  cases  of  cancer  of  the 
throat  and  breast  are  reported  to  have 
been  cured  by  applications  of  the  rays, 
lasting  for  ten  minutes,  and  repeated 
daily  for  some  weeks.  But  on  the 
whole  it  seems  that  the  new  treatment 
is  only  likely  to  be  successful  in  diseases 
affecting  the  outer  parts  of  the  body 
that  can  be  directly  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  rays.  When  the  malady 
is  deep-seated,  the  healthy  surround- 
ing portion  of  the  body  tends  to  be- 
come seriously  inflamed  by  the  rays 
as  they  pass  through  on  their  way  to 
the  seat  of  the  disease. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  sev- 
eral means  of  protecting  an  operator 
from  the  action  of  the  rays.  In  some 
cases,  he  needs  only  to  use  a  very  mild 
form  of  the  new  power.  This  is  ob- 
tained by  allowing  a  certain  amount  of 
gas  to  enter  the  glass  tube,  and  so 
lower  the  vacuum.  The  ray  then 
produced  is  very  soft;  it  cannot  pene- 
trate far.  Hard  rays,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  produced  by  increasing  the 
vacuum  and  making  the  air  in  it 
more  rarefied.  When  this  is  done, 
the  operator  has  to  be  careful  to  pro- 
tect himself. 

There  are  two  principal  methods  of 
protection.  In  one,  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  fact  that  the  x-ray  cannot  pene- 
trate lead.  So  a  lead-glass  is  placed 
over  the  vacuum  tube,  leaving  only  a 
small    point   in    the   inner   soda-glass 


APPARATUS  BY  WHICH  X-RAY  PENETRATES  THE  BODY 


Figure  A.  Instrument  for  doing  fluoroscopic  observations  with  the  patient  standing.  This  particular  cut  illustrates 
the  observation  of  the  stomach  following  the  bismuth  meal.  The  nurse  is  handing  the  patient  a  glass  of  buttermilk  into 
which  has  been  stirred  an  ounce  of  bismuth  powder.  This  bismuth  meal  is  opaque  to  the  ray  and  permits  the  study  of  the 
outline  of  the  stomach.  In  this  same  instrument  one  may  study  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  diaphragm,  the  stomach  and  the 
intestine.  The  tube  is  enclosed  in  a  lead-lined  box  behind  the  patient,  the  rays  passing  through  the  patient  and  casting 
a  shadow  upon  the  fluorescent  screen  immediately  in  front  of  the  observer 


Figure  B.      A  horizontal  fluoroscopic  apparatus  upon  which  the  patient  reclines  during  fluoroscopic  observation. 
A  screen  is  laid  over  the  patient,  wUle  the  tube  is  underneath  the  table  upon  wliich  the  patient  is  lying 

m 


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vessel  through  which  the  x-rays  stream 
on  to  the  patient.  Again,  the  operator 
now  has  various  devices  for  testing 
the  strength  of  the  rays,  without  put- 
ting his  own  hand  between  the  stream 
of  invisible  force  and  the  screen,  in 
order  to  measure  the  penetrative 
power.  This  rough-and-ready  man- 
ner of  testing  the  rays  was  the  chief 
cause  of  the  loss  of  fingers,  hands,  and 
arms  by  the  band  of  brave  men  who 
first  worked  the  rays. 

The  modern  operator  measures  the 
power  of  the  radiance  he  is  about  to 
apply  to  a  patient,  by  means  of  curious 
and  delicate  instruments  that  show 
the  amount  of  electricity  the  invisible 
ray  is  communicating  to  the  air  out- 
side the  tube.  The  degree  of  electri- 
fication exactly  denotes  the  softness 
or  hardness  of  the  unseen  radiance; 
and  a  careful  operator  never  now  ex- 
poses his  eyes  or  his  hands  to  the 
action  of  the  unseen  force.  During 
his  work  he  uses  rubber  gloves,  and 
puts  on  a  pair  of  lead-glass  spectacles, 
and  wears  a  rubber  apron. 

His  work  has,  moreover,  been  great- 
ly lightened  by  the  progress  made  in 
x-ray  photography.  In  a  general  way, 
the  invisible  radiance  that  penetrates 
through  flesh  and  bone  is  employed  for 
finding  out  what  is  the  matter  with  the 
patient.  This  can  be  done  much 
quicker  by  means  of  photographs  of 
the  interior  of  the  human  body  than 
by  studying  the  actual  picture  thrown 
on  the  fluorescent  screen.  For  the 
photographs  can  be  minutely  examined 
in  broad  daylight  and  at  leisure,  and 
compared  with  similar  photographs  of 
the  flesh  and  bones  and  organs  of 
healthy  people.  For  this  reason  x-ray 
photography  has  become,  both  for 
the  surgeon  and  the  physician,  the 
most  important  by  far  of  the  medical 
applications  of  the  new  force;  and 
inventors  are  still  busy  in  perfecting 
this  branch  of  radiography. 


At  first  there  were  obtainable  only 
flat  silhouettes  of  the  shadows  cast 
by  the  x-rays  as  they  traveled  through 
the  human  body.  By  using  just  a 
medium  hard  ray,  which  did  not 
penetrate  through  the  bones,  the 
skeleton  of  the  human  frame  could  be 
shown  in  dark  shadows  amid  the 
lighter,  vaguer  tints  of  the  flesh.  The 
method  was  useful  in  discovering 
fractures  of  bones  and  foreign  bodies 
of  metals,  such  as  bullets  and  splinters 
of  shell  in  wounded  soldiers,  and 
needles  and  nails  and  other  metallic 
objects  due  to  domestic  and  indus- 
trial accidents.  It  was  early  shadow- 
photographs  of  this  sort  that  directed 
the  general  attention  to  the  wonderful 
properties  of  the  x-rays  in  the  first 
years  following  their  discovery. 

But  the  trouble  with  a  flat  shadow- 
photograph  was  that  it  gave  no  indi- 
cation of  depth.  It  only  showed  in 
outline  the  internal  structure  of  the 
human  body.  In  the  case  of  fractures 
of  bones,  this  difficulty  was  overcome 
to  some  extent  by  taking  several  pho- 
tographs— from  the  sides  as  well  as 
from  the  back  and  front  of  the  injured 
limb  or  other  bony  part.  So  the 
surgeon  was  fairly  well  contented  with 
a  series  of  flat  silhouettes  that  the 
x-rays  gave  him. 

It  was  some  time,  however,  before 
the  new  invisible  force,  that  can  pene- 
trate wood  and  steel,  w^as  of  much 
use  to  the  physician.  In  many  cases 
he  required  a  clear  and  perspective 
view  of  the  flesh  organs  and  of  the 
softest  parts  of  the  tissues.  And  this 
is  what  he  has  now  obtained.  By 
using  soft  rays  on  certain  parts  of  the 
body,  and  taking  two  separate  photo- 
graphs, and  combining  them  for  ex- 
amination in  a  stereoscope,  he  can 
often  get  a  perspective  vision  into  the 
human  body.  Everything  stands  out 
in  order  in  soft  relief,  so  that  various 
diseases  of  the  lungs  and  heart  and 


A  SERIES  OF  X-RAY  PICTURES  OR  ROENTGENOGRAMS 


Figure  C.     The  human  vermiform  appendix  as  it  appears 
when  filled  with  bismuth 


Figure  E.     Tlie  tones  of  the  arm 


Figure  D.     Tbe  loot  enclosed  in  tbe  shoe 


Figure  G.     Skeleton  of  a  frog 


181 


182 


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other  organs  can  be  traced.  And 
there  is  another  more  technical  meth- 
od, called  plastic  x-ray  photography, 
which  gives  similarly  excellent  results. 
All  this  is  a  magnificent  advance  in 
the  art  of  locating  the  effects  of  a 
malady  and  observing  exactly  the 
results  of  a  curative  treatment.  The 
physician  can  see  with  his  own  eyes 
the  improvement  that  is  taking  place, 
or  the  need  there  is  to  adopt  some  other 
form  of  cure. 

Moreover,  he  can  give  the  patient 
certain  bismuth  preparations  that  will 
coat  some  of  the  interior  parts  of 
the  body,  and  make  them  stand  out 
very  vividly  in  a  stereo  x-ray 
photograph  or  a  plastic  x-ray  photo- 
graph. 

Just  recently,  an  extraordinary  ap- 
plication of  the  medical  use  of  x-rays 
has  been  made  by  converting  the  hu- 
man body  into  a  fluorescent  screen. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  a  natural 
fluorescence  existed  in  certain  human 
tissues,  and  that  the  nerves,  muscles, 
and  brain,  and  the  chief  organs,  con- 
tain a  fluorescent  material  that  re- 
sembles   ciuinine. 

Now  experiments  are  being  made 
in  dosing  patients  with  quinine  pre- 
parations, and  then  making  the 
medicine  shine  in  the  body  by  ap- 
plying x-rays  to  the  part  that  is 
diseased.  Some  good  results  are  re- 
ported to  have  been  obtained  in  cer- 
tain tuberculous  maladies.  It  is  too 
early  yet  to  give  a  reliable  decision  on 
the  general  value  of  the  method. 

Indeed,  much  yet  remains  to  be 
done  before  the  various  forms  of  x-ray 
treatment  and  examination  are  per- 
fected. At  present  tumors  of  soft 
tissues  are  photographed  with  great 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  surrounding 
structure  having  nearly  the  same 
density.  Diseases  of  the  brain  are 
especially  hard  to  trace  by  means  of 
the  x-ray.     For  the  shadows  of  the 


bony  vault  of  the  head  greatly  obscure 
the  details  of  the  soft  structure.  And, 
moreover,  as  the  rays  pass  through  the 
skull,  they  produce  cathode  rays  that 
tend  still  further  to  confuse  the  shad- 
owy image  of  the  brain.  Yet,  a 
blood-clot  in  the  brain  has  been  re- 
vealed by  the  wonderful  ray.  So  we 
may  expect  the  intricate  technique 
of  the  modern  operator  to  be  at  last 
developed  to  a  point  at  which  the 
entire  internal  parts  of  the  bodies  of 
suffering  mankind  will  be  made  clearly 
visible  to  the  modern  physician. 

What  has  already  been  accomplished 
is  so  wonderfully  useful  that  it  is 
revolutionizing  medical  science.  In 
course  of  time  every  surgeon  and  doc- 
tor will  be  an  expert  x-ray  operator. 
He  will  begin  by  studying  the  healthy 
functions  of  the  body  with  a  fluorescent 
screen  and  the  jc-ray  stereoscope. 
Then  he  will  go  on  to  learn  all  the 
signs  of  hidden  diseases  that  the  x-ray 
reveals.  So,  when  he  is  fully  trained, 
he  will  be  able  to  tell,  almost  at  a 
glance,  what  is  wrong  with  his  patient. 
In  the  meantime,  the  new  scientific 
blood-tests,  by  which  the  cause  of  a 
disease  is  revealed  under  a  microscope, 
will  be  extended  and  in  many  cases 
simj)lified. 

So  there  ought  to  be  in  the  future 
no  occasion  for  a  careful  medical 
man  to  make  any  mistake  in  his 
diagnosis  of  an  illness.  The  healing 
art,  that  still  remains  an  art,  will 
then  be  transformed  into  a  science; 
and  this  science  will  grow  more  exact 
as  man  obtains  a  larger  control  over 
the  microbes  of  disease. 

It  is  more  than  evident  that  the 
x-ray  will  be  found  permanently 
useful  in  its  marvelous  revelation  of 
the  interior  structure  of  the  human 
body.  No  one  should  submit  to  the 
action  of  the  x-ray,  whether  for  treat- 
ment or  for  examination,  except  at 
the  hands  of  a  skilled  operator. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


183 


THE    MASTER    ENERGY    OF    RADIUM 


FREQUENTLY  in  science  one 
great  discovery  leads  to  an- 
other. This  was  the  case  with 
this  strange  and  wonderful  substance 
known  as  radium.  In  the  year  1896 
Professor  Roentgen  discovered  the  very 
useful  rays  which  bear  his  name  and 
which  are  often  called  x-rays.  The 
discovery  of  radium  may  be  directly 
traced  to  the  discovery  of  x-rays. 
And  this  is  the  way  it  happened. 

Discovery   of   radium   due  to   dis- 
covery OF  X-RAYS 

We  know  that  x-rays  are  produced 
by  sending  an  electric  current  through 
a  glass  tube  from  which  nearly  all 
the  air  has  been  removed.  When  the 
x-rays  are  being  generated  certain 
parts  of  the  walls  of  the  tube  are  seen 
to  glow  with  a  beautiful  yellowish- 
green  color.  It  was  thought  by  those 
who  first  studied  the  x-rays  that  this 
fluorescence  of  the  glass  might  in 
some  way  be  inseparably  connected 
with  the  emission  of  the  x-rays  and 
that  possibly  phosphorescent  sub- 
stances such  as  zinc  sulphide  might 
give  rise  to  x-rays.  The  chemical 
known  as  zinc  sulphide  is  a  white 
pov/der.  If  this  substance  is  exposed 
to  sunlight  for  a  few  minutes  and 
then  removed  to  a  darkened  room  it  is 
found  to  glow  or  phosphoresce  with  a 
beautiful  pale  blue  light.  Other  sub- 
stances also  behave  in  a  similar  way. 
Experiments  of  becquerel 

M.  Henri  Becquerel  examined  a 
number  of  these  phosphorescent  com- 
pounds by  testing  their  effect  upon  a 
photographic  plate.  It  was  known 
that  x-rays  will  pass  through  many 
bodies  which  are  opaque  to  ordinary 
light  and  make  an  impression  on  a 
photographic  plate.  Becquerel  ex- 
posed a  number  of  phosphorescent  sub- 
stances to  sunlight  and  then  placed 
them  near  a  photographic  plate  that 


had  been  wrapped  in  black  paper. 
It  was  found  that  the  plate  had  been 
affected  as  if  struck  by  light.  He 
next  tried  an  experiment  to  determine 
whether  the  preliminary  exposure  to 
sunlight  was  necessary  in  order  to  se- 
cure an  impression  on  the  plate.  It 
was  found  that  the  photographic  plate 
was  blackened  even  when  the  phos- 
phorescent substance  had  not  been 
previously  subjected  to  sunlight. 
Pushing  his  experiments  still  further 
Becquerel  found  that  he  could  obtain 
the  effect  with  substances  that  did  not 
phosphoresce.  In  one  experiment  he 
placed  a  coin  between  the  substance 
being  examined  and  the  photographic 
plate  and  upon  developing  the  plate 
he  found  a  shadow  image  of  the  piece 
of  metal.  In  developing  that  photo- 
graphic plate  Becquerel  unlocked  a 
door  which  had  long  hidden  many  of 
nature's  most  precious  secrets.  In 
that  dark  room  that  day  man  took  a 
long  step  forward  in  his  search  for 
knowledge.  Here  was  a  substance 
capable  of  spontaneously  emitting 
something  which  passed  through  ma- 
terial opaque  to  ordinary  light.  Bec- 
querel had  discovered  a  new  form  of 
radiation,  and  these  new  rays  are 
called  Becquerel  rays  in  honor  of  their 
discoverer. 
Madame  CURIE'S  investigations 

The  substances  used  by  M.  Becque- 
rel in  these  experiments  were  com- 
pounds of  the  element  uranium.  In- 
spired by  the  important  discovery  of 
the  Becquerel  rays  other  investigators 
at  once  began  a  search  to  determine 
whether  any  other  substances  pos- 
sessed this  peculiar  property.  In  a 
short  time  two  investigators,  Schmidt 
and  Madame  Curie,  independently 
discovered  that  compounds  of  the 
element  thorium  emitted  rays  which 
were  similar   to   those   given   out  by 


m 


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uranium.  Those  compounds  which 
were  found  to  give  out  these  strange 
rays  came  to  be  known  as  radio-active 
substances,  and  this  new  property  as 
radio-activity. 

How  TO  DEMONSTRATE  RADIO-ACTIVITY 

It  is  not  difficult  to  repeat  some  of 
those  early  experiments  in  radio-activ- 
ity. An  ordinary  gas  mantle  contains 
a  small  quantity  of  thorium.  Wrap  a 
photographic  plate  in  black  paper  and 
place  the  same,  film  side  up,  where 
it  will  not  be  disturbed.  On  top  of 
the  plate  and  outside  of  the  light-proof 
envelope  place  a  gas  mantle.  The 
mantle  should  be  broken  open  so  that 
it  will  lie  flat.  After  about  ten  days 
develop  the  plate  in  the  usual  manner 
and  a  distinct  image  of  the  gas  mantle 
will  be  found  on  the  plate.  The 
Becquerel  rays  will  have  penetrated 
the  paper  and  produced  an  impression 
on  the  sensitive  photographic  film. 
If  a  piece  of  metal  such  as  a  coin  be 
placed  between  the  mantle  and   the 


paper  it  will  be  found  that  the  rays 
have  been  stopped  by  the  metal,  thus 
leaving  its  shadow  on  the  plate.  The 
accompanying  radiographs  were  made 
by  the  author  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  process  just  outlined. 

The    Ores   producing    radio-active 
elements 

But  this  strange  and  fascinating 
story  of  discovery  does  not  stop  here. 
Having  found  two  radio-active  ele- 
ments it  was  but  natural  to  examine 
the  mineral  ores  from  which  these 
elements  are  obtained.  Now  it  will 
be  remembered  that  an  ore  usually 
contains  a  number  of  different  ele- 
ments in  the  form  of  a  compound  or  a 
mixture  of  compounds.  It  happens 
that  the  radio-active  element  uranium 
is  found  in  the  ore  known  as  pitch- 
blende. This  ore  contains  lead,  oxy- 
gen and  nitrogen  as  well  as  uranium. 
Hence  if  we  have  an  ounce  of  pitch- 
blende only  a  small  part  of  this  amount 
will  be  pure  uranium.     M.  and  Ma- 


A  FILTER-PRESS  FOR  EXTRACTING  URANIUM    SALTS,  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  RADIUM -HOLDING 

MATERIALS 


» 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


185 


Alpha  Rays  (U}  to. 
HGlium  Atoms 


iii^^Ei-"-s* 


URAHIUM  .„        RADIUM.wAicA 

t/irowi'nffoffA/phaffays&0comea,  ed  '"  throwing  off  t/ie  £MANAT/oNr^  radio  active  Cos 

I'n  7Soaooo.OOO years,  after  a     ^^psfo'"'^  together  with  the  Alpha.Beta  ILGetmmaRa^S, 

couple  of  intermediate  stages,  f  becomes  in  850Oyears,f^fter  intermediate  stages, 


PRODUCTION  OF  RADIUM   FROM  URANIUM,  AND  OF  POLONIUM   FROM  RADIUM 


Alpha  Raysfo^  £.».  Hetium  Atoms  I 


219 


206       %■' 


.„to  POLON  I U  M  ^hich.after  ,  .„  6e  L  E  A D 

^ff^eo'     tfirowing  off  Alpha  flays  .  tplie^^ 

.!«'  becomes  tnahoutymonths      .L«t  i*  ,  ±. 

trartstormcd  into  an  elom«nt  w>"^  Note.  The  ffays  &  Emanation  are 

of  course  shown  in  diagram . 


THIS  PICTURE  SHOWS  HOW  THE  CHIEF  RADIO-ACTIVE    SUBSTANCES  DISINTEGRATE 


dame  Curie  compared  the  radio-activ- 
ity of  equal  amount  of  the  element 
uranium  and  the  ore  pitchblende  and 
found  to  their  astonishment  that  the 
ore  was  much  more  radio-active  than 
the  metal  uranium  itself.  This  at 
once  lead  them  to  the  important  con- 
clusion that  there  must  be  some  other 
substance  in  the  pitchblende  which 
was  many  times  more  active  than 
uranium  itself. 

The  Curies  at  once  began  a  search 
for  this  unknown  substance.  By  an 
extremely  long  and  very  tedious 
chemical  process  these  tireless  in- 
vestigators were  able  to  separate  out 
an  exceedingly  small  amount  of  this 
substance  after  working  over  several 


tons  of  pitchblende  ore.  In  fact,  two 
radio-active  elements  were  discovered 
and  separated  from  the  ore,  to  one 
Madame  Curie  gave  the  name  'polo- 
nium,, naming  it  after  her  native 
country,  Poland,  and  the  other  was 
called  radium.  Both  of  the  elements 
were  hundreds  of  times  more  radio- 
active than  uranium.  And  so  we  see 
how,  beginning  with  a  search  for  new 
methods  of  producing  x-rays,  we  are 
led  to  the  discovery  of  at  least  two 
new  elements — elements  which  pos- 
sess properties  entirely  unlike  those 
of  any  known  heretofore — elements 
which  have  proved  vastly  important 
because  cf  what  they  have  taught 
man  about  the  nature  of  matter. 


186 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


How      RADIUM      DIFFERS     FROM      OTHER 
ELEMENTS 

But  before  we  consider  the  question 
of  the  interpretation  of  radium  let  us 
glance  for  a  moment  at  some  of  the 
more  striking  properties  of  this  ele- 
ment, in  order  that  we  see  in  what 
respect  it  differs  from  other  elements 
such  as  gold  or  silver  or  carbon. 

One  of  the  several  striking  and 
interesting    properties    which    distin- 


still  self-luminous.  Radium  is  the  only 
known  substance  that  possesses  the 
peculiar  property  of  self-luminosity. 
Another  strange  fact  about  radium 
is  that  it  produces  heat  spontaneously, 
or,  in  other  words,  it  warms  itself. 
The  fact  was  discovered  by  M.  Curie 
and  Laborde  that  salts  of  radium  have 
a  temperature  that  is  always  higher 
than  that  of  their  surroundings.  This 
shows  that  heat  is  produced  in  and  by 


MEASURING  THE  RADIO-ACTIVITY  OF  SALTS  CONTAINING  RADIUM,  AS  THEY  ARE  MORE  AND  MORE 

PURIFIED 

Radium,  which  has  not  yet  been  separated  pure,  but  in  its  most  potent  form  as  a  chemical  compound  is  worth  more 
than  82,000,000  an  ounce,  is  found  in  infinitesimal  quantities  in  combination  with  other  substances.  Thus  a  ton  of  pitch- 
blende residues,  when  treated  for  2^i  months  with  five  tons  of  chemicals,  and  washed  with  fifty  tons  of  rinsing  water,  will 
produce  from  two  to  four  pounds  of  radium  bromide  of  low  radio-activity.  This  salt,  under  successive  purifications  and 
crystallizations,  leaves  smaller  amounts  of  radium  with  a  higher  radio-activity,  until  only  one-thirtieth  to  one-sixtieth 
part  of  a  grain  of  radium  remains  from  a  ton  of  residue;  but  its  radio-activity  will  be  forty  thousand  times  greater  than 
that  of  the  larger  mass  of  radium  bromide  first  obtained. 


guishes  radium  from  other  elements  is 
that  it  is  self-luminous.  While  the 
self-luminosity  is  not  intense  enough 
to  be  seen  in  ordinary  daylight  it  can 
be  seen  by  artificial  light.  This  light 
which  radium  emits  comes  from  the 
entire  mass  of  the  substance  and  not 
simply  from  the  surface,  and  continues 
to  be  given  out  for  long  periods  of 
time.  Samples  of  radium  which  have 
been  under  observation  for  years  are 


a  radium  compound  itself.  And  a 
still  further  astonishing  fact  is  that 
the  quantity  of  heat  developed  by  the 
radium  is  comparatively  very  great. 
It  has  been  determined  that  a  piece 
of  radium  gives  out  enough  heat 
every  hour  to  melt  its  own  weight  of 
ice,  and  that  it  will  continue  to  give 
out  heat  at  this  rate  for  an  indefinite 
period  of  time — in  fact  as  long  as  the 
radium,  as  such,  exists. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


187 


Still  another  striking  property  of 
vadium  is  its  ability  to  excite  phos- 
phorescence in  various  substances. 
Such  substances  as  paper,  cotton, 
diamond,  ruby,  various  chemical  com- 
pounds, and  certain  kinds  of  glass 
become  luminous  when  brought  near 
a  sample  of  radium.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  is  of  interest  to  note  that  glass 
which  phosphoresces  in  the  presence  of 
radium  slowly  changes  to  a  violet 
color  when  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
radium. 
Common  air  fairly  good  conductor 

It  is  also  true  that  common  air, 
which,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
does  not  easily  conduct  electricity, 
becomes  a  fairly  good  conductor  when 
exposed  to  the  action  of  radium.  So 
marked  is  this  effect  that  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  keep  a  body  charged  electrically 
within  several  feet  of  a  sample  of 
radium.  This  property  of  radium 
serves  as  a  very  delicate  test  of  its 
presence.  A  quantity  so  small  that 
it  cannot  be  seen  with  the  highest 
power  microscope  or  even  detected  by 
the  spectroscope  can  be  quickly  and 
easily  identified  by  its  effect  in 
discharging  an  electrified  body.  The 
Curies  used  this  method  to  detect  the 
presence  of,  and  to  measure  the  radio- 
activity of  specimens  of  radium  which 
they  extracted  from  pitchblende. 

The  chemical  action  of  radium  in 
producing  effects  similar  to  that  of 
light  upon  a  photographic  plate  have 
already  been  referred  to.  Closely 
allied  to  this  property  is  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  radiations  from  radium 
on  animal  tissues.  It  is  known  that 
an  active  sample  of  radium  will  pro- 
duce severe  burns  when  kept  near  the 
skin  for  any  length  of  time.  Such 
wounds  are  both  painful  and  slow  to 
heal.  Because  of  this  fact  specimens 
of  radium  which  are  strongly  radio- 
active and  which  are  to  be  carried 
about  are  kept  in  lead  capsules.     Ex- 


periments are  being  carried  out  at  the 
present  time  to  determine  whether  the 
radiations  from  radium  will  affect 
certain  diseased  tissues  of  the  human 
body  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  about 
a  cure,  but  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments have  yet  to  be  learned. 

The  properties  of  radium  which 
have  been  briefly  described  above 
serve  to  distinguish  this  element  from 
any  other  known  substance.  In  fact, 
certain  of  its  characteristics  are  so 
entirely  different  from  any  phenomena 
known  to  man  that  radium  stands  in 
a  distinct  class  by  itself.  Is  it  possible 
to  account  for  the  strange  behavior 
of  this  unusual  element,  and  what 
does  radium  teach  us  about  the  nature 
of  matter  and  the  sources  of  the 
world's  supply  of  energy?  These  are 
some  of  the  questions  which  will  now 
claim  our  attention. 
Extraction  of  radium  from  ores 

The  extraction  of  radium  from  the 
ore  is  exceedingly  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive, and  involves  three  processes, 
mechanical  preparation,  chemical 
treatment,  and  "fractionization,"  as 
described  by  Wickham  and  Degrais, 
eminent  French  scientists,  as  follows: 

Mechanical  Preparation:  This  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  different  operations: 
grinding,  which  crushes  the  pieces  of 
ore  to  the  size  of  a  nut;  pulverization, 
which  reduces  it  to  a  very  fine  powder; 
and,  finally,  mechanical  enrichment 
by  dressing. 

Chemical  Treatment:  Radium  is 
found  in  an  insoluble  state  in  the 
residues  of  pitchblende,  unassailable 
by  acids,  mixed  or  combined  with 
earthly  silicates,  alkaline  earth  and 
alkalis,  etc.,  all  being  inactive  sub- 
stances. Repeated  washing  with  hy- 
drochloric acid  and  water  rids  the 
residue  of  a  large  quantity  of  this  in- 
active matter.  The  insoluble  part 
contains  the  radium.  It  is  then  sub- 
mitted to   a  long  boiling  with   car- 


188  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

bonate    of    soda,     transforming    the  ray,  thrust  out  in  the  disintegration 

radium  salts  into  salts  which  are  still  of  the  radium. 

insoluble  but   henceforth   able   to   be  Character  of  radiation 

acted   upon   by   acids.     Hydrochloric  Radium    is    constantly    undergoing 

acid  is  again  used  to  dissolve  out  the  disintegration,  breaking  up  into  incon- 

radium  and  permit  of  its  concentra-  ceivably    minute   particles   of   matter 

tion.  that  fly  out  from  the  mass  at  an  in- 

Fractionization:     This   operation   is  credible  rate  of  speed,  and  consuming 

extremely  delicate.     It  is  divided  into  an  energy  that  transcends  the  human 

three    phases:     gross    fractionization,  imagination.     And  the  wonder  of  it 

fine  fractionization,   and  the  definite  all  is  that  this  tremendous  energy  is 

fractionization  of  the  bromides.  emitted  without  cessation  for  20,000 

In  crystallizing  a  solution  of  radium-  years;     at    the    end    of    a    "half-life" 

bearing  barium  chloride,   it  is  found  period,  or  two  thousand  years,  half  of 

that  the  crystals  contain  more  radium  it  will  have  disintegrated;    at  the  end 

than    the    mother   liquor   which    held  of  another  two  thousand  years,   half 

them.     It  is  this  fact  which  is  utilized  of  the  remainder  will  have  disintegrat- 

in  fractionization  to  determine  a  series  ed,  half  of  the  remainder  at  the  end 

of  crystallizations  extracted  from  the  of  another  two  thousand  years,  and 

mother  liquors.  so    on     until     all    has     passed    into 

By  this  definite  fractionization  it  is  decay, 

possible  to  obtain  the  concentration  of  Alpha  Rays:     This  radiation  is  not 

a  few  centigrammes   of  almost   pure  homogeneous,    but    is    made    up    of 

radium  bromide,  to  secure  which  it  is  three    kinds    of    rays,    designated    as 

necessary  to  utilize  fifty-six   tons    of  alpha   (a),   beta   (b),  and  gamma   (y) 

products:    one  ton  of  ore,  five  tons  of  rays,   differing   vastly   in   velocity,   in 

chemical    matter    and    fifty    tons    of  penetrative  power,  and  in  therapeutic 

water.  effects. 

Although    quite    recently    Madame  The    alpha    rays    are    made    up    of 

Curie  has  succeeded  in  isolating  -pure  minute  particles  carrying  a  charge  of 

radium,  yet  as  employed  in  therapeutic  positive  electricity,  and  traveling  at  a 

work  it  is  one  of  several  compounds,  speed    of    more    than    nine    thousand 

such    as    radium    bromide    (Ra    Brj  miles  a  second.     Their  penetration  is 

2H2O);     radium    sulphate    (Ra    SO4);  not  great,  however,  for  they  are  com- 

radium  chloride  (Ra  CI2) ;  and  radium  pletely  stopped  by  a  sheet  of  ordinary 

carbonate  (Ra  CO3).  note  paper,  by  a  sheet  of  aluminum 

An    apparatus    much    used    in    the  .006   centimeters   thick,    or   by   three 

study  of  radium  is  the  spinthariscope,  inches  of  air. 

an  apparatus  devised  by  Sir  William  A  fact  of  great  interest  to  physicists 

Crookes  to  demonstrate  the  luminous  is  this,  that  many  evidences  seem  to 

qualities  of  the  metal.     It  consists  of  prove,    either    that    the    particles    of 

a  short  brass  tube,  one  end  of  which  is  matter  which  constitute  the  alpha  ray 

closed  by  a  convex  lens,  and  the  other  consist  of  helium,  or  that  the  alpha 

by  a  screen  of  zinc  sulphide,  directly  rays  are  converted  in  radiation  into 

in  front  of  which  is  placed  a  minute  helium,    that    strange    element    long 

quantity    of    radium.     Upon    looking  known  to  exist  in  the  sun  and  certain 

through  the  lens  one  sees  the  screen  planets,  but  which  until  recent  years 

lit  up  by  brilliant  scintillations,  each  was  not  known  to  exist  upon  the  earth, 

the  effect  of  the  impact  of  the  alpha  The  spectrum  of  helium  has  been  found 


STRIKING  VISION  OF  THE  RADIO-ACTIVITY  OF  AN  ATOM 


Vhe  invisible  alpha  particles  or  Helium  atoms  throwt, 
off  in  a  constant  stream  by  the  mi  note  speck  of  Radium 
those  that  imprnge  on  the  oval  screen  of  Zinc  -.jti/fihide  ■      '^ 
can  be  seen,  when  highly  magnified,  producing  a  bright  \-_^ 

splash  of  light  where  each  one  stri/tes  the  screen  ■■  i^  # 

■  ■ '    :    ;  ^;  .'  /  '^  ■'  ■■'  ^'.  .■  .-■  -^  -.4'   ■ ' 


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Radiurn 


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Aa  invisible  speck  of  radium  throwing  out  invisible  atoms  that  sparkle  into  sight  on  a  film 


On  the  point  of  this  needle     ' 
IS  p/ctced  the  imaJhsi    N 

possible- oarticle  of  Radium 
that  can  be  obtained. 


'de  only 
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THE  SPINTHARISCOPE,  WHICH  ENABLES  RADIUM  PARTICLES  TO  BE  SEEN  SHIMMERING  CLEARLY 

These  pictures  show  the  means  by  which  the  marvelous  energy  stored  up  in  radium  may  be  observed.  From  a  speck 
of  radium  too  small  to  be  seen  a  stream  of  helium  atoms  pours  forth,  and  will  do  so  for  2500  years  before  the  radium  ceases 
to  exist.  The  flying  particles  fall  on  a  zinc  sulphide  screen  or  film  like  hailstones  splashing  on  the  surface  of  water,  and  the 
splash  is  visible,  while  the  radium  Itself  and  flying  atoms  are  not.  This  la  the  nearest  men  have  yet  come  to  seeing  an 
actual  atom. 


189 


190 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


to  appear  in  a  tube  into  which  radium 
emanation  has  been  put,  and  if  the 
process  is  one  of  conversion  of  radium 
into  hehum,  scientists  see  in  the 
phenomenon  a  fulfihnent  of  the  dream 
of  the  alchemists  of  all  ages — the 
transmutation  of  a  baser  into  a  nobler 
metal,  under  the  influence  of  the 
tremendous  energy  liberated  by  the 
disintegration  of  the  radium  atom. 

Beta  Rays:  It  has  now  been  dem- 
onstrated that  the  beta  ray  of  radium 
is  practically  identical  with  the  cathode 
stream  of  the  vacuum  tube,  but 
traveling  with  a  much  higher  velocity. 
They  have,  owing  to  their  greater 
velocity,  a  greater  penetrability  than 
the  alpha  rays,  being  to  the  latter  as 
one  hundred  is  to  one.  In  therapeu- 
tics, three  types  of  beta  rays  are 
recognized:  hard,  medium  and  soft, 
in  the  order  of  their  hardness. 

Gamma  Rays:  The  gamma  rays, 
unlike  the  alpha  and  beta  rays,  do  not 
consist  of  material  particles,  but  are 
electro-magnetic  pulsations  of  the 
ether,  similar  to  x-rays,  light  and 
Hertzian  waves,  probably  originating 
in  the  explosion  of  the  radium  atoms 
in  their  disintegration.  The  gamma 
rays  have  a  remarkable  degree  of 
penetrability.  If  we  place  a  screen 
coated  with  barium  platino-cyanide 
crystals  in  the  dark,  a  metre  away 
from  a  powerful  radium  apparatus, 
the  screen  is  illuminated  with  a 
diffused  light;  if  we  lessen  the  dis- 
tance, the  light  becomes  concentrated 
and  brilliant.  This  experiment  shows 
that  the  rays  have  passed  through 
the  air. 

Again,  if  we  place  a  book,  a  stone,  or 
any  substance  whatever  (the  experi- 
ment through  a  door  or  a  partition 
wall  is  interesting),  or  interpose  or- 
ganic tissues — the  human  body  for 
example— between  the  screen  and  the 
radium,  the  screen  continues  to  be 
ijhiniinated;  and  its  refulgence  is  at 


the  same  time  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
power  of  the  radio-active  sources,  and 
in  inverse  ratio  to  the  thickness  or 
density  of  the  interposed  body.  For 
this  reason,  certain  substances,  such 
as  aluminum,  mica,  and  certain  var- 
nishes, are  easily  penetrable,  while 
others,  such  as  lead,  silver  and  plati- 
num, offer,  on  the  contrary,  greater 
resistance. 

Separation  of  Rays:  This  three- 
fold composition  of  radium  is  impor- 
tant, since  by  proper  means  of  sepa- 
ration the  various  rays  can  be  isolated 
and  applied  therapeutically  as  the 
paxticular  case  demands.  Thus,  if  it 
is  desired  to  direct  the  gamma  rays 
alone  upon  the  body,  a  sheet  of  lead, 
say  five  millimeters  of  thickness,  will 
cut  out  both  the  alpha  and  the  beta 
rays;  if  it  is  desired  to  utilize  the  beta 
rays,  a  sheet  of  note  paper  or  of  alu- 
minum or  other  metal  of  a  certain 
thickness  will  cut  off  the  alpha  rays 
and  permit  the  gamma  and  the  beta 
rays  to  enter  the  tissues.  Still  an- 
other method  of  isolating  the  various 
rays  is  by  means  of  magnetic  deflec- 
tion. If  radiation  is  made  to  cross 
the  space  between  the  poles  of  a 
powerful  electro-magnet,  the  alpha 
rays  will  be  bent  in  one  direction,  the 
beta  in  the  opposite,  while  the  gamma 
rays  are  not  affected  electro-magneti- 
cally  whatever. 

Delta  Rays:  A  group  of  rays  called 
"delta"  (d)  rays  by  Professor  J.  J. 
Thomson,  a  famous  English  physicist, 
are  set  up  by  secondary  radiation. 
When  a  stream  of  beta  rays,  for  exam- 
ple, falls  on  matter  of  any  kind,  it  is 
scattered  widely  in  all  directions,  the 
scattered  radiation  giving  rise  to 
"secondary  beta  rays,"  and  gamma 
rays  giving  rise  in  contact  with  mat- 
ter to  "secondary  gamma  rays."  In 
a  similar  way  very  feeble  "secondary 
alpha  rays"  are  produced  from  alpha 
ra^^s, 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


191 


I  Radium 
Emanations  ■" 


Radium  \  Alpha  rays 
Beta  rays 
( Gamma  rays  I 


Alpha  rays 
Beta  rays 
Gamma  rays 


Radium  emanation 

A  still  more  remarkable  product  of 
the  rays  is  "radium  emanation,  or 
niton,"  a  gas  which  is  being  constantly 
emitted  by  radium.  And,  strange  to 
say,  this  gas,  weight  for  weight,  is 
one  hundred  thousand  times  as  radio- 
active as  radium  itself,  and,  like 
radium,  gives  off  alpha,  beta,  and 
gamma  rays,  first  having  gone  through 
a  group  of  intermediate  substances 
known  as  radium  A,  radium  B,  radium 
C,  radium  D,  radium  E,  radium  F, 
and  radium  G  (the  accompanying 
chart  shows  the  relation  of  these 
various  aspects  of  radiation). 

"Radium  A" 
Radium  B 
Radium  C 
Radium  D 
Radium  E 
Radium  F 
^Radium  G'' 

f Secondary 
\      alpha  rays 
Secondary  J  Secondary 
Radiation     j      beta  rays 
I  Secondary 
V     gamma  rays 

Induced  radio-activity 

Still  another  type  of  radiation  con- 
sists of  what  is  known  as  "induced 
activity."  So  long  ago  as  1899  Pro- 
fessor and  Madame  Curie  found  that 
the  surface  of  any  body  placed  near 
radium,  or  immersed  in  radium  emana- 
tion, acquires  thereby  a  decided  radio- 
activity. Water  has  been  found  to 
acquire  radio-activity  in  this  manner, 
a  fact  which  has  been  utilized  in  the 
treatment  of  various  disorders,  as  for 
instance  at  Hoachimsthal,  where  the 
spring  waters  become  radio-actively 
charged  by  passing  over  pitchblende 
ore.  As  to  the  duration  and  strength 
of  the  radio-active  property  conferred 
in  this  manner,  Wickham  and  Degrais 
have  shown  that  these  depend  on  the 
length  and  intensity  of  the  contact, 
as  well  as  upon  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stances impregnated.  When  the  ema- 
nation is  separated  from  the  radium 
its  life  is  of  short  duration,  and  the 
induced  radio-activity  determined  by 
ttie  thus  isol3,ted  emanation  dies  out 


rapidly.  The  loss  follows  a  well- 
defined  law  of  diminution.  It  is 
fifty  per  cent  every  half-hour  as  long  as 
the  body  impregnated  with  radio- 
activity is  not  enclosed,  while,  if  en- 
closed, the  loss  corresponds  to  only 
half  the  activity  in  four  days.  This  is 
why  the  radio-activity  of  mineral 
waters  does  not  last  when  taken  from 
their  source. 

If  the  emanation  remains  in  proximity 
to  the  radium  so  that  it  is  replen- 
ished in  proportion  to  its  loss,  the 
radio-activity  produced  is  more  con- 
stant. For  example,  when  the  radium 
atom  is  introduced  into  the  tissues  of 
the  body  the  sources  of  induced  radio- 
activity are  much  more  lasting. 
Therapeutic  application  of  radium 

Thus,  in  the  therapeutic  use  of 
radium  the  physician  has  a  wide 
variety  of  applications  from  which  to 
choose :  the  alpha,  beta  or  gamma  rays, 
or  all  three  combined,  the  secondary 
rays,  radium  emanation,  and  induced 
radiation.  Strange  to  say,  however, 
the  therapeutic  value  of  radium  was 
not  discovered  until  1901,  three  years 
after  the  discovery  of  radium  by  the 
Curies.  In  that  year  Becquerel  visited 
London,  carrjdng  in  his  waistcoat 
pocket  a  small  tube  containing  a 
minute  quantity  of  radium.  He  soon 
became  conscious  of  a  soreness  at  the 
point  of  his  body  against  w^hich  the 
small  tube  of  radium  had  pressed. 
Examining  the  spot  he  found  the  flesh 
inflamed,  and  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  burn  was  caused  by  the 
radium.  This  inflammation,  which 
has  become  famous  as  the  "Becquerel 
burn,"  gave  rise  to  an  extended  study 
of  the  effect  of  radium  on  tissues  of 
the  human  body,  especially  with 
reference  to  its  use  in  the  treatment  of 
disease. 

Professor  Danysz,  of  the  Pasteur 
Institute,  Paris,  found  that  three 
hours'  exposure  to  radium  wa§  su:ffi- 


192 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


cient  to  give  rise  to  painful  inflamma- 
tion. In  experiments  upon  a  guinea 
pig  he  found  that  minute  amounts  of 
radium  sealed  in  a  glass  tube  and 
placed  against  the  body  would  burn 
off  the  hair  and  produce  a  painful  dis- 
turbance of  the  tissues,  which,  how- 
ever, would  feel  like  any  other  sore. 

The  results  were  scarcely  less  re- 
markable in  the  case  of  experiments 
upon  young  mice.  Placing  radium  a 
few  inches  above  the  animals,  he 
found  that  the  mice  became  "dopey" 
within  a  short  time,  paralysis  of  the 
hind  legs  followed,  with  convulsions 
and  ultimate  death.  Larval  worms 
which  he  subjected  to  radium  were 
likewise  affected,  many  of  them  dying 
and  the  others  showing  retarded  de- 
velopment. Those  specimens  which 
were  not  treated  with  radium  grew 
into  normal  beetles. 
The  treatment  of  cancer 

These  experiments  showed  conclu- 
sively that  radium  has  a  very  vital 
effect  upon  healthy  human  tissue,  and 
attention  was  centered  at  once  upon 
the  possibility  of  curing  cancer  by 
the  new  method.  Study  was  first 
made  of  such  abnormalities  of  the  skin 
as  warts,  and  these,  it  was  found, 
reacted  at  once  to  the  effects  of 
radium,  after  one  treatment  disap- 
pearing in  a  very  few  days.  Attention 
was  next  turned  to  those  tumor-like 
growths  which  frequently  appear  on 
the  face.  These  had  been  successfully 
removed  by  the  surgeon's  knife,  but 
often  at  the  expense  of  a  horrible  dis- 
figurement of  the  part.  If  no  trace 
of  the  tumor  was  left  in  the  svstem, 
the  cure  was  permanent,  but,  as  too 
often  happened,  it  was  not  entirely 
removed,  and  the  growth  reappeared. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  type  of 
cancer,  radium  has  achieved  wonder- 
ful results.  In  the  deeper-lying  tis- 
sues, however,  the  cancer  is  less  easily 
reached,  and  the  diflficulty  is  thus  in- 


creased manifold,  although  here  re- 
markable results  have  been  secured. 
One  of  the  early  experiment?  was  upon 
a  youth  of  seventeen,  who  had  a 
rapidly  growing  cancer  on  the  lower 
jaw,  a  "giant-celled"  type  of  tumor  of 
great  malignancy.  An  operation  was 
apparently  the  only  means  of  saving 
the  patient's  life,  and  the  success  even 
of  this  was  entirely  problematical. 
Radium  was  applied,  and  after  a  few 
applications  the  cancer  entirely  dis- 
appeared and  normal,  healthy  bone 
grew  in  its  place. 

Except  in  a  few  rare  instances,  such 
as  growths  of  the  palate,  tonsils  and 
gums,  the  results  of  radium  treatment 
of  cancer  of  the  mouth  have  not  been 
very  satisfactory. 

In  the  treatment  of  deep-lying  and 
malignant  cancers,  such  as  cancer  of 
the  breast,  cancer  of  the  pelvic  organs, 
etc.,  the  efficacy  of  radium  is  still  un- 
determined, though  this  much  is 
known,  that  it  reduces  pain,  and  re- 
tards the  growth  of  the  tumor,  even 
in  the  most  obstinate  cases;  and  there 
have  already  occurred  a  number  of 
authenticated  cures. 

Radium    treatment    of    rheumatic 
conditions 

Radium  emanation  has  also  been 
used  with  some  degree  of  success  in 
rheumatic  conditions,  notably  by  Dr. 
Paude  and  others  in  the  treatment  of 
arthritis  deformans,  subacute  and 
chronic  rheumatism,  gonorrheal  rheu- 
matism, neuralgia,  and  such  cutaneous 
affections  as  pruritus.  A  form  of 
application  used  extensively  in  these 
disorders  is  induced  radio-activity; 
that  is,  by  bathing  the  patient  in 
water  which,  by  its  contact  with  ra- 
dium or  radium  emanations,  has 
acquired  a  radio-activity  of  its  own. 

But,  after  all,  the  most  momentous 
results  have  been  obtained  in  experi- 
ments upon  cancer,  owing  partly  to 
the  fact  that  a  cure  for  this  horrible 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  193 

malady  Is  being  sought  with  greater  plants.     Again,  in  some  cancer  cases 

and  still  greater  eagerness  by  scien-  treated  with  radium,   the  effect  was 

tists,  and  also  by  the  further  fact  that  found  only  to  increase  the  virulence  of 

the  gamma  rays  seem  to  have  an  affin-  the  lesion  and  to  hurry  the  patient's 

ity  for  the  cells  that  make  up  can-  death. 

cerous  tissue,  a  fact  demonstrated  by  As  soon  as  these  facts  became 
the  phenomenon  that  gamma  rays  known,  the  attempt  was  made,  of 
pass  through  surrounding  healthy  course,  to  isolate  the  various  rays,  and 
tissue  and  leave  them  unharmed,  but  to  make  it  possible  to  treat  when 
penetrate  and  destroy  at  once  the  dis-  necessary  any  diseased  tissues  with 
eased  cancer  tissue.  The  rays  seem  gamma  rays  exclusively  and  in  any 
to  find  some  substance  in  the  diseased  strength  desired.  A  means  of  accom- 
tissue  that  it  does  not  find  in  the  plishing  this  with  some  success  has 
healthy  tissue,  and  proceeds  to  de-  since  been  discovered,  as  we  have 
stroy  it.  found,  both  by  using  metal  plates  or 
Difficulties  of  standardization  other  substances  of  varying  degrees  of 
One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that  thickness,  or  by  means  of  electro- 
has  stood  in  the  way  of  the  therapeutic  magnetic  deflectors.  Thus  satisfae- 
use  of  radium  has  been  the  fact  that  tory  standardization  seems  assured  in 
standardization  has  developed  slowly,  the  future,  when  emanation  and  in- 
The  variation  in  strength  of  the  various  duced  radio-activity  can  be  brought 
rays,  not  only  of  the  radium  itself,  but  under  equally  complete  control, 
of  radium  emanation  and  of  induced  The  conservation  of  radium 
and  secondary  radio-activity,  under  The  problem  of  a  more  exact  appli- 
varying  conditions  has  made  it  difficult  cation  of  radium  has  taken  on  new 
to  apply  any  forms  of  the  metal  with  interest  through  the  efforts  of  leading 
any  degree  of  accuracy.  American  radium  workers  to  con- 
There  is  the  further  fact,  too,  that  serve,  by  national  means,  the  sources 
alpha,  beta  and  gamma  rays  have  en-  in  this  country  of  carnotlte  ores,  and 
tirely  different  effects  upon  body  thus  to  make  accessible  to  American 
tissue,  whereas  the  physician  in  the  physicians  a  larger  supply  of  radium, 
early  experiments  applied  all  three  Dr.  Howard  A.  Kelly,  of  the  Johns 
rays  indiscriminately  to  the  affected  Hopkins  University,  is  sponsoring  the 
tissue,  unconscious  of  the  fact  that  movement,  and  believes  that  radium 
one  ray  might  act  quite  differently  has  only  to  be  produced  in  sufficiently 
from  the  others,  and  produce  harmful  large  quantities  to  make  its  benefits 
effects.  universally  accessible. 

The     alpha    rays,    owing     to     the  It  is   the  concensus   of  opinion   of 

fact  that  they  cannot  penetrate  deeply  experts  that  enormous  doses  of  gamma 

into    the    tissues,    have    little    effect  rays  can  be  given  without  injury  and 

beyond  inflaming  surface  tissue,  as  in  that  the  favorable  results  in  success- 

the  case  of  Becquerel  burn.     The  beta  ful  cases  have  been  due  to  the  fact 

rays,  again,  have  a  particularly  stimu-  that  very  large  doses  have  been  used, 

lant  effect  upon  growth  when  applied  The  extreme  rarity  of  radium  makes  it 

to   plant   equally    with    animal    cells,  physically    impossible    of    occupying 

Oats,  for  instance,  when  subjected  to  the  widest  field  of  usefulness,  and  this 

the  influence  of  beta  rays,  have  been  limitation  is  increased  by  the  conse- 

found  to  grow  much  larger  and  de-  quent  price,  which  was  recently  quoted 

velop  more  fully  than  ordinary  oat  at  $120,000  per  gram. 


19Jf 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


•-  .---ifRi" 


SCENES  FROM   THE  MOVING  PICTURE  WORLD 


MOVING    PICTURES— THE    WORLD    IN    REVIEW 


A  QUARTER  of  a  century  ago 
animated  photography,  or  the 
moving  picture,  was  an  un- 
dreamed dream.  Today,  though  an 
impressive  reahty,  it  is  still  marvelous. 
Professor  Frederick  Starr,  the  noted 
traveler  and  sociologist,  has  very 
graphically  characterized  it  thus: 

"I  have  seen  Niagara  thunder  over 
her  gorge  in  the  noblest  frenzy  ever 
beheld  by  man;  I  have  watched  a 
Queensland  river  under  the  white 
light  of  an  Australasian  moon  go 
whirling  and  swirling  through  strange 
islands  lurking  with  bandicoot  and 
kangaroo;  I  have  watched  an  English 
railroad  train  draw  into  a  station, 
take  on  its  passengers  and  then  chug 
away  with  its  stubby  little  engine 
through  the  Yorkshire  Dells,  past  old 
Norman  Abbeys  silhouetted  against 
the  skyline,  while  a  cluster  of  centurj^- 
aged  cottages  loomed  up  in  the  valley 
below,  through  which  a  yokel  drove 
his  flock  of  Southdowns;  I  have 
beheld  fat  old  Rajahs  with  the  price 
of  a  thousand  lives  bejewelled  in  their 
monster  turbans,  and  the  price  of  a 
thousand  deaths  sewn  in  their  royal 
nightshirts  as  they  indolently  swayed 
in  golden  howdahs,  borne  upon  the 
backs  of  grunting  elephants;  I  saw  a 
runaway  horse  play  battledoor  and 
shuttlecock  with  the  citizens  and 
traffic  of  a  little  Italian  village,  whose 


streets  had  not  known  so  much  com- 
motion since  the  sailing  of  Columbus; 
I  know  how  the  Chinaman  lives  and 
I  have  been  through  the  homes  of 
the  Japanese;  I  have  marveled  at  the 
daring  of  Alpine  tobogganists  and 
admired  the  wonderful  skill  of  Nor- 
wegian ski  jumpers;  I  have  seen 
armies  upon  the  battlefield  and  their 
return  in  triumph ;  I  have  looked  upon 
weird  dances  and  outlandish  frolics  in 
every  quarter  of  the  globe,  and  I 
didn't  have  to  leave  Chicago  for  a 
moment. 

"No  books  have  taught  me  all 
these  wonderful  things;  no  lecturer 
has  pictured  them;  I  simply  dropped 
into  a  moving  picture  theater  at 
various  moments  of  leisure;  and  at 
the  total  cost  for  all  the  visits  of  per- 
haps two  performances  of  an  ordinary 
show,  I  have  learned  more  than  a 
traveler  could  see  at  the  cost  of 
thousands  of  dollars  and  years  of 
journeying." 

The  moving  picture  industry  makes 
for  us  volumes  of  history  and  action. 
It  gives  a  great  variety  to  the  themes 
of  entertainment  and  is  at  the  same 
time  a  mighty  force  of  instruction. 
We  do  not  analyze  the  fact  that  when 
we  read  of  an  English  wreck  we  at 
once  see  an  English  train  before  us, 
or  when  we  learn  of  a  battle  that  an 
altogether     different     panorama     is 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


195 


visualized  than  our  former  erroneous 
impression  of  a  hand-to-hand  con- 
flict; we  are  famiUar  with  the  geog- 
raphy of  Europe ;  we  are  well  acquaint- 
ed with  how  the  Frenchman  dresses, 
in  what  sort  of  a  home  he  lives,  and 
from  what  sort  of  a  shop  he  buys  his 
meat  and  greens. 

Today  the  moving  picture  industry 
is  developed  to  a  high  degree  of  per- 
fection in  America  and  Europe.  Mil- 
lions of  dollars  are  invested  in  the 
production  of  moving  picture  films; 
entire  companies  of  trained  and 
practiced  actors  are  carried  to  every 
interesting  spot  on  the  continent  and 
carefully  drilled  to  enact  pantomimes 
which  will  concentrate  within  the  space 
of  a  few  minutes  the  most  entertaining 
and  instructive  incidents  of  the  world. 

How  IT  WAS  DISCOVERED 

The  basis  for  animated  photog- 
raphy— or    the     continuity     or    per- 


sistence of  human  vision — was  noted 
by  the  famous  Arabian  astronomer, 
Ptolemy,  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  retina  of  the  human  eye  has  the 
psychological  property  of  retaining 
for  a  brief  time,  the  tenth  of  a  second 
the  impression  of  an  image  after  the 
object  which  produced  it  has  dis- 
appeared. If  these  images  are  shown 
representing  successive  positions  as- 
sumed by  the  object  in  motion,  the 
impression  conveyed  to  the  eye  is 
that  of  continuous  movement  without 
intermission. 

No  practical  use  of  the  observations 
of  the  ancients  was  made  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  at 
which  time  a  scientific  toy  called  the 
"Dream  Top"  w^as  evolved  in  France. 
This  had  an  added  charm  in  1829, 
when  another  scientist  invented  the 
Phantoscope,  a  disk  revolving  around 
eight  spokes  viewed  the  perforations 


A  MOVING   PICTURE   STAGE 
This  shows  how  the  stage  is  artificially  lllumLnated.    The  artificial  lighting  equipment  In  the  main  Selig  studio  is  only 
used  when  the  sunshine  is  inadequate.     A  traveling  frame  holds  15  quartz  tube  Cooper-Hewitt  lights,  each  bearing  4500 
candle  power,  being  in  a  space  12  feet  square  10  feet  above  the  scene.     On  either  side  of  the  scene  are  banks  of  mercury 
vapor  lamps  (witb  tubes  50  inches  long) ;  this  floods  Its  limited  stage  section  with  approximately  100,000  candle  power. 


196  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

in  the  edges.     In   1841   photography  change   of  pictures.     Since   then   the 

having  come  into  the  possession  of  the  SeHg  polyscope  and  numerous  other 

people,  photographs  were  substituted  motion    picture    machines    have    ap- 

in  this  device  for  drawings.  peared  with  numerous  new  and  valu- 

The  next  most  important  move,  in  able  improvements  that  have  added 

a    great    invention,     was    made    by  immensely  to  the   vital   illusion  and 

Edward   Muybridge,    official    photog-  the    artistic    conviction    imposed    by 

rapher  of  the  United  States  Govern-  the  flying  film, 

ment,  who,  in  1872,  made  a  series  of  Mechanism  of  the  camera 

practical  experiments  in  which  cam-  The  celluloid  film  upon  which  the 

eras  caught  the  movements  of  horses  photographs    are   taken,    is    one    and 

in  motion,  reproducing  what  he  called  three-eighths  inches  wide,  is  in  rows 

"animal  locomotion."     In  this  Muy-  of    two    hundred    and    four    hundred 

bridge   utilized   twenty-four  cameras,  feet   in   length   and   certainly   has    a 

engaging     in     their     process    certain  tensile  strain  equal  to   that   of   linen 

springs,  which  struck  by  the  passing  paper,  which  is  said  to  be  over  seven 

animals,  released  the  shutters  of  the  hundred    pounds.     This    film    is   per- 

cameras,  catching  the  particular  pose  forated    on    each    side    in    successive 

of  the  passing  instant.  areas  three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep. 

The  celluloid  negative  the  equivalent  of  a  picture  (eighteen 

It   was   not,    however,    until    1889,  perfect  pictures  to  a  foot),  so  that  it 

that  Friese-Green  and  Evans  patented  can  be  seized  by  the  running  sprockets 

a    machine    in    England    for    taking  and   brought   taut   into   position   be- 

pictures  on  celluloid — that  this  sub-  hind  the  lens  (sixty-four  perforations 

stance    became    the    invaluable    sub-  to   the   foot  is   the   Edison   standard 

stitute    for    glass,    in    photography,  gauge).     Nearly   all  the  picture  film 

This   made   it  a  comparatively   easy  made  in  America  is  manufactured  in 

matter  for  a  long  series  of  negatives  one  establishment, 

to    be    taken    upon    a    continuous.  The  mechanism  of  a  cinematograph 

transparent,    flexible    support    which  camera,  seems  comparatively  simple, 

became  the  perfected  base  of  moving  yet  the  Selig  cameras  are  adjusted  to 

pictures.  a  thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  showing 

Improvements  OF  EDISON  AND  LUMiERE  their  accuracy  of  graduation.     These 

In  1893,  Thomas  A.  Edison  in-  cameras  hold  two  film  boxes — the 
vented  the  kinetograph  and  two  years  upper  for  carrying  the  unexposed  film 
later  Lumiere  in  France,  who  had  — the  lower  for  housing  the  exposed 
been  working  independently  along  product,  working  upon  the  system  of 
the  same  line,  exhibited  his  kinometo-  roller  photography.  The  lens  is  set 
graph  in  Paris.  The  American,  com-  centrally  in  the  front  face  of  the 
mercially  and  practically,  demonstra-  camera  with  focusing  effected  by 
ted  the  possibilities  of  a  new  invention  moving  the  lens  itself.  It  is  addi- 
and  consequently  Edison  gets  a  royalty  tionally  fitted  with  stopping  facili- 
from  all  film  users  for  his  perforation  ties  on  the  well  known  Iris  principle, 
in  the  edge  of  the  film,  which  holds  it  The  mechanism  with  an  intermittent 
steady  and  eliminates  the  jumpy  side  motion,  pulls  forward  the  film  three- 
motion  that  used  to  be  so  distressing  quarters  of  an  inch  after  each  exposure, 
in  the  showing  of  films.  Lumiere  the  film  passing  through  a  narrow  slit 
introduced  the  drop-shutter,  which  from  under  the  unexposed  film  box 
disguised  the  hiatus  involved  in  the  over   a  sprocket  wheel   kept  in  firm 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


197 


mesh  by  a  guide-roller,  so  that  the 
film  is  moved  and  exposed  with  mathe- 
matical accuracy  through  the  swing- 
ing gate  when  the  exposure  takes 
place  and  then,  by  a  similar  process, 
is  drawn  safely  into  the  lower  film 
box.  This  is  mounted  on  a  special 
heavy  tripod,  so  that  the  camera  can 
be  swung  panoramically  or  be  moved 
through  a  large  vertical  arc. 

The  developing,  printing  and  tint- 
ing of  the  films,  is  an  involved  scien- 
tific process  conducted  upon  a  large, 
but  accurate  scale.  A  large  plant 
frequently  develops  and  prints  up- 
wards of  300,000  feet  of  film  in  a 
week. 

Present  extent  and  future    possi- 
bilities OF  MOTOGRAPHY 

Although  the  art  of  motography  in 
its  large  appeal  to  the  public  is  less 
than  ten  years  old,  its  serious,  scien- 
tific development  is  said  to  now  repre- 
sent an  investment  in  this  country 
alone  of  over  $50,000,000.00  in  ex- 
pensive plants  equipped  with  special 
and  elaborate  machines.  Up  to  date 
there  is  said  to  be  fully  30,000  theaters 
in  the  United  States  devoted  to  the 
use  of  moving  pictures.  The  pro- 
ducers and  manufacturers  of  moving 
pictures  have  kept  pace  wuth  the 
growing  demands  of  an  eager  and  ap- 
preciative public  in  regard  to  the  in- 
terest and  the  quality  of  their  product. 
In  the  vast  domain  of  picture  play, 
they  have  enlisted  stock  companies 
for  the  silent  drama  that  have  in 
them  the  best  Thespian  talent  pro- 
curable and  the  great  stars  of  the  stage 
are  now  appearing  in  such  productions 
to  make  pantomime  a  more  poetic 
and  potential  attraction  than  ever 
before.  The  motion  picture  business 
has  a  broader,  a  more  serious  and  a 
more  lasting  value  in  the  educational 
way.  Historical  dramas,  great  events 
of  national  importance  have  an  in- 
fluence  too   infrequently    considered. 


but  have  enduring  qualities  that 
promise  to  add  greatly  to  the  world's 
store  of  knowledge.  The  so-called 
travel  films  are  an  equally  valuable 
asset,  as  they  concern  the  intimate 
information  for  the  public  in  bringing 
on  the  beauties  of  nature  and  the 
wonders  from  the  far  corners  of  the 
earth  for  the  observation  of  every 
community.  Another  form  of  the  in- 
forming values  of  pictures  come 
through  the  study  of  natural  history, 
scientific  and  microscopic  investiga- 
tion. The  delicate  art  of  the  surgeon 
is  now  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  medical  student  through  the 
searching  eye  of  the  camera,  while 
the  study  of  bacteria  is  microscopically 
accomplished  through  the  same  won- 
derful medium.  These  good  and  great 
accomplishments  of  motion  pictures 
are  adding  vastly  to  general  interest 
as  well  as  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
scientific  world. 

When  photography  is  accomplished 
in  color,  when  the  film  becomes  un- 
breakable and  can  be  perfectly  syn- 
chronized with  the  talking  machine, 
the  moving  picture  will  approximate 
perfection  in  its  impress  upon  the 
human  eye  and  ear.  It  has  already 
accomplished  marvels,  yet  still  ap- 
pears to  be  upon  the  threshold  of 
greater  things. 
How  the  picture  plays  are  staged 

In  the  taking  of  moving  pictures, 
the  camera  is  ordinarily  placed  fifteen 
feet  from  the  stage  to  show  people  at 
normal  height,  the  front  line  or  foot- 
light  of  the  scene  being  only  eight  or 
ten  feet  wide.  The  interiors  are  set 
at  an  angle  and  are  consequently  open 
on  two  sides  and  at  the  top,  so  that 
the  scene  gets  all  the  illumination 
possible.  Such  surroundings  limit  the 
radius  of  action  although  any  depth 
may  be  used  for  value  in  perspective. 
Naturally,  out-of-door  productions  al- 
low the  widest  liberty  of  action  and  a 


198 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  199 

sweep  to  the  horizon.     If  the  picture  veloped  through  "toning"  and  ahiiost 

of    persons    at    fifteen    feet    distance  stereoscopic    vahies    for    fihns.     The 

reveals    them   Hfe-size,    when    a   long  Cines  Company  of  Rome,  have  been 

focus  lens  is  used  and  they  are  photo-  singularly   successful   in   this   artistic 

graphed  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  touch.     The    French    secure    delicate 

and  fifty  feet,  they  resemble  Lilipu-  and  varying  effects  of  color  through 

tians — an  advantage  frequently  used  tiny  stencils  applied  to  the  films,  the 

in  the  production  of  fairy  plays.  printing  process  involving  aniline  dyes. 

The  actors  engaged  in  picture-plays  being    similar    to    that    employed    in 

make  up  less  strongly  than  they  do*  on  the  larger  scale  of  placing  patterns  on 

the  theatrical  stage,  as  the  lighting  is  wall-paper.     At   present   kinemacolor 

more  intense  and  the  camera  catches  is  the  best  known  commercial  natural 

every  detail.  .  It  must  be  remembered  color  system.     Some  of  its  effects  are 

that  in  the  moving  picture  film  it  is  beautiful,    although    the    process   has 

impossible  to  rectify  any  mistakes  by  not  yet  been  perfected, 

re-touching.     The    actors    move    and  Large  stock  companies  are  employed 

speak  (usually  extemporizing)  as  they  for  regular  daily  service,  the  morning 

do  in  life,  simulating  all  the  emotions  hours  being  obviously  the  most  valu- 

to  make  pantomime  telling  and  po-  able,  by  reason  of  the  sunlight.     Now, 

tential.     Before  filming  a  silent  drama,  however,   all   studios   are  fitted  with 

the  actors   are   thoroughly   rehearsed  Cooper-Hewitt  quartz  burners  as  well 

in  every  detail  of  the  "business,"  by  as  mercury  tube  lights,   so  that  the 

the  director  who  times  the  scene  ac-  artificial  illumination  is  more  brilliant 

curately  and  calculates  the  film  foot-  even  than  that  of  nature.     The  selec- 

age  in  advance.     In  important  scenes,  tion  of  actors  is  by  no  means  easy,  as 

usually    two    or    more    cameras    are  the  taxing  peculiarity  of  the  cinemato- 

called  into  use,  so  that  choice  of  films  graphic  stage  is  that  the  actor  must 

may  be  secured  from  slightly  different  not  only  act,  but  look  the  part- — types 

viewpoints.  are    in    great    demand    for    character 

Picture  stage  settings  work  in  the  silent  drama. 

The  settings  of  studio  scenes  are  The  curious  public,  frequently  be- 
painted  in  neutral  tints  of  browns  and  lieving  that  the  camera  lies,  ask 
grays  like  photographic  backgrounds,  doubtfully:  "Are  these  things  real.^ 
and  are  frequently  most  elaborate  in  Do  those  engaged  in  the  moving  pic- 
construction,  while  the  furnishings  tures  do  the  things  they  seem  to  ac- 
may  be  of  the  richest  character,  complish?  Are  there  any  risks  or 
While  no  charm  of  color  obtains  in  real  dangers?" 

these   photograph   scenes,    the   actors  Such    inquiries    in    the    broad    can 

are  as  richly  and  as  correctly  costumed  be  emphatically  answered  in  the  af- 

as  they  are  upon  the  mimic  stage  and  firmative;    although  the  manipulated 

no  effort  or  expense  is  spared  to  make  camera  and  the  printing  of  films  may 

the  ensemble  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  secure    very    puzzling    and    uncanny 

every  detail  to  their  theatrical  proto-  results.     The  wild  rides,  the  strenuous 

types.  experiences  enacted,  are  real,  although 

In  this  country  films  are  tinted  to  they  may  be  of  short  duration.     The 

secure  the  effect  of  twilight,  of  moon-  bucking  broncho,  the  speeding  train, 

light,  the  glare  of  a  conflagration,  or  the  racing  automobile,  or  the  flying 

the  cloud-gathering  of  a  storm.     In  airship  caught  upon  the  film,  is  in  no 

Italy,  this  scientific  process  has  de-  sense  counterfeit. 


soo 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


STAGING   FOR   PAULINE  CASHMAN   IN   "THE  YANKEE   SPY" 


When  Tom  Mix,  the  champion 
cowboy,  unhmbers  for  action,  he  leaps 
from  a  running  horse  to  the  back  of  a 
frenzied  Texas  long-horn  and  actually 
accomplishes  what  is  known  in  the 
technic  of  the  ranch,  as  "bull-dogging" 
a  steer.  This  means  that  the  daring 
rider,  with  his  bare  hands,  hanging  on 
to  the  horns  of  the  maddened  animal, 
brings  it  to  a  standstill  and  actually 
throws  it  to  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
recording  camera,  a  very  difficult  feat. 
It  was  an  extraordinary  bit  of  dare- 
deviltry  that  inspired  this  cowboy  to 
the  ordeal  of  being  thrown  from  his 
horse,  allowing  his  foot  to  catch  in  a 
stirrup  and  be  dragged — a  dreadfully 
hazardous  stunt.  While  blank  car- 
tridges are  used  in  battle  scenes,  like 
the  charges  for  artillery,  and  coils  of 
worn-out  film  are  fired  by  electric 
contact  to  give  the  effect  of  exploding 
shells,  real  bullets  are  frequently  used 
in  wild  west  gun-plays,  that  toss  up 
the  dust  and  clip  the  rocks  close  to 


the  combatants.     In  such  scenes  only 
skilled  shots  are  employed  and  men 
willing  to  take  the  risk. 
Securing  local  color 

While  much  work  is  done  in  studios 
during  the  winter  season,  companies 
travel  great  distances  and  there  is  no 
caviling  at  expense  when  it  comes  to 
securing  proper  "locations."  Many 
out-of-the-way  sections  of  the  world 
have  been  visited  to  secure  effective 
environment  for  picture  plays.  A 
well  known  American  producer  re- 
cently purchased  a  large  estate  in 
Turin,  Italy,  which  be  will  utilize  for 
its  pictorial  values  in  play-craft. 
The  Selig  Polyscope  Company,  for 
example,  in  addition  to  its  square  in 
Chicago,  and  a  similar  size  plant  in 
Los  x\ngeles,  California,  has  the  Selig 
Zoo,  a  tract  of  fifty  acres,  planted  like 
a  botanical  garden,  fully  stocked  with 
the  rare  wild  animals  of  Asia  and 
Africa.  In  this  collection  are  forty 
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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


elephants,  giraffes,  hippopotami,  rhi- 
noceroses, and  other  habitants  of  the 
tropics.  Sehg  was  the  originator  of 
the  wild  animal  play  and  has  expended 
a  great  deal  of  money  to  make  the 
encompassment  of  these  realistic  pro- 
ductions true  to  nature  in  every 
fidelity  or  detail.  In  "The  Adventures 
of  Kathlyn"  and  a  series  of  unique  and 
thrilling  predecessors  located  in  jungle 
land,  all  the  animals  utilized,  includ- 
ing the  most  dangerous  and  treacher- 
ous carnivora,  were  unfettered,  mak- 
ing the  hazards  of  such  productions 
dangerous  beyond  compare.  Natural- 
ly, these  animals,  which  are  not 
trained  animals,  are  kept  within 
bounds,  but  they  are  not  restrained 
by  tethers. 

Moving-picture  actors  have  a  deep 
dislike  to  "water-stuff"  which  involves 
discomfort  and  danger.  When  the 
tank  lakes  in  studio  yards  are  used, 
risks  are  largely  eliminated,  but  out 
on  the  high  seas  the  chance  changes. 
Many  notably  fine  effects  have  been 
secured  off  rock-bound  coasts,  splendid 
in  atmospheric  value,  or  out  on  blue 
water.  Few  picture  plays  have  been 
more  impressive  than  the  ship  reel  in 
"The  Coming  of  Columbus,"  in  which 
the  caravals,  replicas  of  the  original 
craft,  were  utilized  in  most  realistic 
fashion.  Operations  with  maritime 
craft  in  miniature,  are  frequently 
filmed,  but  they  are  seldom  convinc- 
ing, as  many  chances  are  open  to 
show  their  unsubstantiality. 

The  demand  for  realism  is  great 
and  growing,  and  shrewd  producers 
dare  all  sorts  of  conditions  to  secure 
the  truth  that  thrills  triumphant. 
The  kerosened  interiors  of  houses 
built  only  to  burn,  with  flimsy  sheet- 
iron  walls  designed  to  fall,  or  minia- 
ture model  towns  made  of  cardboard, 
have  served  their  mission  many  times. 
One  day  a  fire  broke  out  in  a  large 
department  store  in  Los  Angeles,  and 


an  enterprising  picture-play  producer, 
accompanied  by  his  camera  men  and 
leading  people,  rushed  to  the  scene 
and,  through  Clie  sanction  of  the  fire- 
men, and  the  intrepidity  of  the  leading 
lady,  secured  her  rescue  from  an  upper 
window  surrounded  by  the  actual  fire. 
Many  fierce  oil-tank  fires  have  been 
filmed  to  serve  as  a  background  of 
plays  at  later  days;  in  fact,  the  oil- 
fire  is  a  sort  of  stock  fixture  for  inter- 
mediate scenes  of  the  fire  story. 

How   THE    "IMPOSSIBLE"     PICTURES   ARE 
OBTAINED 

Interesting  illusions  have  been  im- 
pressed through  what  is  known  as 
"stop  motion,"  "double  printing"  or 
"stop  and  substitution."  Trick  pic- 
tures using  these  effects,  have  been 
chiefly  evolved  in  France,  where  labor 
is  cheap  and  time  is  not  grudged  for 
securing  minutia  in  recording  every 
move.  Some  examples  may  be  re- 
called in  "The  Traveling  Bed,"  "The 
Magnetic  Man,"  or  "The  Magic 
Laundry." 

In  the  first  named  play,  when  bailiffs 
come  to  the  scene  to  eject  a  tenant, 
they  are  spared  trouble  by  the  anima- 
tion of  furniture,  which  moves  out  of 
the  room  in  methodical  order  followed 
by  the  bed  with  the  tenant  in  it. 
Wires  move  all  the  smaller  objects  and 
the  bed  is  pushed  along  by  stage  hands 
concealed  under  it. 

When  "The  Magnetic  Man"  strolls 
down  a  Parisian  street  in  a  coat  of 
mail,  metallic  articles  seem  to  jump 
toward  him  and  cling  to  his  person. 
To  one  and  all  of  these  articles  invisi- 
ble wires  are  attached,  the  free  ends 
being  held  by  stage  hands,  or  by  the 
principal  himself.  When  the  cover  of 
a  manhole  in  the  sidewalk  rises  on 
edge  and  bolts  after  him,  it  is  manipu- 
lated by  wires  held  by  the  actor. 
After  the  cover  is  raised,  a  "stop"  is 
made,  so  that  the  stage-hand  can 
enter  the  picture  and  start  the  wooden 


HOW    MOVING    PICTURE    TRICKS    ARE     DONE 


The  walker  on  the  ceiUng  seen  here  is  photographed  walking  on  the  floor  as  seen  here 


The  ski-runner  is  photographed  on  a  film  that  already  has  the  chimney  and  clouds 


The  magnetic  man  really  draws  shop  signs,  cellar  doors  and  lamp  posts  toward  him  by  thin  wires 


203 


m 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE     IMPOSSIBLE     MADE     TO    SEEM     REAL 


'0^-'-'- 


THE   BED   THAT   RUNS   UP   THE    STREET — IT   IS    REALLY    BEING   PUSHED    FROM    BEHIND 


THE  FAIRY  WALKS   ACROSS 

THE   TABLE 

H 

P                 ^-^ 

wh 

L." 

THE  FAIRY  DANCES  IN  THE  BOTTLE 


THE   SECRET  OF   THE  TEAPOT  THAT   POURS 
OUT   ITS   OWN   TEA 


cover,  painted  to  resemble  iron,  roll- 
ing. The  lamp-post  that  jumps  to- 
ward him  is  snapped  in  twain,  by 
strong   wires    attached,    having    been 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


205 


previously  hinged  to  heel  over  like  a 
flap. 

In  the  laundry  where  articles  go 
through  the  process  of  sorting,  wash- 
ing and  ironing  without  any  visi- 
ble human  agency,  each  movement 
of  each  process  was  photographed, 
"stopped,"  then  the  action  was  re- 
sumed, all  representing  remarkable 
care  and  vast  pains  to  make  its  mys- 
tery baffling  to  the  eye,  through  the 
complete  continuity  of  action.  The 
"stop"  movement,  as  a  rule,  is  the 
secret  of  all  instantaneous  disap- 
pearances. 

Astonishing  and  highly  ingenious 
effects  are  obtained  by  "the  reversal  of 
action"  in  running  a  film  backward. 
All  objects  it  depicts,  act  topsy-turvy 
and  defy  the  laws  of  gravitation. 
Pedestrians  walk  backward,  automo- 
biles whirl  back  in  dangerous  zig-zags 
and  smoke  instead  of  escaping  from 
chimneys  seems  to  flow  downward. 
Objects  are  seen  to  roll  up-hill  in  a 
race,  or  fly  violently  into  the  air, 
while  a  brick  wall  builds  itself.  These 
pictures  were  all  taken  in  the  reverse 
and  the  brick  wall  had  its  demolition 
really  photographed. 

Audiences  are  puzzled  by  the  antics 
of  cyclists  or  motorists,  who  elude  the 
capture  of  pursuing  crowds,  by  turn- 
ing their  vehicles  and  running  up 
vertical  walls  to  cloud-land.  In  such 
cases,  a  cloth,  carrying  the  painted 


impression  of  the  wall  with  its  win- 
dows, stack-pipes  and  architectural 
projections,  is  laid  upon  the  floor  of 
the  studio  and  the  camera  is  pointed 
down  upon  it  from  the  "flies"  above. 
It  photographs  the  vehicles  driven 
over  this  ground  cloth,  so  that  the 
film  conveys  the  impression  of  their 
scaling  the  wall.  Escaping  prisoners, 
comical  soot-covered  men,  laboriously 
worming  their  way  up  narrow  pas- 
sages or  chimney  flues,  work  through 
similar  devices,  as  they  are  merely 
stage  properties  laid  upon  the  floor 
and  photographed  from  above. 

The  present  effective  camera  mech- 
anism, allowing  double  exposure,  does 
away,  to  a  large  extent,  with  the  slow, 
old  forms  of  double  printing;  so  that 
wonderful  transformations  are  secured 
and  beautiful  dissolves  are  obtained 
that  far  outdo  ordinary  stage  effects 
for  interesting  and  astonishing  com- 
binations in  vast  variety. 

The  sensational  and  amusing  side 
of  motography  has  its  fascinations, 
but  the  art  has  a  higher  aim  in  its 
scientific  and  informing  phases.  It 
may  show  the  growth  of  a  flower,  the 
wonder  of  the  silk  worm,  weaving  its 
own  sarcophagus,  and  through  the 
microscope  revealing  nature's  hidden 
secrets.  Thomas  Alva  Edison  de- 
clares that  animated  photography  is 
destined  to  become  the  greatest  factor 
of  education  in  the  future. 


206 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


MEASUREMENTS 

THE  sun  by  day,  and  the  moon 
and  stars  by  night,  send  to 
us  something  more  than  the 
visible  light  that  strikes  our  eyes. 
From  them  comes  a  subtle  radiance 
which  enlightens  our  minds.  It  was 
from  the  heavens  that  man  obtained 
that  idea  of  time  which  was  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  development  of  his 
intellectual  faculties.  He  had  to  find 
some  way  of  measuring  the  succession 
of  tilings  before  he  was  able  to  at- 
tempt to  control  any  of  them. 
Isolated  at  first  in  the  midst  of  a 
world  in  which  everything  was  to  him 
a  mystery,  and  terrified  at  every  un- 
expected manifestation  of  natural 
forces,  primitive  man  was  incapable  of 
seeing  in  the  course  of  the  universe 
anything  but  caprice. 

The  alternation  of  day  and  night, 
and    the    recurrence    of    the    seasons, 
were  no  doubt  the  first  thing  that  en- 
abled  man   roughly   to   measure   the 
passage    of    time.     But    this    carried 
him    very    little    farther    than    some 
animals  get.     The  curious  instinct  of 
a    recurring    change    that    sends    the 
swallow  on  its  far  migrations  was  not 
sufficient  for  intelligent  human  pur- 
poses.    Man  needed  both  a  finer  and 
a    larger    instrument    for    measuring 
time   than   the  periods   of  light  and 
darkness,  and  coldness  and  warmth, 
that  govern  the  activities  of  plant  and 
animal.     Compelled  by  his  growing  in- 
telligence to  search  for  the  reason  of 
things,   he  suffered   great   moral   and 
intellectual   injury   through   his   long 
failure   to   measure   time.     He   could 
not  parcel  out  space  intelligently  in 
the  absence  of  some  means  of  defining 
the    duration    of    objects;     and    his 
powers  of  memory  were  confused  by 
his  lack  of  a  fixed  standard  of  the 
efflux  of  time.     Being  unable  to  re- 
member distinctly,  he  was  unable  to 
foresee  clearly. 


O   F 


TIME 


The  starry  heavens  the  first  clock 

It  was  by  the  study  of  the  recurring 
phases  of  the  moon  that  primitive  man 
seems  to  have  made  his  first  great 
advance.  By  lunar  months  a  good 
many  uncivilized  people  still  measure 
the  longer  lapses  of  time.  It  was 
more  difficult  to  find  a  way  of  dividing 
a  single  day  into  small,  regular  periods. 
For  the  daily  course  of  the  sun  from 
the  eastern  to  the  western  horizon 
varies  considerably  in  most  parts  of 
the  earth.  The  rising  point  and  set- 
ting points  are  quite  different  in  winter 
and  summer,  and  the  course  of  the 
low  winter  sun  is  much  shorter  than 
that  of  the  high  summer  sun. 

The  shadow  thrown  on  the  ground 
by  a  tree  or  an  upright  stick  does  not 
travel  over  equal  distances  at  an  equal 


The   clock   at   Greenwich,   England,   which   gives    the 
standard  time  to  the  world 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


207 


BEHIND    THE    GREAT    FACE    OF    BIG    BEN 


At  the  top  of  360  steps  in  the  Clock  Tower  at  Westminster,  Big  Ben  has  marked  time  for  London  for  fifty  years  It 
is  not  possible  to  understand  the  size  of  the  clock  as  we  stand  on  the  ground.  It  has  four  faces,  each  23  feet  across — nine 
or  ten  times  as  wide  as  a  door.  The  minute  hands  are  14  feet  long;  they  would  reach  higher  than  an  ordinary  room.  The 
pendulum  weighs  nearly  450  pounds.  The  figures  on  the  face  are  each  two  feet  long,  and  the  minute  spaces  are  a  foot 
square.  If  you  will  look  closely  at  your  watch,  you  will  see  the  minute  hand  move  in  little  jumps;  the  minute  hand  of  Big 
Ben  jumps  half  a  foot  every  time  it  moves.  It  is  not  easy  to  believe  these  figures,  but  that  is  because  our  eyes  deceive  us 
when  we  look  up  to  a  great  height,  and  Big  Ben  stands  so  higto  <*im  thirty  tall  men  stood  on  one  another's  shoulders  tlie 
top  man  would  only  just  touch  tbe  middle  ol  its  face. 


SOS  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

speed.     So    this    primitive    form    of  the  yearly  and  monthly  course  of  the 

sundial  was  not  useful  as  a  teller  of  sun  in  the  skies,  it  was  a  simple  step 

the  passing  hours  of  daylight.     It  was  to  study  a  few  other  star  groups  in 

not  until  man  grew  studious  of  the  other  parts  of  the  heavens.     In  the 

spangled    darkness    of    the    midnight  south    there   were   some   very   bright 

skies,   and  began  to   study  them  on  stars,  whose  risings  and  settings  gave 

clear,  unclouded  nights,  that  he  ob-  an    indication    of   the   time   of   year; 

tained  that  vision  of  a  reign  of  uni-  while  in  the  north  there  were  many 

versal  law  which  he  could  not  discern  stars  that  did  not  set  at  all,  so  that 

on  the  earth  around  him.  their  slow  motion  had  a  special  value 

On   considering   the    midnight    sky  for  the  nightfarer  and  the  sailor. 

attentively,    he    perceived    that    the  All  this  was  done  in  widely  separated 

stars  were  not  a  confused  multitude  of  parts  of  the  earth— in  Babylonia  and 

lights  wandering  at  a  venture,  but  a  in    Egypt,    in    India    and    in    China, 

disciplined  army  that  marked  by  its  among    the    Incas    of    Peru    and    the 

march   the   regular   passage   of   time.  Aztecs    of    Mexico.     The    South    Sea 

Against  this  majestic  revolution  of  the  Islanders  and  the  ancient  inhabitants 

heavenly  sphere,  with  its  awe-inspiring  of  Britain  both  worked  out  the  as- 

regularity    of    motion,    the    different  tronomical  method  of  measuring  time; 

annual  courses  of  both  the  sun  and  and  so  did  other  barbaric  and  even 

the  moon  stood  out  clearly.     As  soon  savage  races.     Whether  the  great  work 

as  the  star-gazers  gave  themselves  up  of    thus    rescuing    mankind    from    a 

to  their  work,   they   discovered  that  world  of  timeless  chaos  and  placing 

the  sun  could  be  regarded  as  the  hand  him  in  a  universe  of  heavenly  law  was 

of  a  yearly  clock,  that  showed  by  its  performed  by  some  single  nation  of 

position    in    the    celestial    track    the  civilizing    genius,    whose    discoveries 

month  and  season.     Of  course,  it  was  were   gradually   spread   among   other 

impossible    to    observe    the    sun    and  people;  or  whether  the  common  result 

stars  at  the  same  time,  and  it  would  was  obtained  independently  at  differ- 

have  been  much  easier  to  have  studied  ent   times   by   different   peoples   is   a 

the   moon   alone   as   the   clock-hand,  problem  that  cannot  be  solved.   There 

But  in  scarcely  any  case  of  which  we  are,  however,  some  good  grounds  for 

know  anything  was  this  done.     The  supposing    that    the    Egyptians,    In- 

sun's  path  among  the  stars  was  di-  dians,  and  Chinese  have  made  false 

vided  into  twelve  portions,  each  cor-  claims  in  regard  to  the  immemorial 

responding  with  fair  approximation  to  antiquity  of  their  astronomical  studies. 

a  month.  On  the  other  hand,  the  system  of  the 

The  early  records  of  the  heavens  Babylonians    stands    examination,    in 

Two   methods    were   then    used   in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Babylonian 

ascertaining    the    time    of    the    year,  priests  modestly  informed  Alexander 

Some  early  astronomers  rose  up  be-  the    Great    that    their    astronomical 

fore  dawn,  and  made  observations  of  records  went  back  403,000  years.     For 

the  last  conspicuous  star  rising  just  it  seems  highly  probable  that  about 

before  the  sun.     The  other  school  of  four    thousand    years    ago    the    early 

time-measurers  did  their  work  in  the  inhabitants    of    Babylonia    fixed    and 

evening,  and  associated  the  sun  with  named   the   chief   constellations   that 

the  constellation   that  set  just  after  mark    the   annual   path   of   the   sun. 

sunset.     After  mapping  out  the  con-  The    star    groups    which    were    after- 

stellations,    directly    associated    with  wards  added  were  too  far  south  of 


HOW  TIME  IN  PAST  AGES  WAS  MEASURED  BY  THE  SUN 


Time  was  measured  for  ages  and  ages  by  placing  a  small  dish  or  a  round 
basin  in  water  and  boring  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  it,  the  water  flowing  in, 
and  gradually  sinking  it.  This  would  always  happen  in  the  same  period 
of  time,  so  that  men  knew  the  time  when  the  dish  or  water-clock  sank. 


This  is  a  tiny  rushlight  holder.  A  rushlight 
was  used  before  candles  were  made.  It  burns 
regularly,  and  was  used  by  the  poor  for  a 
long  time  after  candles  were  invented. 


■^-- 


There  are  very  few  people  who  have  not  seen  a  sundial,  either  on  a  house,  or  on  a  pedestal  in  a  park, 
marked,  and  the  time  is  told  by  the  shade  of  the  pointer  falhng  on  the  different  numbers. 


The  dial  is 


This  Is  a  kind  of  movable  sundial,  which  can  be  held  up  so  that 
the  sunlight  shines  through  a  tiny  hole  in  the  straight  piece  of 
metal,  and  lights  up  one  of  the  figures  engraved  inside  of  the  circle, 
which  13  placed  at  a  right  angle  to  the  straight  piece. 


This  is  a  primitive  watch.  It  was  always  held 
in  one  position,  and  the  sun,  shining  through  the 
little  hole,  fell  upon  one  of  the  numbers  engraved 
on  the  inside  of  the  circle,  as  shown  here. 


209 


210  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

Babylonia  to  be  visible  in  2000  B.  C;  the  varying  path  of  the  sun.  The 
and  the  period  that  elapsed  before  shadow  at  nine  o'clock  on  a  sunny 
they  were  included  in  the  modern  winter  morning  will  fall  upon  the  same 
method  of  measuring  time  is  a  piece  line  as  the  shadow  falls  on  a  bright 
of  striking  evidence  in  support  of  the  summer  morning.  The  task  of  draw- 
claims  of  the  Babylonian  stargazers.  ing  the  hour  marks  on  a  dial  is  more 
There  is  even  some  truth  in  their  con-  difficult,  as  these  occur  at  irregular 
tention  that  their  astronomical  cal-  intervals,  instead  of  being  evenly 
culations  extended  back  for  over  spaced  round  the  dial. 
400,000  years.  With  the  knowledge  Primitive  forms  of  the  sundial 
they  amassed  concerning  the  sun's  But  the  savages  who  lived  in  pre- 
apparent  path  through  the  heavens,  historic  times  in  Great  Britain  seem 
they  worked  back  and  verified,  to  to  have  worked  out  part  of  the  diffi- 
within  a  few  years,  the  solar  position,  cult  art  of  making  a  sundial.  Some 
such  as  would  be  indicated  on  a  sun-  time  ago  there  was  published  an  ab- 
dial.  stract  of  some  results  of  the  excava- 
The  invention  of  a  proper  sundial  tions  that  Dr.  INIcAldowie  recently 
was  only  possible  among  a  nation  with  made  in  prehistoric  burial  mounds  in 
a  knowledge  of  the  sun's  apparent  Staffordshire  and  Gloucestershire, 
movements  against  the  starry  sphere;  England.  At  Camp,  the  doctor  un- 
and  it  is  possible  that  the  Babylonians  covered  a  huge,  rough  stone  monu- 
accomplished  it.  It  is  only  at  the  ment,  which  clearly  seems  to  be  a  very 
North  and  the  South  Poles  that  a  ancient  instrument  of  time  measure- 
stick  stuck  upright  in  the  ground  will  ment.  It  consists  of  four  stones, 
indicate  by  its  shadow  the  regular  placed  north,  south,  east,  and  west, 
passage  of  the  daylight  hours.  In  and  embedded  in  the  solid  rock.  A 
lower  latitudes  the  shadow  cast  by  leaning  stone  crosses  in  a  diagonal 
the  upright  rod  or  style  of  a  sundial  manner  the  space  formed  by  the  outer 
would  so  alter  its  position  at  the  same  stones.  The  structure  is  so  built  as 
hour,  at  various  seasons  of  the  year,  to  mark  the  turning  points  in  the 
that  the  instrument  would  be  useless,  sun's  annual  path;  but  its  most  in- 
For  instance,  at  nine  o'clock  on  a  teresting  feature  is  the  way  in  which 
midsummer  morning  the  shadow  would  the  hours  are  indicated  at  certain 
fall  a  good  distance  away  from  the  times  in  the  year  by  shadows  falling 
spot  it  would  occupy  at  nine  o'clock  on  prominent  points  or  edges  of  the 
on  a  midwinter  morning.  So  the  monument.  The  north  stone  is  really 
marks  on  the  dial  would  be  very  mis-  a  sundial,  and  the  south  stone  a  style, 
leading.  To  make  a  proper  sundial,  while  the  east  and  diagonal  stones 
it  is  necessary  to  calculate  the  differ-  fulfil  both  purposes.  The  structure 
ent  paths  that  the  sun  takes  in  its  thus  appears  to  have  been  a  sacred 
high  summer  course  through  the  sky  instrument  used  for  measuring  the 
and  in  its  low  winter  journey.  It  is  time  at  certain  critical  periods  of  the 
easily  done  by  giving  the  rod  or  style  year,  some  of  religious  and  some  of 
of  a  sundial  the  same  direction  as  the  agricultural  importance.  Dr.  McAl- 
axis  of  the  earth.  This  sounds  very  dowie  has  uncovered  several  other 
difficult,  but  in  practice  it  only  means  burial  mounds,  and  found  beneath 
that  the  style  should  point  to  the  Polar  them  other  big,  rough  stone-dials.  He 
Star.  The  position  of  its  shadow  in  thinks  they  were  the  sacred  places  or 
the  sunlight  will  not  then  alter  with  temples  of  a  very  early  race,  and  that 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


211 


they  were  converted  into  burial 
mounds  by  some  alien  invaders,  who 
took  over,  as  is  often  the  case  among 
ancient  races,  the  traditions  of  sanc- 
tity attaching  to  the  monuments. 

It  scarcely  seems  possible  that  these 
buried  structures  should  all  by  mere 
chance  be  admirable  sundials.  The 
real  question  is  whether  they  are  later 
in  date  than  Dr.  McAldowie  supposes. 
Many  so-called  Druidical  remains  in 
the  British  Isles  were  probably  in  ex- 
istence before  the  Celtic  peoples  and 
their  medicine-men,  the  Druids,  invad- 
ed the  country.  The  Druids,  no  doubt, 
took  over  the  traditions  of  sanctity 
attaching  to  Stonehenge  and  Avebury, 
and  other  similar  prehistoric  monu- 
ments; and  it  is  quite  likely  that  in 
some  cases  they  may  have  continued, 
and  improved  upon,  the  work  of  the 
earlier  builders.  But  on  the  whole 
doubtless  most  of  these  strange  mon- 
uments were  the  work  of  a  native, 
non-Celtic  people  of  the  New  Stone 
Age.  It  is  possible  that  this  prehis- 
toric British  race  was  not  far  behind 
the  civilized  farmers  of  Southern  Baby- 
lonia, in  marking  the  annual  path  of 
the  sun  amid  the  stars,  and  putting 
their  knowledge  to  good  use  in  the 
erection  of  strange,  rough,  open-air 
temples  that  partly  served  as  sundials. 
We  can  scarcely  conceive  how  strong 
was  the  need,  among  nations  strug- 
gling into  the  agricultural  state,  of 
some  means  of  measuring  time,  and 
thus  discerning  the  approach  of  the 
sowing  season  and  the  coming  of  the 
harvest. 
Modern  successors  of  the  druids 

Thus  it  perhaps  came  about  in  the 
New  Stone  Age,  when  a  knowledge  of 
farming  was  spread  throughout  Eu- 
rope, that  the  men  who  designed  and 
looked  after  the  primitive  sundials 
ranked  next  in  importance  to  the 
royal  chiefs.  Indeed,  in  the  course  of 
time  they  grew  so  powerful  that  the 


chieftains  liked  to  appoint  members  of 
their  own  families  to  the  position  of 
religious  time-measurers.  The  work 
that  the  star-gazing  wizards  of  Stone- 
henge probably  used  to  perform  has 
not  lost  any  of  its  importance  in  the 
lapse  of  centuries.  Their  successors 
are  now  members  of  our  various  ob- 
servatories. Were  the  staffs  belong- 
ing to  these  establishments  to  cease 
work,  the  country  to  a  large  extent 
would  come  to  a  standstill.  Our  ship- 
ping especially  would  suffer.  Our 
sailors  would  have  to  go  back  to  the 
principles  of  navigation  that  were 
employed  two  thousand  years  ago, 
feeling  their  way  from  place  to  place 
by  daylight  and  keeping  to  the  coast. 
Long  voyages  could  only  be  executed 
at  great  peril.  Moreover,  our  rail- 
way system  would  be  disorganized. 
A  few  trains  could  run,  but  only  at 
considerable  intervals,  and  they  would 
have  to  travel  by  daylight  and  at  low 
speed. 
The  limits  of   accuracy  in    keeping 

TIME 

A  clockmaker  would  not  be  able  to 
save  the  situation.  Clocks  are  ex- 
tremelv  useful  in  their  wav,  but  it  is 
a  grave  mistake  to  regard  them  as  the 
fundamental  basis  of  time  measure- 
ment. They  only  deal  with  seconds, 
minutes,  and  hours.  In  the  last  re- 
sort we  have  no  better  means  of 
measuring  the  lapse  of  years  than  the 
early  Babylonians  discovered  forty 
centuries  ago.  The  clear  night  sky, 
with  its  majestic  array  of  stars,  is  still 
the  timepiece  by  which  we  measure 
the  duration  of  all  things.  Our  clocks 
and  watches  are  conveniences:  the 
work  of  the  astronomer  is  an  absolute 
necessity  of  human  life.  In  taking 
transit  observations  the  time  that  it 
takes  him  to  make  a  signal  with  his 
hand,  as  his  eye  watches  a  certain 
star,  is  the  limit  of  accurate  time 
measurement.     One-fifteenth  of  a  sec- 


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(V-cv  Hc»y 


THE  MYSTERY  OF  STONEHENGE  AND  ITS  ASSOCIATION  WITH  TIME 

This  picture-diagram  shows  how  the  sun's  rays  fell  on  the  sacrificial  stone  at  Stonehenge  on  midsummer  morn  4000 
years  ago  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century.  Sir  Norman  Locltyer  roughly  calculated  that  Stonehenge  was 
erected  1700  years  B.  C,  by  calculating  the  divergence  of  the  sun's  rays  from  the  center  line  through  the  Friar's  Heel  Stone 
and  the  axis  of  the  temple,  the  sun  having  shifted  his  apparent  position,  due  to  the  tilting  of  the  earth,  which  is  known  to 
be  48  seconds  of  an  arc  every  century. 


end  is  generally  reckoned  to  be  the 
limit  of  accuracy  in  personal  observa- 
tion; for  the  most  rapid  piano  player, 
whose  rapidity  of  execution  is  the 
result  of  years  of  finger  exercise,  can- 
not strike  a  note  more  than  twelve 


times  a  second.  No  doubt  it  is  easy 
to  build  a  machine  that  would  divide 
a  second  into  a  hundred  or  more  parts. 
Indeed,  chronographs  for  dividing  and 
measuring  one-thousandths  of  a  second 
are  used  in  the  new  scientific  study  of 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


213 


motion.  But  no  astronomer  could 
check  an  instrument  of  this  sort.  The 
very  best  he  can  do  is  to  keep  an 
astronomical  clock  regulated  to  one- 
thirtieth  of  a  second,  and  then  only 
by  means  of  frequent  transit  observa- 
tions. 
Time  and  the  telegraph 

No  clock  tells  the  time  exactly.  It 
is  merely  a  mechanism  for  giving  an 
approximate  measurement  of  the  dura- 
tion of  things.  And  it  can  only  work 
properly  when  it  is  regulated  by  the 
observations  which  an  astronomer 
makes  on  the  movements  of  the  stars. 
So  in  most  of  the  principal  observa- 
tories of  the  world  astronomical  obser- 
vations are  made  on  every  clear  night, 
for  the  express  purpose  of  regulating 
an  astronomical  clock  mth  the  great- 
est exactness.  Then  every  day  at 
noon  a  signal  is  sent  to  various  parts 
of  the  country  by  telegraph,  so  that 
all  persons  who  hear  the  signal  can 
regulate  their  clock  within  two  or 
three  seconds.  These  signals  also  can 
be  used  to  correct  clocks  automatically, 
putting  them  forward  if  they  are  too 
slow,  and  setting  them  back  if  they  are 
too  fast,  by  a  simple  electro-magnetic 
device  called  a  "synchronizer."  This 
is  the  way  in  which  exact  time  is 
maintained  in  all  large  cities  through- 
out the  civilized  world.  The  railway 
service  specially  owes  an  incalculable 
debt  to  the  time-keeping  astronomers 
who  daily  check,  by  the  apparent 
movement  of  the  starry  sphere,  all 
the  principal  clocks  in  the  world,  and 
thus  enable  railway  trains  to  be  run 
with  a  safety  and  exactness  that  no 
kind  of  clockwork  could  maintain. 

Why  a  sundial  does  not  keep  true 

TIME 

The  daily  revolution  of  the  earth 
with  regard  to  the  sun  is  not  uniform. 
As  is  well  known,  it  is  midday  at  the 
instant  when  the  sun  is  seen  at  its 
greatest    height    above    the    horizon. 


But  this  takes  place  sometimes  16 
minutes  18  seconds  sooner,  and  at 
other  times  14  minutes  28  seconds 
later,  than  twelve  o'clock  mean  time. 
These  curious  variations  are  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  earth  not  only  has  a 
daily  revolution  wuth  regard  to  the 
sun,  but  that  it  advances  at  the  same 
time  along  its  annual  path,  moving 
with  greater  rapidity  when  it  is  near 
the  sun  in  December  than  it  does  in 
July,  when  it  is  farther  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  solar  system.  The  regu- 
larity of  the  earth's  motion  is  also 
further  disturbed  by  the  attraction  of 
the  moon  and  some  of  the  planets. 
So  a  sundial  in  the  best  of  order  is  a 
very  incorrect  timekeeper;  and  if  we 
had  to  rely  entirely  on  observations  of 
the  sun,  many  of  the  main  activities 
of  our  civilization  would  be  sadly  dis- 
ordered and  ill  regulated. 
How  YOU  may  regulate  your  clock 

BY   THE  STARS 

On  the  other  hand,  the  daily  spin 
of  the  earth  with  regard  to  the  fixed 
stars  in  the  remote  depths  of  space  is 
uniform.  The  distance  between  our 
earth  and  the  constellations  is  so  im- 
measurably great  that  the  variations 
in  the  position  of  our  planet  in  its 
annual  orbit  are  of  no  practical  ac- 
count. A  star  will  always  appear  at 
its  meridian  3  minutes  56  seconds 
sooner  than  it  did  on  the  preceding 
day.  It  is  a  fairly  easy  matter  to 
regulate  the  clocks  of  one's  household 
by  observation  of  the  stars;  and  we 
would  commend  any  reader,  interested 
in  timekeeping,  to  measure  by  the 
stars,  instead  of  putting  up  in  his 
garden  a  picturesque  but  irregular 
working  sundial.  A  transit  instru- 
ment and  a  table  giving  the  right 
ascension  of  the  particular  stars  lighten 
the  labor  of  observation,  but  neither  is 
absolutely  necessary. 

As  an  experiment,  choose  a  window 
having  a  southern  aspect,  from  which 


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HOW    TIME    IS    NOW    MEASURED    BY    THE    STARS 


The  upper  tube  of  this  telescope  is  used  for  observing  the  stars,  by  the  apparent  movement  of  which  in  the  heavens 
exact  time  is  measured.    The  lower,  larger  tube  is  used  for  solar  photography. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


215 


the  steeple  of  a  church,  or  a  tall 
chimney,  or  some  other  fixed  point 
may  be  seen.  To  the  side  of  the  win- 
dow attach  a  thin  plate  of  brass,  hav- 
ing a  small  hole  in  it,  so  that,  by  look- 
ing through  the  hole  towards  the 
edge  of  the  steeple  or  other  fixed  point, 
some  of  the  stars  may  be  seen.  Watch 
the  progress  of  one  of  these,  and  at  the 
instant  it  vanishes  behind  the  fixed 
point  make  a  signal  to  the  person 
observing  the  clock,  who  must  then 
note  the  exact  time  at  which  the  star 
disappeared.  On  the  following  night 
the  same  star  will  be  seen  to  vanish 
behind  the  same  fixed  object  3  min- 
utes 56  seconds  sooner.  If  the  clock 
does  not  show  this,  the  clock  is  wrong, 
and  must  be  put  right. 

If  a  series  of  cloudy  nights  should 
then  make  it  impossible  to  compare 
the  clock  with  the  stars,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  multiply  3  minutes  5Q 
seconds  by  the  number  of  days  that 
have  elapsed  since  the  last  observa- 
tion and  record  were  made.  Deduct 
the  product  from  the  hour  which  the 
clock  then  indicates,  and  this  will  give 
the  time  the  clock  ought  to  show. 
The  same  star  can  only  be  observed 
for  a  few  weeks.  For  as  it  gains 
nearly  one  hour  in  the  fortnight,  it 
will  at  last  reach  the  meridian  in  day- 
light, and  become  invisible.  To  con- 
tinue the  observation,  another  star 
must  be  selected  and  studied  through 
the  hole  in  the  brass  plate.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  a  planet  is  not 
chosen  instead  of  a  star.  As  is  well 
known,  most  of  the  planets  appear 
larger  than  the  stars,  and  give  a 
steady  reflection,  instead  of  a  twink- 
ling light. 

But  the  surest  means  of  distin- 
guishing between  them  is  to  watch  a 
star  attentively  for  a  few  nights; 
if  it  changes  its  position  with  regard 
to  the  other  stars,  it  is  a  wandering 
and  misleading  planet. 


Time  is  measured    with   a  spider's 

THREAD 

Of  course,  an  astronomer  uses  more 
precise  methods  of  measuring  time 
than  the  rough  and  handy  sort  of  ob- 
servation which  we  have  described. 
But  we  hope  our  description  has 
clearly  brought  out  the  fundamental 
fact  that  all  time  measurement  still 
depends  entirely  on  the  personal  ob- 
servation of  the  movement  of  the  earth 
in  regard  to  the  stars.  Every  ob- 
servatory in  the  world  has  its  transit 
instrument,  which  is  a  fixed  telescope 
on  a  stated  meridian,  with  a  spider's 
thread  across  its  field.  For  at  least 
four  thousand  years  the  universe  has 
been  our  clock;  and  our  fundamental 
clock  it  will  remain,  however  much  all 
our  modern  mechanisms  for  measuring 
time  may  be  elaborated  and  made 
automatic. 

The  astronomers  who  measure  our 
time  for  us  are  now  being  equipped 
with  a  cheaper  and  handier  method  of 
signaling  the  results  of  their  observa- 
tions than  the  telegraph  wire.  The 
invention  of  the  electric-wave  systems 
of  wireless  telegraphy  is  destined  to 
have  a  far-reaching  effect  upon  the 
general  methods  of  keeping  time;  and 
may  be  actually  used  to  operate  cir- 
cuits of  electrically  propelled  clocks. 
All  that  is  needed  is  a  sensitive  de- 
tector which,  when  affected  by  the 
electric  waves  from  a  distant  trans- 
mitting station,  allows  the  current 
from  the  local  battery  to  act.  This 
local  current,  on  coming  into  play, 
moves  the  minute-hand  of  one  or  more 
dials  a  step  forward;  or  rather  it 
moves  the  wheel  that  moves  the  hand, 
each  movement  of  the  wheel  affecting 
the  mechanism  regulating  the  position 
of  the  hour  hand.  Thus  the  elaborate 
works  of  an  ordinary  clock  or  chro- 
nometer are  unnecessary.  This  is 
the  contribution  of  the  twentieth 
century. 


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How  THE  MARINER  FINDS  HIS  LOCATION 
ON  THE  MAP 

In  the  meantime,  the  extraordinary 
amount  of  science  and  ingenuity  which 
has  gone  to  the  making  of  our  me- 
chanical timepieces  deserves  a  brief 
consideration.  A  first-rate  chronom- 
eter is  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
useful  of  mechanisms.  By  means  of 
it  the  captain  of  a  ship  is  able  to  per- 
form a  calculation  similar,  but  oppo- 
site, to  that  which  astronomers  make 
for  us  every  night.  The  astronomer 
knows,  when  he  undertakes  a  measure- 
ment of  time,  the  exact  position  he 
occupies  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  the  exact  position  in  the  skies  of 
the  heavenly  body  that  he  is  studying. 
This  enables  him  to  calculate  exactly 
the  correct  time.  The  mariner,  on 
the  other  hand,  knows  from  his 
chronometer  what  the  time  is  to  with- 
in a  fraction  of  the  truth;  and  he  is 
then  able  to  learn,  by  an  observation 
taken  with  an  instrument  he  carries, 
his  exact  position  on  the  ocean.  At 
noon,  by  means  of  an  instrument 
called  a  sextant,  he  measures  the 
angle  at  which  the  sun  is  at  its  highest 
above  the  horizon;  and  knowing  from 
his  nautical  almanac  at  what  angle 
the  sun  is  above  the  equator,  he  can 
quickly  calculate  the  latitude  of  his 
ship — that  is,  how  far  north  or  south 
it  is. 

Why  the  sailor  needs  an  accurate 
timepiece 

But  in  order  to  find  out  his  longi- 
tude— that  is,  how  far  east  or  west 
he  is  of  Greenwich — he  must  have  a 
chronometer  that  keeps  Greenwich 
time. 

If  his  watch  is  two  minutes  out,  he 
will  miscalculate  the  position  of  his 
ship  by  half  a  degree  of  longitude — 
that  is  to  say,  by  thirty  geographical 
miles.  For  the  earth  takes  two  min- 
utes to  revolve  that  distance.  In  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne  an  Act  of  Parlia- 


ment was  passed  offering  a  reward  of 
£20,000  to  any  inventor  who  could 
find  a  method  of  telling  the  longitude 
at  sea  true  to  half  a  degree.  A  York- 
shire carpenter,  John  Harrison,  worked 
at  the  problem  for  forty  years,  and  at 
last  won  the  reward  by  making  a 
watch  that  did  not  lose  more  than  two 
minutes  in  a  period  of  several  months. 
This  will  show  of  what  incalculable 
value  an  exact  means  of  measuring 
time  is  in  ocean  transport.  The  sun 
and  the  stars  by  themselves  cannot 
help  a  sailor  to  find  his  time  and 
longitude  at  sea,  for  naturally  he  has 
no  fixed  and  settled  point  at  which  to 
observe  them.  Unless  he  can  keep  in 
touch  with  some  observatory  by 
means  of  electric  waves,  he  must 
trust  to  his  chronometer.  Yet  wire- 
less telegraphy  has  made  such  swift 
and  gigantic  strides  that,  in  July, 
1913,  wireless  time-signals  were  trans- 
mitted over  half  the  globe. 

The  BABYLONIAN  WATER-CLOCK 

The  first  mechanical  device  for 
measuring  the  daily  lapse  of  time  was 
the  water-clock  that  was  used  by  the 
Babylonians  and  Egyptians  and  other 
ancient  nations  around  the  Mediter- 
ranean. It  consisted  of  a  basin  with 
a  spout  or  tap  from  which  water 
trickled  into  a  receiving  vessel.  On 
the  inside  of  the  receiving  vessel  were 
marks  from  which  the  hours  could  be 
told  by  the  height  of  the  water.  In 
the  course  of  time  this  simple  mech- 
anism was  greatly  improved — espe- 
cially by  the  Greeks.  The  receiving 
vessel  became  a  long  cylinder,  in 
which  a  float  was  placed.  Connected 
with  the  float  was  a  chain  passing  over 
a  pulley  on  a  spindle,  and  balanced  at 
the  other  end  by  a  weight.  To  the 
pulley  was  fixed  an  hour-hand,  which 
pointed  out  the  hours  on  a  dial,  as 
the  float  rose  on  the  water.  The  ener- 
gy obtained  from  the  rising  water  by 
means  of  a  float  or  some  other  con- 


TIME    RECORDERS    IN    CLOCKLESS    AGES 


This  was  one  of  the  first  ways  in 
Which  men  told  the  time,  fixing  a  stick 
upright  in  the  ground  and  marking  the 
spot  reached  by  the  shadow.  This 
moves  round  the  stick,  becoming 
shorter  before  noon  and  longer  after. 


At  night  men  marked  a  candle 
in  equal  sections  in  black  and  white, 
so  that  each  section  was  burned 
in  a  given  time.  Alfred  the  Great 
is  said  to  have  Invented  this  way 
of    measuring    the    passing    of    time. 


Here  is  a  simpler  method  of  telling 
the  time  by  night.  A  hemp  rope  is 
knotted  in  regular  spaces,  and  set 
light  to  at  the  bottom,  smoldering 
slowly  and  regularly.  In  Korea 
people   still    tell    time   in   this   way. 


Here  is  a  time-recorder.  Every  time 
a  section  of  rope  or  candle  is  burned 
through,  or  an  hour-glass  turned, 
the  owner  cuts  a  notch  on  a  stick 
to  maxk  the  hours  of  vigil  passed. 


This  is  an  hour-glass,  like  an  egg- 
boiler  used  in  kitchens.  One  end  is 
filled  with  sand,  which  pours  through 
a  small  hole  into  the  bottom  bulb.  It 
was  once  used  to  measure  sermonsi 


When  a  master  and  man  wished  to 
keep  a  record  of  time  for  wages, 
two  sticks  were  used.  The  servant 
brought  his  part  of  the  stick,  and  the 
farmer   comoared   it  witb  his  owq. 


S17 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


trivance  was  sometimes  used  to  work 
mechanical  figures,  instead  of  being 
employed  to  move  an  hour-hand  over 
a  dial.  About  eleven  hundred  years 
ago  the  King  of  Persia  sent  Charle- 
magne a  water-clock  of  bronze,  inlaid 
with  gold,  which  was  very  ingeniously 
constructed. 

The  dial  was  composed  of  twelve 
small  doors,  representing  the  hours. 
Each  door  opened  at  the  hour  it  repre- 
sented, and  out  of  it  came  a  number  of 
little  balls,  that  fell  one  by  one  at 
equal  intervals  on  a  brass  drum. 
The  hour  of  the  day  was  shown  to  the 
eye  by  the  number  of  doors  that  were 
open,  and  the  ear  was  informed  of  the 
time  by  the  number  of  balls  that  fell. 
At  twelve  o'clock,  a  dozen  miniature 
horsemen  issued  forth  and  closed  all 
the  doors. 

The  candle -clock    and    the  hour- 
glass 

At  the  time  when  this  Oriental 
marvel  was  still  being  displayed  in 
France,  King  Alfred  made  a  simple 
clock  by  which,  at  night  time,  he 
could  both  write  and  tell  the  time. 
For  it  was  simply  a  long,  thick,  slow- 
burning  candle,  with  the  hours  that  it 
took  to  burn  marked  upon  it.  The 
sand-glass  that  careful  housewives 
still  use  in  boiling  eggs  was  also  em- 
ployed for  some  thousands  of  years  in 
marking  the  time.  The  Chinese  and 
Japanese  used  to  make  a  primitive 
timekeeper  out  of  a  wick  of  flax 
or  hemp,  about  two  feet  in  length, 
and  knotted  at  regular  intervals.  The 
wick  was  specially  treated  so  that, 
when  lighted,  it  would  slowly  smoulder 
away  without  flame,  and  the  time 
was  estimated  from  the  unburned 
portion. 
Who  invented  the  weight-clock 

It  is  impossible  to  say  by  whom  the 
weight-clock  was  invented.  Even  the 
date  of  its  invention  is  unknown.  A 
time-piece  composed  of  an  assemblage 


of  wheels  actuated  by  a  weight  was 
sent  by  Saladin  of  Egypt  to  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II  of  Germany, 
in  the  year  1232.  And  having  regard 
to  the  fact  that  in  the  Dark  Ages  of 
Europe  the  Mohammedan  races  alone 
carried  through  the  world  the  torch 
of  science,  it  is  very  probable  that 
they  were  the  inventors  of  the  first 
modern  clocks.  However  this  maj^ 
be,  weight-clocks  came  into  use  in 
Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
they  were  at  first  chiefly  employed, 
at  cathedrals  and  abbeys  and  wealthy 
monasteries,  for  indicating  the  hours 
of  prayer.  Few  persons  could  then 
read  a  dial,  so  the  hours  were  struck  on 
bells  by  mechanical  figures,  known  as 
Jacks,  which  excited  the  amazed  ad- 
miration of  the  people.  Unfortunate- 
ly, the  devisers  of  these  ingenious 
marionette  exhibitions  were  far  more 
highly  esteemed  than  the  men  who 
merely  strove  after  exactness  of  time- 
keeping. But  the  clock  that  Peter 
Light  foot  made  for  Glastonbury  Ab- 
bey in  1335  remained  in  working  order 
until  1835.  It  is  the  earliest  modern 
clock  of  which  we  have  any  authentic 
details.  Most  of  the  old  weight- 
clocks,  however,  were  so  defective  in 
working  that  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  the  principle  of 
the  water-clock  was  revived  and  ap- 
plied in  a  more  scientific  manner. 

Discovery  of  the  law  of  the  pendu- 
lum 

Not  until  the  principle  of  the  pen- 
dulum was  discovered  did  the  me- 
chanical measurement  of  time  become 
of  scientific  importance.  But  in  1580 
a  little  boy  was  attending  divine 
service  in  the  cathedral  church  at 
Pisa,  and,  like  many  other  boys,  he 
took  to  staring  about  him  instead  of 
saying  his  prayers.  What  struck  his 
idle  curiosity  was  a  great  chandelier 
that  had  been  lighted  and  allowed  to 
swing  until  it  came  to  rest.     The  boy 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


219 


WHAT  MAKES  THE  CLOCK'S  WHEELS  GO  ROUND 


This  picture  of  the  Inside  of  a  clock  shows  us  how  the 
wheels  go  round.  It  Is  not  the  pendulum  that  makes  the 
clock  go;  It  is  either  a  weight  or  a  spring.  In  this  grand- 
father's clock  it  is  a  weight.  The  weight  is  on  a  cord  which 
passes  round  a  broad  wheel,  called  a  barrel,  marked  A  in 
the  picture.  The  heavy  weight  pulls  the  cord  downwards, 
and  the  cord,  being  wound  round  the  barrel,  pulls  the 
barrel  round.  The  edge  of  this  barrel  has  teeth  which 
work  into  the  teeth  of  another  wheel,  marked  B,  so  that 
both  wheels  go  round.  This  second  wheel  causes  the  top 
wheel,  marked  C,  to  go  round,  and  so  all  the  wheels  are 
set  to  work.  But  if  that  were  all,  the  wheels  would  run 
round  too  quickly,  and  they  must  be  made  to  run  slowly 
and  regularly.  At  the  top  is  a  curved  piece  of  metal  with 
a  catch  at  each  end;  it  is  called  the  escapement,  and  Is 
marked  D.  This  swings  to  and  fro,  and  every  time  It 
swings,  it  catches  the  top  wheel  and  prevents  It  from  going 
round  more  than  one  tooth. 


This  picture  shows  how  the  wheels  make  the  hands  go 
round.  The  three  wheels  shown  in  front  of  the  clock, 
marked  B,  E,  and  F,  are  really  behind  the  face.  B,  E, 
and  F  are  necessary  for  the  hands.  Wheel  F  goes  round 
once  every  hour,  and  as  the  minute  hand  is  fixed  to  it,  the 
wheel  carries  the  minute  hand  round  with  it.  Now  wheel 
F  touches  wheel  E  with  its  edge,  making  it  go  round  also. 
E  is  a  double  wheel,  having  near  the  center  a  small  wheel 
fixed  to  it  with  only  six  teeth;  it  is  really  on  the  other  side 
of  wheel  E,  but  is  shown  in  the  picture  in  front  for  clear- 
ness. Each  tooth  in  it  fits  into  a  tooth  in  wheel  B,  thus 
making  that  wheel  go  round.  As  wheel  E  goes  round  once 
in  an  hour,  the  six  teeth  in  its  center  carry  round  one- 
twelfth  of  wheel  B,  which  has  seventy-two  teeth.  The 
hour  hand  is  fixed  to  wheel  B,  so  while  F  is  going  once 
round,  it  makes  wheel  E  drive  B  one-twelfth  of  its  Journey. 
Thus  wheel  F,  with  the  minute  hand,  turns  twelve  tlme^ 
while  wheel  B,  with  the  hour  hand,  turns  once 


220 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


expected  that  as  the  swing  of  the  big 
lamp  grew  smaller,  it  would  move 
more  quickly  over  the  shorter  space. 
But  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  time  it 
took  to  swing  over  decreasing  dis- 
tances was  uniform.  He  wanted  some 
way  of  measuring  the  duration  of  the 
lessening  movement;  and,  with  a 
flash  of  genius,  he  thought  of  counting 
his  own  pulse-beats,  and  measuring 
the  time  the  chandelier  took  to  swing 
first  over  a  large  space  and  then  over  a 
small  space.  To  his  surprise,  he 
found  that  all  the  varying  swings  of 
the  big  lighted  lamp  were  measured 
by  exactly  the  same  number  of  pulse- 
beats. 

When  he  went  home,  he  tied  a 
weight  to  a  string  and  set  it  swinging 
from  a  beam.  Again  he  found  that 
no  matter  whether  the  arc  of  the 
swing  was  large  or  small,  the  time 
taken  in  covering  the  various  dis- 
tances was  equal.  Thus  did  Galileo 
in  his  boyhood  discover  that  the  swing 
of  a  pendulum  is  equal-timed.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  this  is  true  only  when 
the  arc  of  vibration  is  small. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  weight  of  a 
pendulum  has  no  influence  upon  the 
time  of  its  vibration.  For  the  effect  is 
produced  by  gravity,  as  Galileo  went 
on  to  show,  and  the  time  that  bodies 
take  to  fall  to  the  ground  under  the 
action  of  this  force  is  independent  of 
the  weight.  A  swinging  or  falling 
weight  of  two  pounds  is  only  equiva- 
lent to  two  pound-weights  swinging 
or  falling  side  by  side. 

The  discovery  of  the  peculiar  prop- 
erty of  the  pendulum  gave  the  makers 
of  weight-clocks  the  regulating  instru- 
ment for  which  they  had  vainly 
searched  for  centuries.  A  clock  con- 
sists of  two  principal  parts.  There  is 
first  a  train  of  toothed  wheels,  which 
transmits  to  a  definite  point  the  mo- 
tive force  produced  by  a  weight  or 
spring.     But    as    the    motive    force 


would  expend  itself  with  wasteful 
rapidity  in  setting  the  train  of  wheels 
going  at  a  furious  rate,  a  mechanism  is 
necessary  for  regulating  the  expendi- 
ture of  the  motive  force  with  the 
requisite  uniformity  and  slowness. 
So  the  second  main  part  of  a  clock 
consists  of  the  pendulum  or  time- 
governing  device,  and  the  escapement, 
by  means  of  which  the  pendulum  con- 
trols the  speed  of  going. 
Escapement    mechanism    of    clocks 

AND  watches 

It  is  difficult  to  describe  an  escape- 
ment mechanism  in  words,  though  it 
is  simple  in  action.  But  we  must  at 
least  attempt  an  explanation  of  Gali- 
leo's contrivance.  For,  though  it  was 
unsuccessful  at  the  time,  it  contained 
the  germ  of  the  chronometer-escape- 
ment and  free  pendulum  which  are 
likely  to  be  the  escapement  of  the 
future.  Galileo  made  a  wheel  with  a 
number  of  pins  sticking  out,  not  from 
its  edge,  but  from  its  side.  Sideways, 
near  the  top  of  the  wheel,  a  ratchet 
engaged  with  the  pins,  and  at  the 
same  time  was  connected  with  the 
pendulum  beneath  by  a  small  down- 
ward projecting  arm.  Touching  this 
arm  at  times  was  another  straight 
arm,  running  sideways  from  the  top 
of  the  pendulum  rod,  and  moving 
with  it.  This  pendulum  arm  extended 
partly  over  the  side  of  the  wheel,  in 
such  a  way  that  it  came  into  contact 
with  one  of  the  pins. 

The  wheel,  of  course,  went  round  by 
the  motive  force  of  a  weight  or  spring 
transmitted  through  a  train  of  wheels. 
But  as  the  ratchet  engaged  with  the 
pins,  the  entire  motion  was  stopped 
until  the  pendulum  came  swinging 
back  at  the  end  of  its  beat.  The 
pendulum  arm  then  struck  the  lower 
projecting  arm  of  the  ratchet,  and 
raised  the  ratchet  from  the  pin  with 
which  it  was  engaged.  So  the  wheel 
then  went  round,  and  one  of  its  lower 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  221 

MANY    CLOCKS    WORKED    BY   ONE    PENDULUM 


HOW  AN  ELECTRICALLY  DRIVEN  PENDULUM  TURNS  THE  HANDS  OF  NUMEROUS   DISTANT  DIALS 

By  the  aid  of  the  electric  current  all  the  clocks  in  a  large  factory  or  even  a  town  can  today  be  controlled  by  a  single 
pendulum.  This  diagram  shows  the  principle  of  the  synchronome  system.  The  clock  consists  of  the  pendulum  (A)  alone, 
which  pulls  round  the  wheel  (B)  once  every  half-minute.  The  vane  (C)  then  withdraws  the  catch  (D),  and  allows  the 
gravity  lever  (E)  to  fall.  The  little  roller  (F)  presses  the  pendulum  aside  by  running  down  the  bracket  (G)  mounted  upon 
the  pendulum.  The  lower  arm  of  the  gravity  lever  (fi)  then  meets  the  contact  screw  in  the  end  of  the  armature  (H) ,  thereby 
closing  the  circuit  of  the  electro-magnet  (J),  which  allows  the  current  from  the  battery  (K)  to  pass  through  the  dials  all  over 
the  building.  These  dials  are  advanced  half  a  minute  whilst  the  electro-magnet  (J)  attracts  the  armature  (H)  and  throws 
the  gravity  lever  (E)  up  on  to  its  catch  again.  The  clock-faces  have  no  "works"  behind  them,  only  one  wheel  and  a  magnet, 
shown  on  the  right.  The  electro-magnet  (L)  receives  the  half-minute  impulses,  so  attracting  the  armature  (M),  and  by 
means  of  the  lever  (N)  enabling  the  click  (O)  to  pick  up  another  tooth  of  the  wheel  (P).  The  spring  (Q)  then  propels  tbe 
Wheel  (P),  and  the  minute-hand  attached  to  It.  one  half-minute 


222 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


pins  struck  against  the  arm  of  the 
pendulum  and  thus  gave  the  penduhim 
its  forward  stroke.  But  in  making 
this  stroke  the  penduhim  lowered  its 
side-arm.  This  enabled  the  project- 
ing arm  of  the  ratchet  to  drop  freely, 
with  the  result  that  the  ratchet  itself 
engaged  with  the  next  pin  on  the 
wheel,  and  again  stopped  the  move- 
ment of  the  clock  till  the  arm  of  the 
pendulum  again  swung  back. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  arrange- 
ment did  not  work  well,  and  the  use 
of  the  penduhmi  had  to  wait  until 
Huyghens  investigated  its  mathemat- 
ics and  emmciated  the  laws  governing 
oscillatory  bodies,  in  1673.  But  al- 
most another  century  elapsed  before 
the  escapement  mechanism  of  a  watch 
was  converted  into  a  good  regulator 
by  the  great  George  Graham,  whose 
famous  dead-beat  escapement  is  still 
used  in  many  a  high-class  clock  today. 

It  was  impossible  to  take  a  pen- 
dulum-clock to  sea  and  suspend  it 
so  as  to  avoid  distur'ijing  its  motion 
by  the  rocking  of  the  ship.  The 
ship's  chronometer  is  a  large  watch, 
about  six  inches  in  diameter,  moun- 
ted on  gymbals,  in  a  mahogany 
box. 

A  modern  chronometer  escapement 
consists  of  a  toothed  wheel,  against 
which  two  levers  work.  A  delicate 
spring  at  the  top  of  one  lever  comes 
at  times  into  contact  with  a  little 
projection  at  the  bottom  of  the  other 
lever,  so  the  escapement  -  wheel  is 
alternately  held  and  released  by  the 
interaction  of  the  two  levers. 
Electric  world-clock 

The  electric  w^orld-clock  into  which 
the  Eiffel  Tower  in  Paris  has  been 
transformed  excites  the  liveliest  in- 
terest in  western  Europe,  where  it  is 
easy  for  anybody,  with  the  aid  of  very 
simple  wireless  telegraph  apparatus, 
to  receive  the  time  signals  radiated  at 
Jxed  hours  over  se£|,  and  land. 


Eiffel  tower  makes  fine  station  for 
wireless  signals 

The  Eiffel  Tower  has  been  chosen 
for  this  purpose  because  its  immense 
height,  nearly  a  thousand  feet,  gives 
it  a  distinct  advantage  as  a  sending 
station  for  wireless  signals.  But  at 
the  very  moment  when  this  finger  of 
steel  pointing  skyward  out  of  the  heart 
of  Paris  becomes,  as  it  were,  a  clock 
hand  for  the  whole  planet,  the  merid- 
ian of  Paris  's  officially  abandoned., 

The  order  has  gone  forth  that  hence- 
forth the  Connaissance  des  Temps,  the 
famous  French  astronomical  almanac, 
shall  have  its  calculations  based  on 
the  meridian  of  Greenwich — the  prime 
meridian  that  all  the  civilized  world 
now  recognizes. 

The  world's  standard  wireless  tele- 
graph timepiece  does  not  keep  step 
with  the  hours  as  they  flit  across  the 
world's  standard  meridian  of  time, 
and  an  allowance  for  difference  of 
longitude  has  to  be  made  by  everybody 
who  receives  the  signals  from  the 
Eiffel  Tower,  if  he  wishes  to  know  what 
the  true  world-time  is.  What  he  gets 
is  Paris  time. 

The  observatory  of  Paris  auto- 
matically, by  an  electric  clock,  trans- 
mits to  the  Eiffel  Tower  the  time  sig- 
nals that  are  radiated  over  the  globe, 
and  these  time  signals  are  regulated 
by  the  passage  of  stars  across  the 
meridian  of  Paris,  and  not  that  of 
Greenwich.  But  Paris  is  situated  2 
degrees  29  minutes  and  15  seconds  of 
longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  corre- 
sponding to  a  difference  of  9  minutes 
and  21  seconds  of  time,  which  must 
be  either  added  to  or  subtracted  from 
the  indications  of  the  signals  in  order 
that  standard  world-time  may  be 
obtained. 

If  the  observer  is  west  of  Paris 
he  must  add  the  extra  time  to  get 
the  hour  at  Greenwich,  and  if  he  is 
east  he  must  subtr9,ct. 


I 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


223 


THE  STARTING  OF  THE  TELEGRAM 

In  the  left  corner  we  see  the  Interior  of  a  telegraph  office.  Outside  we  see  the  wires  running  across  country.  The  girl 
Is  sending  a  telegram  to  the  office  shown  on  another  page  hundreds  of  miles  away.  Each  time  she  presses  down  the  key 
with  her  right  hand,  a  current  runs  from  the  battery,  ttirough  the  key,  which  connects  the  twe  wires,  through  the  galvanom- 
eter, and  out  over  the  wires  to  the  far-away  town. 


HOW       WE       SEND 

NOBODY  can  say  what  elec- 
tricity really  is.  It  is  not 
matter.  It  cannot  be  seen, 
though  its  effects  can;  it  cannot  be 
smelled  or  tasted.  We  call  it  a  fluid 
because  we  cannot  give  it  a  better 
name.  But  though  we  do  not  know 
what  it  is,  we  know  how  to  bring  it 
into  use,  how  to  create  or  excite  it, 
how  to  harness  it  and  make  it  our 
most  marvelous  and  obedient  servant; 
and  one  of  the  chief  wonders  electricity 
performs  for  us  takes  place  after  we 
hand  a  telegram  across  the  counter  of 
a  telegraph  office.  A  telegram  is  one 
of  the  familiar  things  in  our  lives 
which  are  really  so  wonderful  that  no 
man  can  quite  understand  them. 

If  we  wish  to  send  a  telegram,  say 
from   Chicago   to   New   Orleans,    we 


A       TELEGRAM 

must  have  in  the  telegraph  office  a 
battery  from  which  we  can  send  elec- 
tricity along  wires.  The  wires  coil 
round  a  piece  of  iron,  and  so  long  as 
the  current  of  electricity  is  passing 
through  the  coil  the  iron  acts  as  a 
magnet,  an  electro-magnet  as  it  is 
called,  and  draws  other  metal  to  it. 
The  moment  the  current  ceases,  the 
iron  is  no  longer  a  magnet.  We  see 
a  picture  of  this  electro-magnet  and 
battery  in  the  above  picture.  When  we 
send  the  electricity  through  this  coil, 
we  call  it  magnetizing  the  coil.  The 
current  flies  swiftly  along  the  wire,  and 
while  it  is  going  the  circuit  is  said  to 
be  closed.  When  the  current  ceases, 
the  circuit  is  broken.  Now  we  hand 
our  telegram  for  New  Orleans  to  the 
telegraph  operator. 


22J^ 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Before  him  there  is  a  little  lever  with 
a  knob  at  the  end.  This  lever  is  called 
a  key.     While  that  key  is  at  rest,  the 


A  telegraph  key  used  to  send  telegrams 

circuit  is  broken.  The  moment  he 
presses  it  down,  the  circuit  is  closed, 
and  the  current  races  along  the 
telegraph  wire.  He  taps  away  at 
his  key  and  the  message  flies  over 
the  wires  to  be  written  down  at 
the  New  Orleans  telegraph  office. 
How  is  it  done.f*  New  Orleans  is  the 
receiving  end.  Well,  there,  at  the 
end  of  the  wire,  they  have  an  electro- 
magnet made  as  we  have  seen,  of  wire 
and  iron.  A  current  comes  from 
Chicago.  It  enters  the  office  by  the 
wire.  It  passes  through  the  coil  and 
makes  the  iron  magnetic.  The  mag- 
net attracts  towards  itself  a  little 
metal  bar  working  on  a  lever,  and 
every  time  this  bar  comes  down  to- 


A  sounder  used  to  receive  messages 

wards  the  magnet,  the  end  of  it  taps 
upon  a  small  screw;  then  when  it 
goes  up  again  it  taps  on  another  screw. 
Each  tap  that  it  makes  corresponds 
with  something  that  the  clerk  in 
Chicago  has  done  at  his  end  of  the 
wire. 


The  Chicago  clerk,  as  we  have  seen, 
presses  down  a  key.  That  key,  when 
at  rest,  has  its  knob  raised  in  the  air. 
There  is  a  wire  attached  to  the  key. 
Now,  when  the  key  is  pressed  down, 
its  under  side  touches  another  wire. 
The  pressing  down  of  the  key  joins 
these  two  wires  together.  That  closes 
the  circuit.  The  joining  of  the  two 
wires  instantly  causes  a  current  of 
electricity  to  flow  from  the  Chicago 
battery  over  the  wire  to  New  Orleans. 
The  instant  that  the  key  is  allowed  to 


This  diagram  explains  the  uses  of  the  battery,  coll,  and 
wires  in  the  sending  of  a  telegram.  The  hand  stands  for 
the  battery,  which  provides  the  energy.  The  big  wheel 
represents  the  coll,  which  regulates  the  electric  current 
to  flow  as  we  want  it.  The  rope  represents  the  flow  of  the 
current,  conveying  the  energy  to  the  small  wheel,  which 
stands  for  the  receiving  end.  The  knot  Is  for  the  electric 
spark,  which  ties  the  ends  of  the  rope,  or  current,  together, 
as  it  were.  When  the  knot  Is  tied,  the  circuit  Is  closed. 
When  the  knot  is  untied,  the  circuit  Is  broken.  It  Is  the 
rapid  tying  and  breakini;  of  the  spark-knot  that  produces 
the  electric  waves 


rise  from  the  wire  underneath  it,  the 
current  is  stopped,  and  the  circuit  is 
broken.  While  the  current  is  flowing, 
the  coil  and  iron  at  New  Orleans  be- 
come a  magnet,  that  draws  towards 
itself  the  small  metal  bar. 

Clever  men  thought  out  a  way  of 
making  this  of  use.  They  arranged 
that  certain  pressures  by  the  sending 
key  should  stand  for  certain  letters. 
We  have  only  to  agree  once  for  all 
that  a  certain  sign  shall  stand  for  a 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


S26 


WHERE  AND  HOW  A  TELEGRAM  IS  RECEIVED 

We  are  sending  this  telegram  by  the  simple  single-wire  system,  so  the  clerk  has  to  write  down  the  dots  and  dashes  as 
they  sound.  Each  shock  pulls  down  the  iron  marked  A,  causing  the  bar  to  strike  the  pegs  P  P  and  sound  the  "dots"  and 
"dashes."  From  the  girl,  the  current  passes  along  the  wires,  then  back  through  the  instrument,  into  the  earth.  When 
the  man  telegraphs,  the  current  goes  into  the  earth  and  back  along  the  wires  to  the  girl. 


certain  thing,  and  then  we  know  what 
it  means.  And  that  is  how  we  got  the 
telegraph's  A,  B,  C.  A  very  short 
pressure  of  the  key  in  Chicago  gives 
two  taps  at  New  Orleans,  one  very 
quickly  after  the  other,  and  a  longer 
pressure  gives  two  taps,  but  with  a 
longer  interval  between  them.  These 
double  tappings,  one  with  a  short 
interval  between  the  taps,  and  the 
other  with  a  longer  pause,  correspond 
with  the  dots  and  dashes  of  the  Morse 
alphabet. 

When  we  send  our  telegram  from 
Chicago  to  New  Orleans,  the  telegraph 
operator  turns  the  letters  which  we 
have  written  into  telegraphic  letters 
by  tapping  away  at  his  key  in  the 
manner  agreed  upon.  Each  tap  is 
registered  at  New  Orleans  instantly 
it  is  made.  With  each  pressure  upon 
the  key  the  circuit  is  closed,  and  the 


current  flies  for  a  certain  length  of 
time,  signifying  a  sign  which  means 
part  of  a  letter.  Each  time  the  key 
is  at  rest  in  its  ordinary  position,  the 
current  ceases  to  flow. 

But  there  is  a  limit  to  the  speed  at 
which  a  man  can  tap  his  key.  If  he 
is  very  skilful  and  strong  he  may  be 
able  to  send  as  many  as  forty  words  a 
minute.  More  likely  he  will  not  be 
able  to  send  more  than  twenty-five. 
That  is  not  quick  enough  when  the 
message  which  he  sends,  instead  of 
being  a  little  telegram  from  one  of 
ourselves,  is  a  long  one  of  thousands 
of  words — a  speech,  or  the  account  of 
some  great  event.  For  this,  another 
system  is  used.  A  message  of  twelve 
hundred  words,  for  instance,  would 
be  divided  among,  say  ten  clerks,  each 
of  whom  sits  before  a  machine  that 
punches  holes  in  a  ribbon  of  paper, 


226  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

the  holes  corresponding  to  the  letters  one  wire  at  the  same  time  from  Chicago 
of  the  Morse  alphabet.  Each  clerk  to  New  Orleans,  while  two  others  are 
punches  120  words  of  the  message,  coming  at  the  same  time  over  the  same 
at  the  rate  of  25  words  a  minute,  so  wire  from  New  Orleans  to  Chicago, 
that,  when  the  work  is  divided  in  this  This  is  done  by  arranging  different 
way,  the  whole  message  is  punched  strengths  of  current.  The  messages 
out  on  the  tape,  or  ribbon,  in  about  that  are  traveling  together  from  the 
five  minutes.  The  ribbon  is  then  south  to  the  north  are  each  sent  by  a 
run  through  an  elaborate  telegraph  current  which  is  of  different  strength 
instrument,  called  an  automatic  trans-  from  that  of  the  others,  and  the  same 
mitter,  because  it  works  itself.  The  is  the  case  with  those  coming  from 
ribbon  runs  through  in  such  a  manner  the  north.  Each  current  goes  to  a 
that  the  circuit  is  closed  at  each  hole  receiver,  which  takes  a  current  of 
in  the  paper  representing  a  dot  or  a  particular  strength, 
dash,  and  the  current  flows  along  the  If  we  have  relatives  awaj  over  the 
line,  to  be  registered  at  the  other  end,  sea  to  whom  we  may  wish  to  telegraph, 
in  ink,  upon  a  tape.  By  this  machine,  we  can  reach  them  by  a  message  car- 
messages  can  be  sent  at  the  rate  of  ried  by  electricity  under  the  sea. 
400  words  a  minute.  The  recording  Cables  run  under  the  Atlantic  and 
of  the  dots  and  dashes  upon  a  tape  at  Pacific  Oceans,  under  the  Mediter- 
the  receiving  end  is  necessary,  because  ranean  Sea,  the  Black  Sea,  the  Indian 
no  clerk  could  write  out  the  message  at  Ocean,  the  North  Sea,  the  English 
the  rapid  rate  at  which  it  is  received.  Channel,  and  so  forth.  There  are 
The  writing  out  is  done  from  the  about  250,000  miles  of  these  sub- 
printed  dots  and  dashes  on  the  receiv-  marine  cables  in  use,  so  that  we  can 
ing  tape.  exchange     messages     with     England, 

We  do  not  find  this  recording  in-  Panama,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  In- 
strument in  small  telegraph  offices,  dia,  China,  and  every  other  civilized 
The  instrument  which  is  used  in  rail-  country.  The  principle  is  the  same 
way  signal-boxes  and  stations  is  what  as  in  the  land  telegraph,  but  the  wires 
we  call  the  needle  instrument.  There  are  different,  and  the  rate  of  tele- 
we  find  a  little  dial,  in  front  of  which  graphing  is  slower,  as  the  current 
a  needle  works  to  right  or  left,  accord-  passing  through  these  long  wires  is 
ing  as  dots  or  dashes  are  meant.  By  necessarily  weaker,  which  makes  the 
watching  this,  the  operator  can  take  recording  of  the  messages  slower, 
a  message  quite  easily.  But  as  the  If  the  ordinary  telegraph  wires  were 
needle  moves  to  right  and  left  it  used,  the  current  would  run  off  into 
strikes  upon  two  little  bars  of  metal,  the  sea  and  be  lost.  So  the  wires 
each  different  from  the  other,  so  that  have  to  be  encased  in  gutta-percha, 
they  give  out  different  sounds,  and  by  and  bound  round  with  tape  and  yarn, 
listening,  without  watching,  the  clerk  and  brass,  and  tarred  hemp,  and  over 
is  soon  able  to  read  the  message  by  all  are  wound  coils  of  stout  wire,  to 
sound,  just  as  the  clerks  in  the  tele-  protect  the  cable  from  the  sea,  and 
graph  offices  do  with  their  improved  the  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
instruments.  For  long  distances,  only  one  wire  is 

Perhaps  the  greatest  wonder  of  the  placed  inside  the  cable,  but  for  shorter 

telegraph  line  is  the  fact  that  several  ones  many  can  be  used.     More  than 

messages  can  be  sent  at  the  same  time,  one  message  can  be  sent  over  the  cable 

Two  messages  can  be  traveling  over  at  the  same  time. 


^28 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE  ELECTRIC  WIRE  THAT  RUNS   UNDER  THE  SEA 

One  of  the  most  wonderful  things  in  the  world  is  the  way  in  which  a  thought  can  be  flashed  across  the  earth  quicker 
than  a  messenger  can  carry  a  letter  across  a  town.  Every  day  messages  are  sent  under  the  sea  by  means  of  electric  cables 
lying  along  the  ocean-bed.  The  question  answered  on  another  page  deals  with  this  great  achievement  of  man  and  the 
pictures  in  the  following  pages  show  us  how  the  cables  arc  laid. 


Marine  plants  an<l  sea  animals  fasten  and  grow  upon  the  cable  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  a.s  may  be  seen  in  this  picture. 
Sometimes  a  cable  is  pulled  to  the  surface  with  a  large  piece  of  coral  growing  all  round  it.  or  some  big  fish  is  mixed  up  with 
it.  These  were  the  greatest  difficulties  that  the  early  layers  of  deep-sea  cables  had  to  fight  against  and  learn  how  to  over- 
come. Several  years  ago,  something  went  wrong  with  a  cable  in  the  sea  near  Valparaiso,  in  South  America.  When  it 
was  hauled  to  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  there  was  a  dead  whale  with  the  cable  coiled  round  its  body.  Such  incidents  are 
QOt  uncommon,  hence  the  need  for  great  strength  In  the  cable. 


MAKING  THE  ELECTRIC  CABLE  FOR  THE  OCEAN  BED 


Here  we  see  a  submarine  cable  in  the  course  of  being  made.     The  men  are  puttinsi  on  one  of  the  many  coats  that  cov^i 
the  metal  and  protect  it  Irom  damage,  and  prevent  the  electricity  from  escaping  under  the  sea. 


In  this  picture  we  see  how  the  cable,  after  it  is  covered  with  gutta-percha,  is  bound  round  with  wire,     livery  delu.il  ol 
the  work  must  be  most  carefully  performed,  for  if  there  was  any  flaw  the  cable  would  be  useless. 


230 


HOW  THE  CABLE  IS  JOINED  TOGETHER  AT  SEA 


After  fixing  the  cable  ashore,  the  ship  steams  away,  and  the  cable 
passes  over  a  drum  or  grooved  wheel,  as  seen  here,  and  then  over  the 
side  of  the  ship.  A  vessel  cannot  carry  a  very  long  cable  all  at  once, 
so  it  has  to  return  to  land  for  a  second  instalment. 


A  buoy  is  put  to  mark  the  place  where  the 
end  of  the  cable  is  let  down.  When  the  ship 
returns,  the  end  is  hauled  up  and  joined  to  the 
new  cable,  as  seen  here. 


When  the  cable  has  been  laid  right  across  the  ocean,  the  end  must  be  taken  ashore  to  be  fixed  in  the  cable  station, 
Just  in  the  same  way  as  we  saw  it  done  at  the  beginning  of  the  laying  operation.  Here  tlie  cable  Is  seen  supported  on 
barrels  from  the  ship  to  the  shore,  and  the  shore  part  is  being  placed  in  a  trench. 


891 


HOW    A     CABLE     IS    LOWERED    AND     RAISED 


The  cable  is  now  laid  under  the  sea,  except  where  part  is  still  held  by  ropes  from  the  ship.  The  rope  holding  the  cable 
is  now  laid  across  a  wooden  block,  and  a  man  with  an  axe  cuts  the  rope.  Then  the  cable  sinks  to  the  bottom  ol  the  .sea, 
and  as  long  as  it  carries  the  messages  properly  it  is  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed. 


If  the  tubk-  UoL-a  liot  work  prupLilj  ,  ii  musi  be  raised  to  find  what  1;=  vvrouy;.     In  lliis  pictare  we  .see  a  collection  of  the 
curious  grapnels,  or  grappling-irons,  used  for  catching  hold  of  a  cable  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea 


These  men  are  using  grapnels.  They  can  tell  when  the 
cable  has  been  caught  by  the  grappling-iron,  owing  to  the 
lerK  of  the  rope  or  chain  that  holds  the  grapnel. 


When  a  cable  is  hauled  up,  a  man  is  swung  over  the  side 
of  the  ship  to  fasten  a  rope  to  it,  as  shown  here,  and  then 
the  cable  is  pulled  on  hoard  (or  repairs. 


232 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  233 

The  speed  at  which  cablegrams  can  received  the  answer  in  a  minute  and 

travel  is  very  great,  though  we  have  a  half.     The  distance  there  and  back 

not  yet  the  instruments  to  receive  the  is  18,000  miles. 

messages  quickly.     A  signal  has  been  Not  many  years  ago  at  an  electrical 

sent  8000  miles  under  water  in  a  single  exhibition  in  Chicago,  a  message  was 

second.     But    we   could    not    send    a  sent  from  a  room,  through  the  United 

long  message  at  this  rate.     As  it  costs  States  to  Canada,    from    Canada    to 

twenty -five    cents    a    word    to    cable .  London,   from    London   to    Portugal, 

across  the  Atlantic,  codes  are  used  by  Spain,  Egypt,  India,  and  Japan.     It 

which  one  word  may  mean  a  dozen  came   back  by   the   same  route,  and 

or  more  words.     By  this  means  time  was  received  in  the  same  room  from 

and     money     are     saved.     Once     an  which  it  had  started,  but  at  another 

English  firm  cabled  to  their  manager  instrument.      It  had  been  round  the 

in    Victoria,    British    Columbia,    and  world  in  fifty  minutes. 

WIRELESS    TELEGRAPHY 

WHEN  we  read  of  the  various  a  man  was  James  Clerk-Maxwell,  the 
useful  inventions  of  such  late  renowned  English  physicist  and 
great  men  as  Edison  and  mathematician.  England  has  con- 
Bell  and  Marconi  we  are  sometimes  tributed  many  illustrious  men  in  the 
led  to  think  that  all  great  discoveries  development  of  the  world's  scientific 
in  science  are  made  by  means  of  history,  but  not  even  Newton  sur- 
experimentation  alone.  This,  how-  passes  this  famous  scientist  in  real 
ever,  is  not  true.  Before  one  can  genius  and  remarkable  insight  into 
begin  to  experiment  with  any  hope  of  the  mysteries  of  nature, 
producing  a  useful  invention  he  must  Length  of  ether  waves 
first  understand  those  laws  of  nature  Professor  Maxwell  discovered  by 
which  underlie  the  problem  he  is  the  aid  of  mathematical  reasoning  that 
trying  in  a  practical  way  to  solve,  there  exist  in  the  ether  waves  of  very 
For  example,  much  valuable  time  and  much  greater  length  than  those  con- 
many  thousands  of  dollars  have  been  cerning  which  we  read  under  the  sub- 
spent  in  a  vain  attempt  to  produce  ject  of  heat  and  light.  He  maintained 
perpetual  motion.  Had  those  experi-  that  these  long  ether  waves  travel 
menters  who  have  worked  on  this  with  the  same  speed  as  light.  In 
impossible  problem  fully  understood  fact,  it  was  the  thought  of  this  great 
the  law  of  the  conservation  of  energy  theoretical  investigator  that  these 
all  this  time  and  money  might  have  very  long  waves  constitute  what  we 
been  saved.  know  as  one  form  of  an  electric 
Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  under-  current.  Indeed,  he  went  so  far  as 
stand  the  fundamental  laws  but  it  is  to  contend  that  light  and  certain 
the  work  of  some  one  to  discover  these  forms  of  electrical  disturbances  are 
laws  and  principles  in  the  first  place,  practically  one  and  the  same  thing. 
In  other  words,  before  we  can  apply  a  both  being  waves  in  the  ether,  the 
principle  to  produce  or  invent  a  useful  only  difference  being  in  the  length  of 
article  or  device  we  must  have  the  the  waves.  Now  this  was  a  remark- 
principle  to  apply.  able  theory,  and  the  interesting  and 
Now  new  facts  or  truths  in  nature  singular  thing  about  it  all  is  that 
are  often  discovered  by  men  who  do  Maxwell  himself  did  not  live  to  see 
very  little  if  any  experimenting.   Such  his   theory   pu^t   to   a   practical   test- 


m 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


By  the  aid  of  higher  mathematics 
this  college  professor  discovered  these 
wonderful  truths  of  nature,  but  it 
was  left  for  other  scientists  who  came 
later  to  confirm  his  conclusions  and 
extend  them  into  practical  fields. 

Not  long  after  Maxwell's  death  a 
young  German  high  school  physics 
teacher  actually  discovered  these  elec- 
tric magnetic  waves  that  the  great 
Englishman  had  predicted.  It  was 
Heinrich  Rudolf  Hertz  who  made  this 
great  discovery,  and  these  long  ether 
waves  are  called  Hertzian  waves  in 
his  honor. 

Hertz  very  carefully  studied  the 
behavior  of  these  waves  and  found 
that  they  obey  all  the  laws  of 
light  waves  and  travel  with  the 
same  velocity,  viz.,  186,000  miles 
per  second.  The  retina  of  the  eye  is 
not  sensitive  to  these  long  ether 
waves,  but  Hertz  was  able  to  detect 
their  existence  by  means  of  very 
simple  apparatus.  We  learned  in 
our  study  about  heat  that  certain 
ether  waves  cause  the  molecules  of 
bodies  to  vibrate  more  rapidly.  Now 
these  long  ether  waves  which  we  are 
now  considering,  and  which  hereafter 
we  shall  call  electric  waves,  produced 
a  somewhat  different  effect  on  matter, 
particularly   on    metallic    substances. 

For  example,  if  a  copper  wire  is  in  a 
region  traversed  by  such  waves  there 
will  be  set  up  in  that  wire  an  electric 
current,  which  current  will  rush  back 
and  forth  from  one  end  of  the  wire  to 
another. 

If  our  metallic  conductor  is  in  the 
form  of  a  circle  and  the  ends  sepa- 
rated by  only  a  very  small  space, 
tiny  sparks  will  jump  across  this  gap 
whenever  the  electric  current  is  set 
up  in  the  wire  as  a  result  of  the 
presence  of  electric  waves.  Hertz  used 
a  device  of  this  kind  to  find  out  a 
great  many  important  and  useful 
facts  about  these  remarkable  waves. 


How  WAVES  ARE  SET  IN  MOTION 

But  how  are  such  waves  started  or 
set  in  motion?  When  an  alternating 
current  is  oscillating  back  and  forth 
in  a  wire  it  disturbs  the  ether  in 
and  about  it  just  as  the  vibrating 
electrons  of  an  incandescent  body  set 
up  waves  in  the  surrounding  medium. 
Such  ether  waves  are  known  as 
electromagnetic  waves,  or,  more 
briefly,  electric  waves. 

When  considering  the  method  of 
producing  electric  waves  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  ordinary  com- 
mercial alternating  current  which 
flows  along  the  wires  in  our  homes  and 
gives  us  light  is  of  a  comparatively 
low  frequency,  ranging  from  25  oscil- 
lations per  second  to  135,  the  most 
common  being  60  cycles.  It  has  been 
found  that  currents  of  much  higher 
frequency  than  the  above  are  most 
effective  in  setting  vip  electric  waves. 
Currents  having  from  one  hundred 
thousand  to  a  million  oscillations  per 
second  are  employed  in  producing 
strong  electric  waves.  Now  the  length 
of  these  ether  waves  generated  by  a 
high  frequency  current  depends  upon 
the  frequency  of  that  current.  The 
greater  the  frequency  the  shorter  the 
waves;  the  lower  the  frequency  the 
longer  are  the  resulting  waves. 
Hertzian  waves  range  from  a  few  feet 
to  several  miles  in  length. 
High  frequency  currents 

Further,  it  should  also  be  under- 
stood that  the  form  and  general 
arrangement  of  the  metallic  conductor 
carrying  these  high  frequency  currents 
have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  their 
effectiveness  in  radiating  electric 
waves.  It  was  thj  discovery  of  this 
very  important  fact  by  Dr.  Marconi 
and  others  that  has  made  it  possible 
to  signal  through  space  without  wires. 
Marconi  learned  by  experiment  that  a 
vertical  wire,  or  system  of  wires, 
having  the   lower  end  connected  to 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  235 

WORDS  TRAVEL  EVERYWHERE  ON  ELECTRIC  WAVES 


This  picture  shows  us  in  a  diagram  the  wonderful  way  in  which  the  electric  shocks  travel  through  the  ether.  The 
wireless  waves  radiate  in  all  directions,  outwards  and  upwards,  so  that  in  less  than  one-sixtieth  of  a  second  a  dot  of  the 
message,  shown  here  as  being  sent  from  Poldhu,  could  be  received  in  London,  Norway,  Berlin,  America,  or  on  any  ship  sail- 
ing on  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  to  prevent  everyone  receiving  everyone  else's  messages  that  the  instruments  are  tuned. 
The  message  could  also  be  received  in  airship,  aeroplane,  or  balloon  at  thousands  of  miles  above  the  clouds  if  men  could 
get  there.     It  is  also  believed  that  they  descend  into  the  earth. 


This  picture  shows  us,  in  another  way,  what  we  see  above — how  the  wireless  waves  radiate,  expanding  evenly  In  true 
circles.  The  boy  has  thrown  a  stone  into  the  river,  and  the  waves  flow  outwards,  getting  fainter  and  fainter  the  farther 
they  get  from  the  spot  where  the  shock  occurred.  The  wireless  waves  are  waves  in  the  ether  very  like  these  water-waves, 
with  this  difference,  that  while  the  ripples  of  water  travel  only  in  a  horizontal  direction  all  round,  and  at  a  slow  rate,  the 
wireless  waves  travel  at  a  very  rapid  pace,  and  in  all  directions.  A  better  illustration  of  how  these  electric  waves  travel  la 
provided  by  the  light  from  a  lamp  or  candle.  The  light-waves  move  from  the  flame  in  every  direction,  and  the  wlreleai 
waves  travel  through  the  world  in  exactly  the  same  way  Irom  the  center  at  wblcb  tbe  messaise  la  sent  oil. 


WIRELESS    STATIONS   ON    DUTY    DAY    AND    NIGHT 


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-:-¥^ — :5&.^i„ 


The  structures,  with  the  wires  at  the  top,  are  built  high  so  that  the  electric  waves,  when  starting  across  the  sea,  may 
not  meet  with  obstructions.     On  striking  the  ocean  they  leap  from  crest  to  cr?st  of  the  sea-waves. 


This  picture  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  a  wireless  telegraphy  station  by  night.  Whether  it  be  light  or  dark,  the  wonderful 
waves  created  by  the  power  of  electricity  speed  on  their  way  across  the  waters.  Receiving  Instrumenta  are  ready  to  record 
their  message,  and  the  words  fly,  in  dots  and  dashes,  speedy  as  light,  and  as  noiseless. 


2S6 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  "    ^     '■'  '  237 

the  earth  radiates  electric  waves  The  coherer  receives  a  Hght  tap 
much  more  efficiently  than  any  other  from  a  little  automatic  tapper,  and  the 
arrangement.  By  utilizing  an  oscil-  filings  fall. apart  again  instantly,  to  be 
lator  of  this  character ''Marconi  was  as  they  were  before,  ready  to  receive 
able  to  signal  over  a  distance  of  several  the  next  electric  wave.  When  the 
miles  where  previous  to  this  discovery  metal  filings  come  together  and  close 
the  waves  could  not  be  detected  the  circuit,  they  operate  a  bell  or  sound- 
beyond  a  few  feet.  er,  and  the  message  which  they  tick  is 

Let  us  now  direct  our  attention  to  read  and  written  down,  ready  to  be  sent 

the  practical  methods  used  to  produce  to  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended, 

these  high  frequency  currents  in  the  Thus  we  send  a  message  thousands 

vertical    wire    or    oscillator    as    it    is  of  miles  across  the  ocean  without  the 

sometimes  called,  and  to  the  modern  help  of  wires.     Here  again  the  rate  is 

means    employed    to    detect    electric  slow.     Cablegrams  run  off  at  the  rate 

waves    at    great    distances    from    the  of  fifty  words  a  minute,  but  the  wireless 

sending    station.       Improvements    in  telegrams  go  at  the  rate  of  only  twenty- 

the  apparatus  used  for  practical  wire-  five  words  a  minute.     Some  day,  of 

less  telegraphy  are  being  made  with  course,  this  pace  will  be  greatly  im- 

such    astonishing    rapidity    that    the  proved.     Wireless    telegraphy    is    one 

past  few  years  have  witnessed  almost  of  the  great  gifts  that  inventors  have 

a   complete    change    in    radio    equip-  given  to  mankind,  and  we  cannot  yet 

ment.    Because  of  this  rapid  develop-  realize   the   importance   of   it   to   the 

ment  and  in  view  of  the  changes  that  world.     The  pictures  on  these  pages 

are  certain  to  come  in  the  immediate  show  how  wonderful  is  the  power  that 

future,  it  will  be  well  to  confine  our  wireless  telegraphy  gives  us  to  speak 

attention  to  a  brief  description  of  the  across  the  sea,  and  sometime  ago  there 

latest    forms    of    apparatus    used    to  happened  a  wonderful  thing,  showing 

transmit  messages  over  thousands  of  how  the  power  of  telegraphy  without 

miles  of  space.  wires    may    save    great    disasters    at 

The  Wireless  Instruments  sea.     Let  us  read  the  story  of  how  a 

By  the  use  of  an  instrument  called  man  tapping  away  into  space  saved 

a    transmitter,    these    electric    waves  a  thousand  lives. 

can  be  sent  bounding  forth  through  Let  us  picture  to  ourselves  an  im- 
the  air  in  all  directions.  By  making  a  mense  liner  moving  slowly  from  its 
receiver  in  tune  with  the  transmitter,  berth.  The  wharf  is  crowded  with 
we  can  make  that  receiver  take  a  people  waving  their  hands  and  flutter- 
message.  To  receive  the  message  an  ing  handkerchiefs.  From  the  side 
instrument  called  a  coherer  is  used,  of  the  ship,  on  all  the  decks,  leans  a 
A  coherer  is  a  glass  tube,  sealed  at  multitude  of  passengers  waving  fare- 
both  ends  with  metal,  and  filled  with  well.  The,  space  between  these  two 
nickel  and  silver  filings.  When  an  crowds  slowly  widens.  Between  ship 
electric  wave  comes  along,  it  passes  and  shore  flows  an  increasing  space  of 
through  this  tube.  It  magnetizes  the  troubled  water.  The  faces  of  people 
metal  filings,  and  causes  them  to  become  indistinct.  The  sounds  die 
draw  close  together — to  cohere,  and  away.  Then  the  engines  get  to  work, 
to  close  the  circuit.  The  wave  is  and  the  great  ship  moves  forward,  and 
quickly  gone,  the  filings  are  no  longer  draws  impressively  to  sea. 
magnetized,  and  the  circuit  is  then  The  passengers  hurry  to  their  cabins, 
broken  again.  They  see  that  everything  is  comfort- 


THE    UNSEEN    TELEGRAPH     MESSENGER 


WIRELESS"  TELEGRAM 

Here  we  see  the  operator  preparing  to  send  a 
telegram  without  wires.  There  is  the  key, 
which  he  is  to  tap;  the  battery,  which  gives  the 
current  necessary  for  sending  the  message,  and 
the  induction  coil.  At  a  little  distance  from  the 
coil  we  see  two  brass  knobs.  One  of  the  knobs 
is  connected  to  a  wire,  F,  which  runs  down  into 
the  earth.  The  other  knob  is  connected  to  a 
wire,  G,  which  goes  out  into  the  air.  So  long 
as  the  key  remains  untapped,  that  is  to  say,  so 
long  as  the  ends  of  the  wires  have  a  little  space 
of  air  between  them,  just  underneath  the  knob, 
the  current  cannot  flow  along  the  wires.  The 
telegraph  instrument,  without  the  touch  of  the 
operator's  hand,  is  as  silent  as  an  unplayed 
piano.  But  suddenly  an  urgent  message  has 
to  be  despatched.  The  operator  presses  down 
the  knob  of  his  key.  Immediately  the  current 
leaps  across  from  the  wire  A  to  the  wire  C,  and 
along  this  to  the  coil.  It  whirls  round  miles  and 
miles  of  wire  in  the  coil,  gathering  intensity  at 
every  whirl,  then  out,  along  E,  to  the  brass  knob. 


The  OIK    lin'  ri;ifly  to  send  a  message 


The  current  from  E  charges  the  little  brass 
knob  powerfully  with  electric  energy;  the 
other  knob  is  also  charged  from  the  coil  along 
D;  the  electric  charge  gathers  in  the  knobs  un- 
til it  becomes  so  powerful  that  the  air  between 
them  is  unable  to  keep  it  apart,  and  it  leaps 
across  the  space  with  a  loud  crack  and  brilliant 
spark;  this  sends  a  shock  along  the  wire  F 
down  into  the  earth,  and  also  up  the  wire  G 
out  into  space  in  every  direction.  The  electric 
current  is  shown  as  sparks  of  light  in  this  picture, 
but  it  cannot  really  be  seen.  For  a  dot  of  the 
alphabet  a  single  spark  jumps  from  knob  to 
knob.  For  a  dash  there  is  a  little  stream  of 
sparks.  What  else  happens  we  cannot  see, 
but  we  know  all  the  same.  When  the  key  is 
tapped  and  the  spark  ends,  the  message  actually 
begins.  Waves  are  set  up  in  the  ether,  carrying 
each  dot  and  dash  of  our  message.  Such  is 
the  power  of  electricity  working  in  conjunction 
with  the  wonderful  ether,  an  element  that  not 
one  of  us  can  explain  any  more  than  we  can 
explain  the  electricity  itself. 


Making  the  electric  circuit 


238 


HOW   ELECTRIC  WAVES  ARE  TURNED  INTO  WORDS 


Receiving  a  "wireless"  telegram 

Here  is  the  office  in  which  the  wireless  tele- 
gram is  to  be  received.  The  sender,  whom  we 
see  on  another  page,  may  be  thousands  of  miles 
away,  but  the  receiving  instruments  here  are 
in  tune  with  his.  The  waves  which  he  caused, 
after  traveling  for  thousands  of  miles  over  the 
ocean,  at  last  reach,  in  about  one-sixtieth  of  a 
second,  the  wire  a.  Through  this  they  pass  to 
the  coherer,  shown  large  in  this  picture  for 
clearness.  It  is  a  little  glass  tube,  in  which  are 
two  silver  plugs.  Between  these  there  is  a 
little  space,  which  is  occupied  by  loose  grains 
of  nickel  and  silver.  The  incoming  wave 
causes  the  filings  to  cohere,  or  join  together, 
as  we  see  in  the  lower  picture.  The  message 
through  a  now  flies  across,  and  through  b  and  c 
to  the  magnet  coil.  It  magnetizes  the  piece  of 
iron  marked  magnet,  which  attracts  the  upright 
piece  d,  and  this  enables  the  message  to  pass  to 
the  wires  e  and  /,  which  now  form  a  powerful 
circuit,  working  another  magnet,  which  also 
pulls  down  another  piece  of  iron,  marked  g. 

THE   ABOVE  PICTURE  SHOWS  THE  OPERATOR  ABOUT  TO  RECEIVE   A  MESSAGE 


Operator  receiving  message 

Every  time  the  piece  of  iron  marked  g  is 
attracted  by  the  magnet,  it  tilts  up  an  inker  at 
the  other  end,  which  spells  out  the  message  in 
dots  and  dashes  on  a  tape,  revolving  on  a  wheel 
by  clockwork.  This  lower  picture  shows  the 
signs  that  spell  a  word  being  inked  on  to  the 
coil.  The  circuit  must  be  broken  several  times 
for  each  word — after  each  dot  or  dash — other- 
wise we  could  not  get  our  message.  This  is 
effected  by  the  little  instrument  placed  just 
under  the  coherer,  marked  "tapper."  Directly 
the  filings  cohere,  the  tapper  gives  it  a  tap,  as 
shown  in  the  upper  picture,  and  the  filings 
separate,  ready  to  be  drawn  together  by  the 
next  electric  shock  received.  The  wire  h  is  run 
Jown  into  the  earth,  the  great  body  of  which 
completes  the  circuit  of  perhaps  5000  miles. 
The  simplest  forms  of  instruments  are  shown  on 
these  pages,  but  for  long-distance  messages 
more  elaborate  instruments,  with  a  powerful 
dynamo  instead  of  a  battery,  would  be  used  to 
form  a  circuit  through  the  ether  in  the  earth. 


239 


TRANS-ATLANTIC  MESSAGES  FLYING  THROUGH  SPACE 


r       I        C 


-^ 


Here  we  see  the  latest  invention  in  telegraphy — the  wireless  system.     We  tap  a  key  and  send  a  current  of  electricity 
along  a  wire.     From  the  end  or  this  wire  the  current  springs  into  space  and  flashes  across  the  sea. 


N      EWFOUMDUANO 


Toi^vi^ec  AM<intrtaJ 


A     T    L    t<    N    T    I     C  OCCAM 


WrtViTS  that  --—^ 


CAPE    BRETON 


^  Taking  e 
f^-  ■'  oays  te  trdvef 


II  we  want  to  send  a  wireless  message  from  Cape  Breton,  Canada,  to  Ireland  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  Oceaa 
we  tap  our  key,  and  the  message  flies  through  the  air,  covering  the  2000  miles'  journey  in  the  sixtieth  of  r  second. 


1240 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


2U 


TWO    CONTINENTS    JOINED    BY    ELECTRIC    WAVES 


"i*  -.  - " 


instructions  >n  mi  at -ocean 


Not  only  can  we  send  our  messages  to  an  Irish  or  English  station;    we  can  receive  messages  as  well.     If  we  get 
news  for  somcljndy  on  the  sea,  we  can  receive  it  at  one  of  the  established  stations  and  tolegraph  it  out  to  the  ship. 


Of  course,  though  we  call  it  wireless  telegraphy,  we  have  wires  at  the  recennig  and  dibpatclnng  points.     High  po3ta 
are  erected  at  the  instrument  houses  to  catch  the  waves  as  they  fly  to  us  from  those  who  send  the  message. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


able  for  them.  They  put  on  great 
coats  and  wraps,  and  take  to  the 
decks.  Before  they  begin  to  walk 
about,  however,  they  think  of  their 
families  ashore,  their  wives,  hus- 
bands, children,  sweethearts.  They 
go  to  one  of  the  rooms  on  the  ship  and 
write  messages  of  affection  and  good 
cheer.  They  ring  a  bell.  A  servant 
comes  and  the  messages  are  handed 
to  him.  They  are  carried  to  the  clerk 
in  charge  of  the  wireless  telegraph. 
The  passengers  begin  to  walk  about 
the  liner  and  to  enjoy  themselves. 

In  his  little  room  the  operator  of  the 
wireless  telegraph  sits  before  his  ma- 
chine. On  the  table  in  front  of  him 
are  the  messages  of  passengers,  a  pile 
of  crowded  papers.  It  is  the  business 
of  the  clerk  to  send  those  messages. 
He  flips  an  A,  B,  C  into  the  ether,  and 
somehow  or  another  those  letters  are 
received  on  shore.  They  travel  with- 
out wings,  without  wires;  they  arrive. 

A  fog  descends  upon  the  sea;  the 
engines  are  slowed;  the  foghorn  be- 
gins to  sound. 

Tap,  tap,  says  the  operator,  earning 
his  daily  bread. 

Crash ! 

A  noise  like  thunder.  A  shock  that 
sends  everything  flying.  A  tearing 
and  rending  and  splintering  of  timbers. 
A  dull,  thudding  crumple  of  steel 
plates.  The  roar  of  water  rushing  in. 
The  staggering  shudder  of  the  whole 
ship.  Shrieks  and  cries  of  people 
from  every  quarter.  Voices  shouting 
through  the  fog — loud  voices  of  com- 
mand. And  darkness.  Every  elec- 
tric light  goes  out. 

The  operator  interrupts  a  sweet- 
heart's message,  and  taps  out  the  letters 
C,  Q,  D,  or  S,  O,  S.  Through  the  cries 
of  the  passengers,  above  the  shouts  of 
command,  piercing  the  black  fog  and 
winging  wingless  over  the  ocean,  those 
invisible  letters  strike  on  the  "receiver" 
ashore,  and  on  numerous  "receivers" 


aboard  other  ships,  almost  at  the  mo- 
ment when  the  operator  sets  them  free. 
They  mean  to  those  who  receive  them : 
"Come  quick,  danger"  or  "save  our 
ship." 

What  has  happened?  The  steamer 
Florida  has  rammed  the  great  White 
Star  liner  Republic.  The  water  pours 
in,  the  crowd  of  panic-stricken  hu- 
manity  waits  for  death. 

Through  it  all  the  operator  sits 
amid  the  ruin  of  his  office,  tapping, 
tapping,  tapping  his  messages  into 
space. 

On  another  vessel,  in  another  little 
office,  another  clerk  sits  tapping  away 
at  the  ether.  The  telegraph  operator 
on  the  Baltic  was  sending  his  passen- 
gers' messages  home  when  his  receiver 
recorded  the  distress  call  from  the 
Republic.  The  sinking  ship  was  sixty 
miles  away,  drifting  in  a  dense  fog, 
and  the  Baltic  changed  its  course  and 
set  out  to  find  it.  From  half-past 
seven  in  the  morning  till  half-past 
six  at  night  the  Baltic  scoured  the 
sea,  talking  all  day  long  to  the  ship 
that  was  sinking  with  a  thousand 
lives.  All  day  long  on  the  sinking 
ship  sat  the  telegraph  operator,  tap- 
ping into  space  a  signal  of  distress. 
Let  us  try  to  imagine  the  scene.  Two 
ships  are  in  peril  in  a  thick  fog.  Two 
thousand  men,  women,  and  children 
prepare  to  die.  In  a  little  room  on  one 
of  them,  a  man  is  tapping  at  a  key- 
board, tapping  into  space  a  bitter  cry 
for  help.  The  air-waves,  set  in  mo- 
tion by  his  tapping,  travel  sixty  miles 
until  they  find,  on  another  ship,  a 
sympathetic  disk  on  which  they  regis- 
ter themselves;  and  thus  the  ships' 
distress  is  made  known. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  the  Republic 
must  have  been  completely  lost,  and 
that  catastrophe  was  saved  for  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  world, 
by  wireless  telegraphy,  a  power  which 
no  man  understands. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  S43 

A   STATION    THAT    TALKS   TO    ALL   THE   WORLD 


"  iUti     iSft    .^fe. 


Ji»ii^^miMiii{y>lw*>'**t>l"*J>*1''iH*'''':^**'v<'^^^*?' 


MM)       88 »»      li^ 
H  li       MM       »a 

n «     E« 


£l^^ 


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SS    S8   Si|   g 


i^ii..-t »-     ■ 


The  Tower  on  Long  Island.  crt'ctiMl  for  tlie  dispatch  of  wireless  impulses 


An  eDormous  electrical  discharge  at  the  Long  Island  wireless  station 


thh 


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MODERN  AVAR'S  MAILED  HAND— GUNS  AND  SHELLS 


THE  guns  carried  on  ships  of 
war,  and  used  in  army  forti- 
fications (with  the  exception 
of  shoulder  rifles  and  revolvers,  which 
are  known  technically  as  small  arms) 
range  in  size  from  a  light  automatic 
machine  gun,  which  weighs  about 
forty  pounds,  and  fires  500  rifle  bullets 
per  minute,  to  a  huge  monster  known 
as  the  naval  fourteen-inch  gun  to  be 
mounted  on  the  battleships  New  York 
and  Texas,  and  which  weighs  sixty- 
three  tons,  and  fires  a  projectile  of 
1400  pounds'  weight  at  the  rate  of 
three  shots  in  a  minute.  Fourteen 
inch  gvms  of  about  this  size  will  also 
be  used  in  fortifying  the  approaches 
to  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  steel  used  in  their 
construction 

Modern  guns  are  now  all  built  up 
or  assembled  from  steel  forgings  which 
are  supplied  to  the  gun  shops  in  the 
form  of  rough  forged  hoops  and  tubes, 
slightly  larger  than  their  finished  size. 
The  steel  of  which  guns  are  made  is  of 
the  very  finest  quality  of  forgings 
known,  and  is  supplied  to  the  govern- 
ment by  the  Bethlehem  and  Midvale 
Steel  Companies,  who  have  made  a 
specialty  of  supplying  them.  These 
forgings  must  have  the  very  best 
treatment,  and  are  subjected  to  the 
closest  scrutiny  both  during  their 
manufacture  and  subsequently  during 


their  final   machining  to  size  at  the 
gun  factory. 

It  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting facts  in  connection  with  the 
extraordinary  development  of  modern 
gun  construction  that  the  demand  for 
a  constantly  improving  quality  of 
material  has  led  to  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  steel  far  exceeding 
those  that  might  have  been  expected 
from  the  demands  of  ordinary  indus- 
tries. When  it  is  realized  that  when- 
ever a  large  gun  is  fired  the  pressure 
in  the  bore  rises  almost  instantaneously 
from  15  pounds  per  square  inch  to 
over  15  tons  per  square  inch,  the 
necessity  for  the  highest  grade  of 
material  is  fully  apparent. 
Mack'ning  the  gun 

The  gun  hoops  and  tubes  when 
received  at  the  factory  are  placed  in 
the  large  gun  lathes  and  turned  down 
to  the  required  size.  In  addition  to 
machining  the  exterior  of  the  hoops 
or  tubes  used  in  building  up  the 
finished  gun,  these  parts  all  have  to  be 
bored  out  so  that  the  inside  will  be  of 
the  required  size  to  fit  over  the  piece 
next  inside  it,  in  the  assembled  gun. 
The  boring  bit,  or  tool  used,  for  this 
purpose  consists  of  two  cutter  tools 
projecting  from  a  wooden  cylinder. 
In  the  turning  off  of  the  exterior  of 
the  forging,  it  is  revolved,  and  the 
tools  are  stationary  except  for  longi- 


THE    TWO     EXTREME    TYPES    OF    BIG     GUNS 


The  automatic  action  of  tlie  gun  is  effei-tfd  by  means  of  llie  pressure  of  tlie  powder  gases  in  tlie  barrel.  Tlie  boxes 
contain  one  hundred,  two  hundred  and  fifty,  or  five  hundred  cartridges  each,  and  are  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  Quickly 
attached  or  removed. 


THE  MONSTER  NAVAL  FOURTEEN-INCH  GUN 

These  guns  weigh  more  than  sixty  tons  and  Are  projectiles  of  1400  pounds  every  20  seconds 

9AS 


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tudinal  movement  so  as  to  cover  the 
whole  length  of  the  surface;  in  the 
boring  operation,  on  the  contrary, 
the  forging  is  stationary,  and  the  tool 
revolves  and  advances  slowly  through 
it  at  the  same  time.  This  operation 
sometimes  requires  two  or  three 
hundred  hours  to  complete.  It  must 
be  done  with  extreme  accuracy  and 
requires  constant  checking,  for  the 
reason  that  mistakes  cannot  be  cor- 
rected, and  the  piece  would  bs, 
ruined. 

The  work  of  machining  gun  forgings 
to  finished  size  calls  for  the  employ- 
ment of  only  the  most  skilful  machin- 
ists, because  the  work  must  be  done 
with  the  utmost  exactness,  and  the 
variation  from  the  prescribed  dimen- 
sions on  these  long  forgings  is  not 
allowed  to  exceed  half  a  thousandth 
of  an  inch  or  the  thickness  of  an 
ordinary  cigarette  paper.  So  care- 
fully are  the  measurements  made  that 


the  measuring  tools  or  gauges  are  held 
by  wooden  grips  so  that  the  heat  of 
the  hand  will  not  warm  the  metal  and 
make  the  measurement  inaccurate. 
The  temperature  of  the  machine  shop 
is  kept  uniform  throughout,  and  all 
measurements  are  checked  on  a 
standard  comparator  kept  in  the  shop 
office.  During  the  boring  and  turn- 
ing operations  above  descnbed  the 
forgings  are  minutely  examined  for 
any  flaws,  cracks,  or  other  defects 
that  might  conceal  a  weakness  of  the 
metal.  Any  defect  that  cannot  be 
completely  removed  in  machining 
causes  the  rejection  of  the  forging. 
Assembling  the  parts 

The  next  process  in  the  building  of 
the  gun  is  the  assembling  of  the 
various  parts  together.  Modern  guns 
are  assembled  by  what  is  technically 
called  "shrinkage;"  that  is,  the  finished 
size  of  the  inside  of  one  hoop  is  slightly 
smaller  than  the  outside  of  the  hoop 


A  FORGING  FOR  A  BIG  14-INCH  GUN  BEING  TURNED  DOWN  IN  A  GIANT  LATHE  TO  THE  REQUIRED  SIZ£ 


THREE  STAGES  IN  A   BIG  GUN'S  GROWTH 

The  wbite-hot  ingot  in  the  hydraulic  press,  which  roughly  shapes  it 

The  roughly-shaped  ingot  being  turned  and  worked  upon  simultaneously  by  eight  eutting  tools 

Tbe  Onished  kud  in  the  oixaminatlon  sbOD.  awaiting  rigid  tests  before  being  paased  {or  servlc* 


U1 


S^8 


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it  goes  over,  and  the  assembling  is 
done  by  heating  the  outer  hoop  in  a 
furnace  until  it  has  expanded  suf- 
ficiently to  go  over  the  cold  inner 
hoop. 

Small  guns  consist  of  two  layers  or 
parts,  and  the  larger  guns  of  four 
layers  of  hoops,  and  10  or  12  separate 
parts.  Finally,  the  hner,  or  inner 
tube,  is  inserted  in  the  gun;  this  inner 
lining  is  made  so  as  to  be  easily  re- 
movable, and  a  new  one  can  be  in- 
serted when  the  bore  of  the  gun 
becomes  worn  out  through  repeated 
firing.  The  liner  is  inserted  in  the 
gun,  the  latter  having  been  previously 
heated  in  a  furnace.  This  operation 
requires  great  skill,  as  the  hole  in  the 
heated  gun  is  only  a  few  thousandths 
of  an  inch  greater  in  diameter  than 


the  size  of  the  liner,  and  the  assemblage 
must  be  made  rapidly  before  the  gun 
cools  off.  When  the  liner  is  in  place 
the  gun  is  cooled  by  spraying  it  with 
water  and  it  contracts  and  holds  the 
liner  firmly  in  place. 
Rifling  the  gun 

The  inside  of  the  liner  is  now  rifled, 
or  has  spiral  grooves  cut  in  it  to 
rotate  the  shell,  and  the  breech 
mechanism  or  arrangement  for  closing 
the  rear  end  of  the  gun  after  loading, 
is  fitted  and  the  gun  is  complete. 
When  the  breech  is  first  closed  the 
heavy  steel  plug  is  swung  up  and 
entered  in  the  round  slotted  hole, 
with  its  threads  clearing  those  of  the 
gun;  the  plug  is  next  revolved  so  that 
its  threads  engage  with  those  of  the 
gun,    and    lock;    thus    the    escape    of 


BREECH  MECHANISM  FOR  CLOSING  THE  REAR  END  OF  A  14-INCH  GUN 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM  2^9 

powder  gases  when  firing  the  gun  is  long;  similarly  a  6-inch  50-caliber  gun 

confined  in  the  bore  of  the  gun,  and  is   25   feet  long.     Guns   are   built   in 

the  only  escape  is  at  the  muzzle  after  all    sizes.     The    army    6-inch    gun   is 

the  shell  gets  out.     The  three  round  310  inches  long,  is  10  inches  wide  at 

holes  above  the  gun  breech  shown  in  the  muzzle,  and  24  inches  wide  at  the 

the  picture  are  for  bolting  the  gun  to  breech.     The    14-inch    naval    gun    is 

its  mounting  so  that  it  can  be  elevated  650  inches  long,  24  inches  wide  at  the 

or    depressed    for    firing    the    desired  muzzle,    and   48   inches    wide   at   the 

distance.  breech.     All   guns   are    now   built   as 

How  CLASSIFIED  brccch     loaders.     The     English     and 

Guns  are  classified  according  to  the  some    U.    S.    Army    guns    have    wire 

diameter  of  the  bore  in  inches,  and  ribbon  wound  tightly  around  the  gun, 

according  to  their  length  in  calibers;  this  wire  winding  replacing  some  of 

a   caliber   being    one   bore    diameter;  the  inner  hoops,  but  this  construction 

thus  a  12-inch  50-caliber  gun  is  one  requires  a  heavier  gun  in  order  to  get 

that  is  12  times  50  inches  or  50  feet  the  same  longitudinal  strength. 

THE  MAKING  OF  RIFLES  AND  AMMUNITION 

WHILE  most  persons  of  any  desired.  After  this  they  are  "straight- 
age  have  handled  guns  and  ened,"  which  is  an  act  requiring  deli- 
ammunition,  comparatively  cate  and  expert  treatment.  The  "ri- 
few  users  of  guns  and  ammunition  are  ding"  is  then  put  in, 
acquainted  with  the  elaborate  proc-  How  a  modern  gun  is  rifled 
esses  and  the  great  care  and  skill  that  This  is  a  series  of  grooves  that  run 
are  required  to  produce  them.  spirally  through  the  barrel,  in  order 
Steel  used  in  the  manufacture  of  to  make  the  bullet  spin  so  it  will  keep 
RIFLES  head   on.     The  correct   twist   of  this 

The   selection    of    suitable   steel    is  "rifling"  for  a  given  caliber  is  deter- 

an     important     requisite     in     manu-  mined  by  test   and  experiment,   and 

facturing  guns,  as  they  are  subject  to  the  carefulness  with  which  it  is  worked 

tremendous    pressures.     Nickel    steel,  out  has  much  to  do  with  the  accurate 

which  has  a  tensile  strength  of  over  shooting    of    the    rifle.     Both     after 

110,000  pounds  and  an  elastic  limit  boring    and    "rifling"    the    barrel    is 

of  over  90,000  pounds  to  the  square  carefully    tested    and   examined,    and 

inch,    is   used   for   the   barrels   of   all  (in    the    best    factories)     given    the 

rifles    intended    to    shoot    high-power  "lead"   test.     This   test   discloses  the 

cartridges;     and    most    of   the    metal  slightest  variation  in  the  diameter  of 

parts  of  some  of  the  later  models  of  the  bore  or  any  imperfection  in  the 

guns  are  made  entirely  of  this  steel,  in  "rifling."     The  barrel  is  also  given  a 

order  to  obtain  lightness  with  strength,  provisional    proof,    which   consists    of 

The   steel   is   bought   in   rods    and  firing  it  with  a  heavy  charge  of  powder, 

billets  and  is  manufactured  into  the  much  heavier  than  it  is  intended  to 

barrels  and  parts  in  the  factory.     In  shoot. 

making  the  barrels,  the  rods  are  first         The  receiver  and  most  of  the  other 

cut  off  to  the  requisite  lengths,  and,  parts  of  the  guns  are  first  forged  under 

in    some    instances,    forged    into    the  drop  presses  and  then  machined  into 

shape  required.     They  are  then  drilled  the  dimensions  and  shaped  required. 

out    and    machined    and    afterwards  Each  part  is  carefully  inspected  and 

bored  up  and  reamed  to  the  caliber  gauged;  for  the  system  of  interchange- 


250 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


STRAIGHTENING  AND   INSPECTING  WINCHESTER  BARRELS 


PROVISIONAL  PROOF.      FIRING  WINCHESTER  GUN  BARRELS  WITH  EXCESSIVE  CHARGES 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


S51 


able  parts  In  vogue  in  the  manufacture 
of  guns  makes  it  necessary  that  all 
similar  parts  should  be  exactly  alike. 
It  is  this  system  of  turning  out  similar 
parts  in  large  quantities  that  makes  it 
possible  for  guns  to  be  bought  at  such 
a  low  figure. 
The  process  of  hardening  the  steel 

The  parts  are  then  hardened,  so 
they  will  stand  wear,  by  heating  them 
in  a  furnace  and  plunging  them  in  oil. 
This  process  is  regulated,  so  as  to  get 
uniform  results.  All  the  furnaces  are 
kept  at  a  uniform  temperature  by 
thermometers,  which  are  connected 
to  a  central  station  in  charge  of  a 
man  who  gives  this  matter  his  undi- 
vided attention;  and  the  oil  is  kept  at 
a  fixed  temperature  by  means  of  a 
refrigerating  plant,  also  in  charge  of 
a  man.  After  hardening,  the  parts 
are  assembled  or  put  together  to  make 
up  the  guns. 
Making  the  wooden  parts  of  the  gun 

The  stocks  and  forearms  of  standard 
dimensions  are  turned  out  on  auto- 
matic machines,  which  work  some- 
what after  the  principle  of  a  panto- 
graph. A  form  or  model  to  give  the 
shape  of  the  stock  desired  is  placed 
in  the  machine  on  one  side  and  on  the 
other  side  is  placed  a  block  of  walnut. 
Between  them  is  a  rod,  held  in  posi- 
tion. At  one  end  of  the  rod  is  a  roll 
and  at  the  other  end  a  cutting  tool. 

Both  the  model  and  block  are  re- 
volved and  the  rod  being  held  against 
the  model  at  the  roller  end  is  forced 
forward  and  backward  by  the  revolv- 
ing model  against  the  revolving  block 
and  the  tool  cuts  out  the  shape  of 
the  model  on  the  block.  The  stocks 
are  then  finished  by  hand,  expert 
wood  finishers  being  required  to  ob- 
tain the  smooth  and  soft  effect  re- 
quired in  gun  stocks. 
Testing  for  action  and  accuracy 

When  the  guns  are  put  together, 
they    are    given    a    definitive    proof, 


which  consists  of  firing  them  with  a 
charge  much  heavier  than  they  are 
intended  to  handle.  After  this  they 
are  tested  for  action  and  accuracy  in 
shooting.  The  sights  of  the  rifles  are 
lined  up  so  as  to  group  a  series  of 
shots  in  the  center  of  the  target;  and 
the  shotguns  are  shot  to  show  the 
pattern  they  make. 

Certain  high  standards  are  required, 
and  guns  that  do  not  reach  these 
standards  are  not  allowed  to  leave 
the  armory.  During  the  different 
proofs  and  inspections,  the  guns  are 
marked,  and  these  marks  show  they 
have  passed  through  the  regular 
series  of  proofs  and  inspections. 

the  manufacture  of  cartridges  and 
shells 

In  the  manufacture  of  metallic  car- 
tridges and  shotgun  shells,  even  the 
metal  used  is  made  in  the  plant. 
Cartridges  are  subjected  to  a  very 
heavy  pressure  in  firing  and  therefore 
the  metal  ought  to  be  exceedingly 
tough  and  elastic.  By  theoretical, 
scientific  and  mechanical  tests  and 
experiments,  the  proper  ingredients  for 
this  metal  are  determined  and  a  fixed 
standard  adopted.  After  the  differ- 
ent ingredients  have  been  mixed  in  a 
retort,  the  metal  is  cast  into  long 
bars,  which  are  then  passed  through 
heavy  rolls  until  they  are  of  the  re- 
quired thinness  for  making  different 
kinds  of  cartridges.  They  then  ap- 
pear like  rolls  of  brass  or  copper. 

These  rolls  are  passed  through  a 
press,  which  stamps  out  circular  disks 
of  the  metal  and  at  the  same  time 
forms  them  into  shallow  cups.  These 
cups  are  passed  through  a  series  of 
presses,  which  gradually  draw  them 
out  into  the  length  required  for  the 
cartridges.  During  each  operation 
the  metal  becomes  very  hard  and 
therefore  has  to  be  annealed.  This 
is  done  by  heating  the  cups  to  a 
required    temperature    in    a    furnace 


252  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

and  allowing  them  to  cool  slowly,  around  the  bullet.  If  the  proper 
The  discoloration  caused  by  this  heat-  charge  is  not  delivered  to  the  car- 
ing is  removed  by  placing  the  cups  in  tridge,  a  device  on  each  machine 
tumbling  barrels  with  sawdust  and  announces  this  fact  instantly, 
soda  water,  from  which  they  emerge  New  cartridges  are  being  constantly 
bright  and  shining.  designed  at  the  factories,  and  one  of 
How  THE  HEAD  OF  A  CARTRIDGE  IS  the  most  important  things  is  to  deter- 
FORMED  mine   the   weight   and   shape   of    the 

After  the  cups  have  been  drawn  into  bullet.     This    is    done    by    tests    and 

tubes,  the  heads  are  formed  on  them,  experiments,  which  often  have  to  be 

This  is  done  by  means  of  a  hollow  die  long  continued. 

the  exact  shape  of  the  head.     This  is  The  bullets  are  of  many  varieties, 

brought  down   on  the  closed  end  of  Some  are  full  lead,  others  full  lead  with 

the  tube  in  a  press,  and  so  ductile  is  patches  of  paper,  others  steel  or  cupro- 

the  metal  that  it  is  forced  into  the  nickel  jackets  filled  with  lead;  others 

die  and  assumes  the  shape  of  it.  have  steel  jackets  with  lead  exposed 

Center  fire  cartridges  have  pockets  at  the  point,  in  order  to  produce  a 

in  the  heads  for  the  primers.     These  mushrooming  effect  upon  impact.  This 

pockets    are    punched    in    before    the  mushrooming  effect  is  very  desirable 

cartridges  are  headed.     After  heading,  in    cartridges    for    game    hunting,    as 

the  tubes  are  trimmed  off  the  required  when  a  bullet  spreads  out  in  this  way 

length  for  the  cartridge,  after  which  upon  striking  an  animal,   it  delivers 

they  go  to  the  reducing  presses  to  be  its    whole   force    on    the    animal    and 

formed  into  their  proper  shape.     The  produces     a     tremendous,     shocking 

bottle-necked  cartridges  are  drawn  in  effect.   To  obtain  this,  therefore,  some 

at  the   mouth  and   others   given   the  bullets  are  very  ingeniously  contrived, 

taper    required.     This    is    done    with  Round-pointed,  flat-pointed  and 

dies.      Practically    all    the    machines  sharp-pointed  bullets 

work  automatically,  and  are  capable  The  bullets  are  also  of  many  differ- 

of  turning  out  a  very  large  quantity  ent  shapes:  some  with  round  points, 

of  cartridges  every  day.  some  with  flat  points  and  some  with 

After  the  shells  are  formed,  the  sharp  points.  The  sharp-pointed  bul- 
primers  are  inserted  on  a  machine,  lets  have  been  found  to  shoot  with 
which  pierces  the  pocket,  so  as  to  great  accuracy,  due  no  doubt  to  their 
provide  a  hole  for  the  flash,  and  sets  greater  ease  in  overcoming  air  re- 
in the  primer.  The  cartridges  are  sistance.  The  jackets  are  drawn  out 
then  thoroughly  inspected  for  de-  to  the  required  length  from  disks  of 
fects,  such  as  dents  or  scratches,  un-  metal,  in  the  same  way  that  the  car- 
pierced  primer  pockets,  poor  primers,  tridges  are,  and  the  lead  forced  in. 
or  absence  of  primers,  or  primers  set  Lead  bullets  are  cast  in  slugs  and  then 
in  wrong,  etc.  The  cartridge  is  now  swedged  to  size  and  shape.  The 
ready  to  receive  the  powder  charge  grooves  often  seen  on  bullets  are  put 
and  the  bullet.  on  by  machines,  which  are  equipped 
Automatic  loading  of  cartridges  with  two  large  metal  disks  with  a  sharp 

The   loading   is   all   done   on   auto-  or  a  knurled  edge,  moving  in  opposite 

matic     machines,     which     accurately  directions,  through  which  the  bullets 

measure  the  proper  charge  of  powder,  pass  while  standing  with  point  up. 

seat  the  bullet  firmly  and  evenly  and  The  cartridges,  after  being  loaded, 

draw  in  the  mouth  of  the  shell  firmly  are  carefully   inspected  before  being 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


253 


packed  into  boxes.  For  packing  some 
of  the  smaller  cartridges,  an  ingenious 
perforated  plate  is  used.  This  is 
set  shaking,  and  the  cartridges  upon 
being  thrown  on  promiscuously  are 
shaken  into  the  perforations  point 
down.  They  are  then  in  a  condition 
for  quick  packing. 

How  SHOTGUN  SHELLS  ARE  MADE 

In  the  manufacture  of  shotgun 
shells,  the  paper  tube  is  important. 
This  tube  is  made  on  a  machine  from 
a  sheet  of  specially  manufactured 
paper,  cut  to  a  fixed  size.  The  sheet 
is  fed  through  the  machine,  coated 
with  paste,  spun  into  a  tube  around 
a  mandrel  and  ejected.  This  is  all 
done  automatically  and  the  sheets 
follow  one  another  in  rapid  succession. 
The  color  is  given  to  the  shell  by 
coloring  the  sheet  of  paper  two  or 
three  inches  from  the  end.  The  tubes 
are  then  burnished,  placed  into  a 
water-proofing  solution  for  a  stated 
time  and  dried  in  ovens,  after  which 
they  are  gauged  or  sized  to  the  re- 
quired dimensions.  They  are  then 
cut  into  shell  lengths.  This  is  also 
done  by  an  automatic  machine.  The 
tubes  feed  dowm  from  a  hopper  at  the 
top  of  the  machine  and  are  grasped 
and  drawn  in  front  of  the  revohnng 
cutters  by  a  shifting  slide,  when  the 
cutters  move  forward  and  simultane- 
ously cut  the  tube  into  the  lengths 
required. 

The  brass  heads  of  the  shells  are 
drawn  out  of  cups  of  brass  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  cartridges,  and 
the  pocket  made  for  the  primer. 
The  brass  heads  and  the  paper  tubes 
are  now  brought  over  to  the  assem- 
bling machines.  The  brass  heads  are 
placed  in  a  hopper  at  the  top  of  the 
machine  to  be  fed  down  and  the  tubes 
are  placed  on  spindles  on  a  dial, 
which  move  around  and  under  a 
punch  at  the  same  time  that  the  brass 
head  is  fed  down  on  top  of  the  tube. 


In  the  meantime  a  ribbon  of  narrow 
cut  specially  prepared  paper,  which 
unwinds  on  a  spindle  at  the  left  of 
the  machine,  is  spun  into  wads  and 
inserted  into  the  tube  to  be  pressed 
into  the  head  of  the  shell  to  form  the 
base  wad.  The  shell  is  then  carried 
over  to  another  machine  alongside, 
which  shapes  the  head.  From  there 
it  is  carried  to  still  another  machine, 
which  pierces  the  primer  pocket  and 
inserts  the  primer. 

The  shell  is  now  ready  to  be  loaded, 
but  it  is  first  carefully  inspected  for 
various  imperfections  which  are  liable 
to  occur  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture. The  loading  is  done  on 
automatic  machines,  which  accurately 
measure  the  specified  quantity  of 
powder  and  shot  and  place  them  in 
the  shell,  together  with  the  wads 
selected,  and  then  crimp  and  eject  it. 
During  the  process  of  loading  car- 
tridges and  shotgun  shells,  samples 
are  taken  from  time  to  time  and  tested 
for  pressure,  velocity,  accuracy,  pat- 
tern, etc.  The  smaller  cartridges  are 
tested  by  shooting  them  from  a 
mechanical  rest;  the  larger  ones  are 
shot  from  the  shoulder  with  a  muzzle 
rest. 
Importance  of  good  primers 

Of  much  more  importance  than 
many  people  suppose  is  the  primer. 
As  most  primers  nowadays  are  re- 
quired to  ignite  smokeless  as  well  as 
black  powder,  they  must  emit  a  par- 
ticularly strong  and  hot  flash.  They 
must  also  flash  instantly  the  firing  pin 
strikes  them;  otherwise  there  is  a 
hangfire,  which  is  apt  to  cause  dan- 
ger. In  preparing,  the  object  is  to 
get  a  mixture  that  will  be  safe  to 
handle  when  packed  in  cartridges, 
and  yet  be  sensitive  enough  to  re- 
spond to  the  blows  of  hammers  of  all 
properly  made  guns  and  be  quick  and 
thorough  in  ignition.  It  is  also  im- 
portant to  get  a  combination  that  will 


254 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


255 


not  send  off  gases  that  corrode  gun 
barrels.  These  desirable  results  have 
all  been  obtained. 

The  cups  are  stamped  out  of  brass 
of  a  determined  thickness,  as  well  as 
the  anvils  which  go  inside.  The 
mixture  is  then  placed  in  the  cups  in 
a  moist  state  and  the  anvils  inserted. 
The  mixture  lies  between  the  wall  of 
the  cup  and  the  anvil.  When  the 
firing  pin  is  driven  against  the  primer, 
its  wall  is  forced  in  against  the  anvil 
and  the  friction  causes  the  mixture  to 
explode  and  the  flame  thus  made 
shoots  out  each  side  of  the  anvil  where 
it  is  cut  away,  and  into  the  powder 
charge. 

Pressures  are  determined  by  noting 
the  compression  of  metallic  disks  at 
the  time  of  firing  a  cartridge.  The 
ballistic  laboratory  is  equipped  with 
a  pressure  gauge  for  each  different 
kind  of  cartridge.  Both  the  pressure 
and  the  velocity  are  often  determined 
at  the  same  time. 
Torrents  of  molten  lead 

The  shot  that  goes  into  shotgun 
shells  is  made  in  a  building  known  as 
a  shot  tower.  The  building  is  in 
reality  a  huge  machine,  and  the  entire 
process  of  manufacturing  shot,  after 
the  pigs  of  lead  are  put  into  the  melt- 
ing pot,  is  taken  care  of  by  automatic 
machinery.  The  lead  runs  from  the 
melting  pot  into  a  pan,  the  bottom 
of  which  is  composed  of  a  screen;  the 
size  of  the  screen  varying  according 
to  the  size  of  shot  desired.  Through 
this  screen  the  lead  falls  in  drops  like 
rain,  and  is  caught  in  a  tank  of  water 
below.  In  its  fall  it  assumes  a 
spherical  shape. 

It  is  raised  from  the  tank  by  an 
endless  chain  into  a  long  perforated 
cylinder,  which  drains  off  the  water. 
From  this  it  descends  into  a  long, 
tight,  revolving  cylinder,  which  is 
heated  by  steam,  and  there  it  dries. 
A  small  quantity  of  graphite  is  put 


into  this  cylinder,  which  gives  a  fine 
polish  to  the  shot. 

How  THE  SHOT  IS  SORTED  AND  SIZED 

From  the  cylinder  the  shot  is  raised 
almost  to  the  top  of  the  building, 
where  it  begins  to  flow  down  the  sort- 
ing tables.  These  are  shelves  of  plate 
glass,  having  a  slight  downward  pitch 
and  broadening  towards  the  front. 
In  front  of  these  is  a  trough,  placed 
at  such  a  distance  that  only  the 
spherical  shot,  racing  down  the  in- 
clined shelf,  will  reach  it.  The  im- 
perfect or  flat-sided  shot,  sliding  or 
traveling  more  slowly,  drop  over  the 
edge  of  the  shelf  into  the  scrap  kettles 
below  and  is  later  melted  over.  There 
are  a  number  of  these  shelves,  set  one 
below  the  other  and  facing  in  alternate 
directions.  By  the  time  it  has  passed 
over  all  these  shelves  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  only  the  good,  well-rounded  shot 
continues  on  its  journey. 

It  then  runs  into  the  sizing  screens. 
These  are  truncated-cone-like  cylin- 
ders, having  perforations  of  different 
sizes,  and  are  set  one  below  another. 
The  size  of  the  perforations  corresponds 
to  the  size  of  shot  of  a  certain  number, 
such  as  No.  4,  No.  5,  No.  6,  etc.  The 
larger  size  is  unable  to  pass  through  the 
first  screen  and  is  therefore  led  off. 
The  smaller  sizes  pass  through  to  the 
screen  below,  and  the  next  larger  size 
is  there  led  off;  and  so  on,  down 
through  the  different  screens,  until 
all  the  sizes  are  assorted  and  led 
off  to  their  respective  places.  These 
sizing  screens  are  continually  revolv- 
ing. 

After  being  assorted  for  sizes,  the 
shot  descends  still  further  into  long 
revolving  cylinders,  where  it  is  given 
a  final  polish.  Upon  entering  these 
cylinders,  it  is  weighed  by  auto- 
matic scales.  The  shot  is  now  fin- 
ished and  descends  to  tanks  below, 
which  are  numbered  with  the  respec- 
tive sizes. 


THE    NEWEST    INSTRUMENTS    OF    WAR 


THE     SUBMARINE     BOAT— SUBMARINE      MINE— TORPEDOES— SHRAPNEL— AIR 
SHIPS— AEROPLANE— ZEPPELIN'S— AIR    BOMBS— INTRENCHMENTS— 

SIEGE  GUNS— COAST  DEFENSE. 


Many  of  the  instruments  of  modern  warfare 
are  almost  as  startling  as  was  the  use  of  gun- 
powder, in  the  Fourteenth  Century,  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy.  Today  electricity  and  gaso- 
line are  of  equal  importance  with  powder  and 
shot. 

In  addition  to  highly  improved  rifles  and 
machine  guns,  field  pieces  and  howitzers  there 
is  a  long  line  of  instruments  calling  for  the  last 
degree  of  efficient  mechanism. 

There  are  dynamos  that  supply  the  currents 
for  the  strong  searchlights,  whose  long  pencils 
of  light  sweep  the  sky  for  aircraft  or  the  terrain 
opposite  for  the  enemies  infantry;  telegraph 
and  telephone  nets  are  spread  out  from  the  tent 
of  a  commanding  general  to  the  firing  line  itself; 
there  are  mixing  machines  to  supply  concrete  for 
the  bases  of  the  heavy  guns  that  batter  down 
fortresses;  gasworks  travel  on  rails  and  high- 
ways to  supply  hydrogen  for  balloons;  traction 
engines  haul  heavy  cannon  and  caissons;  armed 
and  armored  automobiles  and  aeroplanes  whir 
over  roads  and  through  the  air;  armored 
trains  crash  into  columns  of  troops  and  deliver 
broadsides;  in  short,  every  branch  of  mechanical 
and  chemical  science  is  utilized  to  the  utmost 
to  extend  the  range  and  intensify  the  deadliness 
of  death  dealing  instruments. 

Probably  the  two  most  effective  of  the  new 
engines  of  war  are  the  submarine  boat  and  the 
airship — both  aeroplane  and  Zeppelin. 

THE  SUBMARINE  BOAT  AND  ITS  WORK 
OF  DESTRUCTION 

The  following  description  of  the  construction 
and  operation  of  the  submarine  will  apply  in  its 
principles  to  most  of  the  various  types  employed. 

The  form  of  the  hull  is  generally  described 
as  cigarshaped.  It  is  built  of  the  very  best 
quality  of  mild  steel,  and  the  workmanship  is 
of  the  highest  order,  for  the  reason  that  every 
seam  and  rivet  must  be  perfectly  tight,  in  view 
of  the  service  which  the  boat  is  called  upon  to 
perform.  Not  only  do  vessels  of  this  type 
undergo  all  the  stresses  of  sea  and  weather  to 
which  other  vessels  are  subjected,  but  in  addi- 
tion they  are  required  to  navigate  at  consider- 
able depths  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
At  these  depths  the  pressure  of  the  water  is 
great,  so  that  the  hull  must  be  made  sufficiently 
strong  to  withstand  it. 

For  submerged  work  large  storage  batteries 
are  pro\'ided,  which  furnish  energy  suflicient  to 
drive  the  boat  from  ten  to  eleven  knots  for  a 
period  of  over  an  hour.  The  same  electrical 
energy  will  drive  it  at  a  lower  speed  for  a  much 
longer  time. 

There  are  two  distinct  conditions  in  which 
the  boat  may  be  used.  In  the  first,  commonly 
known  as  the  surface  condition,  the  boat  is  pre- 


pared for  cruising.  A  considerable  portion  of 
its  hull  is  above  water,  a  removable  navigating 
bridge  is  in  place,  and  it  is  driven  by  large, 
powerful,  internal-combustion  engines.  Under 
these  conditions  it  is  managed  in  about  the  same 
way  as  any  vessel  built  to  run  upon  the  surface. 

The  second  distinct  condition  exists  when 
the  boat  is  submerged.  To  pass  from  the  sur- 
face to  the  submerged  condition,  certain  valves 
in  the  interior  of  the  boat  are  opened.  This 
allows  the  water  from  the  sea  to  run  into  great 
tanks  built  within  the  boat,  and  thus  virtually 
sink  it.  These  tanks  are  closely  gaged,  so 
that  just  the  required  amount  of  water  is  taken 
in.  Under  normal  conditions,  when  the  boat  is 
at  rest  with  the  ballast  tanks  filled,  it  will  have 
a  few  hundred  pounds  reserve  buoyancy,  which 
is  represented  by  the  top  of  the  conning  tower 
protruding  above  the  water.  If  desired,  this 
buoyancy  may  be  entirely  destroyed  by  ad- 
mitting a  small  additional  amount  of  water, 
equal  in  volume  to  the  volume  of  that  part  of 
the  conning  tower  above  water.  While  in  the 
Submerged  condition,  all  communication  with 
the  outside  atmosphere  is  necessarily  cut  off. 
The  crew  then  breathes  the  air  contained  in  the 
body  of  the  boat.  The  amount  of  air  originally 
contained  within  the  hull  is  suflScient  to  support 
life  with  comfort  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours. 
But,  in  addition  to  the  air  thus  contained,  the 
boat  carries  a  large  supply  of  compressed  air  in 
steel  flasks,  which,  if  used  for  breathing  pur- 
poses, would  be  suflicient  for  a  number  of  days. 

After  having  brought  the  boat  to  the  sub- 
merged condition  in  the  manner  above  described, 
powerful  electric  motors  are  started  by  throwing 
in  a  switch.  These  motors  derive  their  energy 
from  storage  batteries  contained  in  the  boat, 
and  drive  the  propellers.  The  same  storage 
batteries  furnish  current  for  numerous  auxiliary 
motors  used  for  pumping,  steering,  handling 
torpedoes,  etc. 

The  motion  of  the  boat  when  under  way  is 
controlled  by  two  sets  of  rudders;  one  of  these 
sets,  known  as  the  vertical  rudders,  directs  the 
boat's  course  to  port  or  starboard  just  as  does 
the  rudder  of  an  ordinary  ship.  In  addition, 
there  are  provided  horizontal  rudders,  which 
serve  to  control  the  motion  of  the  boat  in  a 
horizontal  plane;  that  is  to  say,  the  depth  at 
which  she  runs  is  regulated  by  these  rudders. 
For  steering  in  the  horizontal  plane,  instruments 
are  provided,  so  that  the  boat  may  be  navigated 
with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy  as  boats  on 
the  surface.  The  first  of  these  instruments  is 
known  as  a  periscope.  This  consists  of  a  verti- 
cal tube  which  extends  from  above  the  surface 
of  the  water  to  a  few  feet  within  the  submarine. 
At  the  top  of  the  tube  is  an  object  glass;  at  the 
bottom  an  eye-piece.  Two  reflecting  mirrors 
one  at  the  top,  the  other  at  the  bottom  of  the 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


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vertical  tube,  cause  the  image  to  be  transferred 
from  the  object  glass  to  the  eye-piece.  The 
operator  can  turn  the  periscope  so  as  to  sweep 
the  whole  horizon.  The  view  thus  obtained  is 
as  clear  as  though  he  were  at  the  surface  looking 
through  an  ordinary  field  glass.  Hence  when 
running  submerged  with  the  top  of  the  periscope 
just  out  of  the  water,  the  navigator  can  see 
with  perfect  ease  surrounding  objects.  If  for 
any  reason  it  should  be  desired  to  run  at  a  still 
greater  depth,  compasses  are  provided  by  which 
the  course  may  be  steered  with  accuracy.  For 
"steering,  submerged,  in  the  vertical  plane, 
instruments  are  provided  which  in  a  way  take 
the  place  of  the  compass.  One  of  these  is  a 
large  pressure  gage,  which  indicates  the  depth 
at  which  the  boat  is  running.  Another  is  a 
form  of  spirit  level,  which  indicates  the  inclina- 
tion of  its  avis.  By  the  use  of  this,  the  man 
controlling  the  horizontal  rudder  is  able  to  run 
at  a  perfectly  even  depth.  While  in  the  sub- 
merged condition,  the  boat  is  of  course  amply 
illuminated  by  electric  lights. 

The  arm  of  the  submarine  is  the  automobile 
torpedo.  A  number  of  these  may  be  carried. 
They  are  discharged  through  torpedo  tubes 
located  in  the  bow  of  the  boat.  Any  modern 
tj^pe  of  automobile  torpedo  may  be  used.  In 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  submarine  is  enabled 
to  approach  unseen  to  within  a  few  yards,  if 
desired,  of  the  most  powerful  battleship,  a  long- 
range  torpedo  is  not  required.  For  this  reason 
the  weight  devoted  to  motive  power  in  the 
ordinary  torpedo  may  be  largely  used  to  increase 
the  destructive  power,  so  that  the  proper  arm 
for  the  submarine  would  be  far  more  powerful 
and  destructive  than  the  ordinary  automobile 
torpedo. 


AVEIGHT 


RAIL. 


THE  SUBMARINE  MINE 

To-day  the  mine  is  still  looked  upon  as  a 
great  defensive  force,  and  used  pretty  extensively 
in  defending  war  ports.  Wet  gun-cotton  is  the 
explosive  now  almost  universally  employed;  it 
has  the  advantage  of  being  slow  to  explode,  and 
can  be  moved  and  manipulated  without  very 
much  danger  to  the  submarine  miners.  By  a 
new  process  the  gun-cotton  is  now  compressed 
into  solid  blocks  of  any  desired  size  or  shape, 
and  these  are  placed  in  the  iron  cases.  The 
cylindrical  form  of  case  is  usually  employed. 
This  is  made  of  wrought  iron  riveted  together, 
and  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  large  ball 
on  which  chains  are  attached  so  that  the  mine 
can  be  moored  in  the  desired  position.  The 
spherical  case  has  been  adopted  as  the  result  of 
exhaustive  experiments,  by  which  it  was  found 
that  this  form  is  most  capable  of  withstanding 
external  pressure,  and  offers  the  least  resistance 
to  tidal  currents;  it  is,  therefore,  the  least 
liable  to  be  affected  by  an  enemy's  attempts  at 
countermining. 

The  type  of  mine  now  generally  employed  is 
made  to  contain  a  100-pound  charge,  if  used  as 
a  buoyant  mine;  if  used  as  a  ground  mine,  a 
cement  lining  is  formed  inside  the  iron  shell, 
and  500  pounds  of  explosive  packed  within. 
The  type  is  excellent  for  harbor  defence,  and  is 
used  as  a  ground  mine,  it  can  be  placed  under 
the  fairway  of  the  ships,  and  is  connected  by 
electric  cable  with  a  station  ashore.  By  this 
means  a  channel  right  through  the  center  of 
the  mine  field  is  found,  so  that  friendly  vessels, 
knowing  the  course,  can  come  or  go  without 
danger,  but  should  a  hostile  ship  attempt  to 
rush  in,  then  these  sinister  globes  nestling  along 


It  consists  of  the  mine  itself  r'gged  with  a  lever  for 
Betting  off  the  explosives,  an  anchor  chamber  connected 
with  the  mine  by  a  cable  which  is  as  many  feet  in  length 
as  the  mine  is  to  he  under  water,  and  a  weight  connected 
wltb  the  ancbor  chamber. 


When  the  mine  Is  dropped  overboard  as  shown  (on  the 
left)  the  anchor  chamber  plays  out  cable  and  sinks  until 
the  weight  reaches  the  bottom  (aa  in  the  third  diagram) 
which  stops  the  cable  from  unwinding  further  and  pulla 
the  mlue  below  the  surface  (as  in  the  right  hand  diagram) 


A  SUBMARINE  ATTACKING  A  BATTLESHIP  AT  CLOSE  RANGE 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  MINE-LAYER 

Showing  how  the  mines  are  stored  and  launched  through  a  spscial  port-hole  in  the  stern. 


The  most  common  type  of  anchored  contact  mine  is  provided  with  a  mechanism  which  automatically  causes  the  sphere 
Gontainlne  the  explosive  to  float  at  a  predetermined  depth  of  about  fifteen  feet. 


tlie  sea  bottom,  can  be  instantly  fired  from  tbe 
land. 

Mines  are  usually  moored  about  twelve  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  kept  in  position  by  a 
heavy  iron  sinker  resting  on  the  bed  of  the 
harbor.  The  latter  is  connected  to  the  floating 
mine  by  a  stout  chain  cable.  The  mine  can 
either  be  fired  from  the  shore,  or — when  a 
detonator  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  in  connection 
with  a  small  priming  charge  of  dry  gun-cotton  is 
used  to  explode  the  mine — by  contact  with  a 
ship. 

But  now  we  must  look  upon  the  other  side 
of  the  picture — i.e.  what  is  done  to  combat  the 
terror  of  the  mine.''  liere  we  come  upon  per- 
haps the  strangest  vessels  to  be  found  in  any 
fleet.  They  are  nothing  more  than  the  trawlers 
painted  the  familiar  navy  grey,  and  specially 
adapted,  not  for  the  trawling  of  cod  but  for  a 
more  difficult  and  dangerous  role — the  creeping 
or  trawling  for  submarine  mines! 

The  method  employed  is  simple  and  in- 
genious. Assuming  that  a  certain  mine  field 
has  to  be  "cleared,"  two  or  more  of  these 
"creepers"  steal  outside  the  mine  area,  each 
towing  well  astern,  sunk  to  the  sea  bottom,  a 
heavy  iron  sinker,  or,  to  employ  its  correct 
name,  a  "kite."  This  large  casting  is  V-shaped, 
and  attached  to  it  is  an  iron  pulley  or  block; 
through  this  runs  the  "sweeping- wire,"  which 
is  attached  to  a  hauling  drum  on  the  deck  of  the 
trawler,  and  passes  over  the  stern,  and  then, 
going  through  the  block  of  the  kite,  stretches 
away  across  the  sea  bottom  to  the  second 
kite,  trailing  behind  the  sister  "creeper" 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mine  field. 
The  necessary  cable  being  swung  out,  the 
two  vessels  creep  ahead  in  direct  line.  Well 
astern,  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  trails  the 
sweeping-wire,  which,  passing  slowly  along, 
naturally  catches  the  sinkers  and  chain  of  the 
mines.  Thus  these  dangerous  fish  are  swept 
together;  even  if  one  or  more  do  explode,  there 
is  no  danger  to  the  ship  employed,  as  it  is  well 
out  of  the  way.  When  all  the  mines  are  drawn 
together,  a  large  charge  is  placed  in  position, 
and  the  whole  lot  destroyed. 

SKY  TORPEDOES 

Two  types  of  bombs  are  used  from  the  Zep- 
pelins. One  is  an  ordinary  globular  grenade, 
to  which  is  attached  a  tail  of  linen  to  guide  it 
in  its  flight,  and  the  other  takes  the  form  of  an 
"aerial  torpedo."  This  is  fired  from  the  gon- 
dolas of  the  airship  from  a  special  launching 
tube  placed  upon  a  mounting  with  a  universal 
joint  so  that  the  tube  can  be  swung  to  any 
angle  and  the  torpedo  sent  upon  its  journey  by 
simply  pressing  a  trigger. 

The  deadly  weapon  itself  consists  of  a  pointed 
shell,  approximately  20  inches  long  by  4  inches 
in  diameter.  In  the  nose  is  a  high  explosive 
which  is  fired  by  a  percussion  cap  on  contact. 
Beyond  this  is  another  compartment  that  con- 
tains the  propellant,  which  is  a  slow-burning 
compound    composed    of    sulphur,    saltpetre. 


charcoal  and  vegetable  oil,  weighing  four  and 
one-half  pounds.  This  when  ignited  gives  off 
gasses  produced  by  its  combustion,  which  in 
turn  drive  a  powerful  turbine  in  the  rear  of  the 
torpedo,  and  by  this  means  it  is  driven  forward 
at  a  high  velocity  and  at  the  same  time  imparts 
a  rapid  rotating  motion  as  if  it  were  fired  from 
rifled  cannon,  which,  of  course,  adds  consider- 
ably to  its  efficiency. 

The  aerial  torpedo  has  a  stout  shell  of  steel 
and  gives  off  no  flame,  which,  of  course,  would 
be  dangerous  to  a  gas-filled  Zeppelin.  The 
impetus  imparted  to  the  torpedo  by  the  turbine 
is  remarkable,  and  allowing  for  the  speed  of  the 
airship  the  shell  can  be  hurled  with  great 
accuracy. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  path  of  a 
falling  body  when  merely  dropped  from  the 
Zeppelin  is  composed  of  two  motions,  the 
forward  motion  of  the  object  at  the  moment  of 
release  from  the  moving  Zeppelin  and  the 
downward  path  due  to  gravity.  In  the  case 
of  light  objects,  experiments  prove  that  when 
released  from  aeroplanes  they  rapidly  pass 
astern. 


MAKING  THE  BIG  GUNS 

A  fascinating  sight  is  to  watch  the  first 
stages  in  the  manufacture  of  the  big  guns.  A 
solid  ingot  of  steel,  some  fifty  feet  in  length  and 
weighing  about  100  tons,  is  employed  in  the 
making  of  a  thirteen-inch  gun.  After  being 
forged  and  then  allowed  to  cool,  so  that  it  may 
be  toughened  for  the  heavy  work,  this  gigantic 
bar  of  steel  is  pressed  into  cylindrical  shape 
by  a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  which  exerts  a 
pressure  of  anything  between  5,000  to  10,000 
tons  to  the  square  inch.  Later  what  is  known 
as  the  trepanning  operation  is  carried  out, 
namely,  drilling  the  bore  from  end  to  end. 
Next  the  bore  is  rifled. 

The  most  impressive  sight,  however,  is  the 
hardening  process,  when  the  rough  weapon  is 
heated  to  dazzling  white  heat  and  plunged  into 
a  well  full  of  oil.  If  the  operation  takes  place 
in  the  night  time  the  sight  of  this  big,  glowing 
bar  of  metal  being  lowered  apparently  into  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  issuing  leaping  tongues  of 
flames  from  the  burning  oil,  may  be  likened  to 
a  scene  from  Dante's  Inferno.  The  gun  is 
left  to  cool  in  the  oil  bath,  out  of  which  it  comes 
hardened,  toughened  and  tempered. 

Now  follows  the  wire-winding  operation  to 
make  the  weapon  stronger  and  impart  to  it 
some  measure  of  elasticity.  This  wire-winding 
is  much  the  same  in  principle  as  the  whipping 
on  the  handle  of  a  cricket  bat.  In  this  case, 
however,  the  whipping  takes  the  form  of  a 
strong  steel  ribbon,  which  is  wound  around  the 
body  of  the  gun.  Every  thirteen-inch  gun  has 
about  120  miles  of  this  steel  ribbon  wound 
about  it.  Some  idea  of  the  labor  involved  in 
the  manufacture  of  one  of  these  guns  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  from  start  to  fioisb 
the  time  occupied  is  twelve  months. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


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A  TYPE  OF  THE  LAND  MINE 


SHRAPNEL 

When  the  artillerists  figured  out  the  problem 
of  scattering  projectiles  so  that  even  thinly  dis- 
tributed soldiers  would  be  reached,  the  result 
of  their  figuring  was  the  shrapnel  shell. 

This  is  a  hollow  steel  projectile,  packed  with 
bullets,  and  containing  a  charge  of  powder  in 
the  base.  It  is  exploded  by  a  time  fuse,  con- 
taining a  ring  of  slowly  burning  composition 
which  can  be  set  so  as  to  fire  the  powder  during 
the  flight  of  the  shell  when  it  has  traveled  to 
within  fifty  yards  of  the  enemy.  The  head  is 
blown  off  and  the  bullets  are  projected  forward 
in  a  sheaf,  spreading  outward  as  they  go.  An 
18-pound  shell  covers  a  space  of  ground  some 
300  yards  long  by  35  yards  wide  with  its  365 
heavy  bullets. 


head,  with  its  explosive  burster,  flies  forward 
and  acts  as  a  small  but  efficient  high  exjjlosive 
shell.  These  projectiles  have  been  introduced 
for  howitzers  and  for  anti-air-craft  guns,  and 
some  of  the  nations  with  new  equipments  have 
them  for  their  field  guns. 


A  CAISSON  OR  AMMUNITION  WAGON 

Which  is  set  by  the  side  of  the  gun  in  action.  The 
device  on  the  grounri  is  a  mechanical  fuse  setter  by  which 
the  point  of  the  explosion  of  the  shell  in  the  air  can  be 
regulated. 


HIGH  EXPLOSIVE   SHRAPNEL 

If  the  time  fuse  is  "et  the  projectile  hursts  in  air,  the 
base  charge  driving  out  the  bullets  which  scatter  and  give 
the  shrapnel  effect;  otherwise  the  projectile  bursts  on 
impact. 


When  shrapnel  came  into  use  most  nations 
abandoned  the  common  shell.  But  shrapnel 
proved  almost  ineffective  against  the  shielded 
gun  and  the  gunners  were  indifferent  to  the 
bullets  pattering  on  the  steel  shield  in  front  of 
them.  The  answer  to  this  was  the  high-explo- 
sive shell,  a  steel  case  filled  with  high  explosive, 
such  as  melinite,  which  is  the  same  as  lyddite, 
shimose,  or  picric  acid.  This,  when  detonated 
upon  striking  a  gun,  can  be  relied  upon  to  dis- 
able it  and  to  kill  the  gunners  behind  it. 

A  shell  is  now  used  which  combines  the 
action  of  the  shrapnel  and  the  high  explosive 
shell  has  been  introduced.  This  is  the  "uni- 
versal" shell  invented  by  Major  van  Essen  of 
the  Dutch  artillery.  It  is  a  shrapnel  with  a 
detachable  head  filled  with  high  explosive. 
When  burst  during  flight  it  acts  like  an  ordinary 
shrapnel  and  the  bullets  fly  forward  and  sweep 
the  ground  in  front  of  it;   at  the  same  time  the 


\-K:.:5;:-:-v-v:.:0'.  ■  ■,  ■:v'  ■:^.:  .;-\:>-;-.'.A. 
^•-■■H'-:v ■-■...,-..-  ;.-••:■-■;;■.■. v.-^-.-r-^.tv 


eoiuT  ef  tft'Acr 


The  ground  covered  by  a  shrapnel  is  elliptical  In 
form  and  at  the  effective  ranges  does  not  exceed  2iju  yards 
In  depth  by  25  in  width.  Shrapnel  is  the  most  important 
P'-ojectilc  The  case  is  of  drawn  steel  with  solid  base 
The  mouth  of  the  case  has  an  aluminum  head  screwed  iu 
and  tapped  to  take  a  combination  time  and  percussion 
fuse.  The  case  contains  262  balls,  each  0.49  inch  in  diam- 
eter. The  bursting  charge  consists  of  2^4  ounces  of  loose 
black  powder;  it  is  placed  in  the  base,  and  covered  by  a 
steel  diaphragm.  The  fuse  is  timed  so  that  the  case  will 
burst  just  in  front  and  above  the  trenches  or  line  of  troops. 


VALUE  OF  FAST  AEROPLANES 

Aeroplanes  are  faster  and  more  powerful 
now  than  they  ever  were,  not  so  much  because 
they  must  cover  much  ground  quickly  as  be- 
case  they  must  be  able  to  attain  greater  speed 
so  as  to  choose  their  own  position  and  pour  in  a 
destructive  hail  of  bullets. 

The  great,  rigid  Zeppelins  alone  can  hope 
to  contend  with  high-powered  aeroplanes;  for 
they  have  been  so  far  improved  that  their 
average  speed  was  increased  to  over  sixty-three 
miles  an  hour,  and  their  maximum  speed,  with 
the  wind,  to  ninety-four  miles  an  hour.  Armed 
as  they  are  with  machine  guns  and  capable  as 
they  are  of  rising  to  safe  heights  twice  as  rapidly 


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This  photograph  shows  a  huge  German  airship  blown  out  of  Its  course  and  compelled  to  desoeud.  Tlie  lii  tie  aeroplane 
hovering  overhead  seems  a  midget  by  comparison.  It  is  a  matter  of  controversy  whether  the  airship  or  the  aeroplane  is 
likely  ultimately  to  prove  of  greater  value  in  the  service  of  man. 


ZEPPELIN    R!S!D 


T'^TAL  PftftTTTlCNS 


Of  the  three  types  of  the  dirigible  the  Zeppelin,  with  its  rigid  framework  of  aluminum  protecting  its  separate  ballonets 
and  its  great  length,  has  little  head  resistance  in  comparison  with  its  size,  and  slips  through  the  air  with  little  friction. 


PARSEVAL    I.CNKICIO 


The  semi-rigid,  represented  by  the  Parseval  type,  has 
ft  stiffening  keel  to  keep  the  balloon  in  shape. 


LElBAUCY    JEPI-RIC--: 


o,(i;n  rykyt 


AiH^ 


The  non-rigid  feels  the  effect  of  air  pressure  (tending 
to  force  the  bag  out  of  aiiape,)  moat  of  all. 


?=-•«[    DSPFr4C£  AGAtWST 


GAi-LERV     eXT=NDi.NO   PRACTtCALl.Y 
Wt;OL£     LZISC-Th--   OF    TOP     FRAMINC 


POSITION  OF 

□  fVOi  4G  T"ME 

AIRSHIP  •,;tc  ,7 

COMPASTMEN^& 


C  E  ^^l  T  R  A  L 


HUOE   BAO    FILLED 
WJTM     WATER     USED 
FOR      EXPERIMENTAL 

PURPOSES 


U..... 


AMIDSHIPS  SECTION  OF  A  ZEPPELIN 

The  fabric  has  been  cut  away  to  show  the  delicate  array  of  steel  and  aluminum.  A  ladder  passes  right  through  the  center 
of  the  vessel  from  the  central  car  to  the  top  of  the  envelope.  This  top  is  strengthened  by  steel  framing,  and  upon  It  is 
mounted  a  light  quicli-flring  gun  to  defend  the  ship  against  aeroplane  attack  from  above.  The  gun  platform  is  placed 
over  one  ol  the  seventeen  partitions  of  the  Zeppelin's  envelope. 


MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 


as  the  highest  powered  aeroplane,  they  must 
be  regarded  as  veritable  battleships  of  the  air. 
But  why  are  there  both  aeroplanes  and  air- 
ships? For  the  same  reason  that  there  are 
dreadnoughts  and  torpedo-boats.  Each  has  its 
own  function.  Aeroplanes  are  useful  chiefly  for 
tactical  reconnaissance;  in  other  words,  for 
scouting  after  armies  have  entrenched  them- 
selves and  unlimbered  their  artillery.  Airships 
are  useful  chiefly  for  strategical  reconnaissance; 
in  other  words,  for  scouting  at  a  time  when 
armies  are  moving  towards  the  terrain  which 
they  intend  to  occupy.  Although  aeroplanes, 
guided  by  skilful  pilots  of  marvelous  endurance, 
have  stayed  aloft  continuously  for  more  than 
twenty  hours,  the  strain  is  too  great  for  ordi- 
nary human  nerves.  Even  a  continuous  flight 
of  five  hours  makes  inordinate  demands  on  a 
pilot's  nervous  force. 

AEROPLANES  EQUIPPED  WITH 
MACHINE  GUNS 

Most  military  aeroplanes  carry  two  passen- 
gers seated  in  tandem.  One  man  guides  and 
controls  the  machine,  the  other  observes  the 
terrain  below  and  manipulates  either  a  rifle  or  a 
machine  gun.  Single-seated  machines  are  also 
used,  but  machine  guns  cannot  be  successfully 
fired  by  an  aviator  whose  hands  and  feet  may 
not  leave  the  controls.  To  engage  in  a  machine- 
gun  or  rifle  duel  5000  feet  above  the  ground 
requires  courage  of  a  kind  that  surpasses  the 
heroism  recorded  in  the  epics  of  old.  Indeed, 
there  is  nothing  in  all  Homer  which  for  sheer 
daring  can  be  compared  with  the  feat  that  a 
fighting  air  scout  is  called  upon  to  perform. 

If  an  aeroplane  flies  at  a  height  greater  than 
4500  feet  it  is  reasonably  safe  from  the  fire  of 
rifles  and  artillery  on  the  ground.  But  at  that 
height  it  is  extremely  diflicult  to  reconnoiter 
successfully.  Whole  batteries  seem  more  like 
minute  crawling  insects  than  guns  and  men, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  cavalry  from 
horse  artillery.  The  temptation  to  descend 
into  the  danger  zone  in  order  to  see  more  clearly 
is  strong. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  DIRIGIBLE 

The  commander  of  an  airship  is  as  much 
at  his  ease  as  the  captain  of  an  ocean  liner  on 
his  bridge.  He  can  move  about  in  more  or 
less  comfort;  he  can  hover  over  one  spot  for 
hours  and  study  the  operations  below  at  his 
leisure,  if  he  is  not  disturbed  by  a  flock  of  two- 
seated  aeroplanes  carrying  rifles;  he  can  stay 
aloft  for  a  whole  day  without  fatigue.  More 
important  still,  he  has  at  his  disposal  wireless 
apparatus  which  enables  him  both  to  send  and 
receive  messages  for  300  miles  without  the 
necessity,  therefore,  of  immediately  reporting 
each  important  discovery  in  person. 

In  lifting  capacity,  too,  the  airship  is  vastly 
superior  to  the  aeroplane, — a  factor  of  impor- 
tance because  if  explosives  are  to  be  dropped, 
the  dirigible  airship  can  carry  not  only  more 
bombs  but  much  heavier  bombs  than  an  aero- 


plane. What  is  more,  the  airship's  ability  to 
float  stationary  over  a  given  spot  (an  aeroplane 
must  be  in  constant  motion  to  stay  aloft  at  all) 
enables  it  to  drop  a  hundred-weight  of  explosive 
with  a  reasonably  true  aim. 

All  these  frightful  advantages  have  been 
developed  to  the  utmost  in  Germany's  colossal 
Zeppelins, — slim  cylinders  as  big  as  ocean 
steamers  that  slip  througl  Ae  air  with  a  certain 
sureness.  They  have  searchlights  for  nocturnal 
scouting,  armor  to  protect  their  motors,  wireless 
outfits  almost  as  powerful  as  those  of  a  trans- 
atlantic liner,  machine  guns  on  top  of  their  long 
gas  envelopes  to  beat  off  attaching  craft,  a  crew 
of  twenty,  provisions  and  fuel  for  a  journey  of 
3000  miles,  and  bombs  formidable  in  size  and 
number.  Compared  with  them  other  German 
dirigibles,  as  well  as  the  non-rigids  of  France, 
Germany,  and  Russia,  seem  what  they  are, — 
great  mechanically  propelled  bubbles  of  hydro- 
gen gas  and  not  real  ships  of  the  air. 

THE  SILENT  DEATH,  THE  NEW 
WAR  WEAPON 

The  perfecting  of  the  flying  machine  has 
brought  into  use  new  and  deadly  weapons. 
They  are  steel  arrows,  about  five  inches  long 
and  a  little  thicker  than  a  lead  pencil.  They 
are  dropped  from  aeroplanes  in  batches  of  500, 
a  mechanical  arrangement  spreading  them  over 
an  area  of  200  yards.  From  a  height  of  1,500 
feet  they  obtain  a  terrific  speed  by  the  force  of 
gravity,  and  will  penetrate  a  man's  body  from 
his  head  to  his  heel.  It  is  reported  that  they 
are  used  by  all  the  airmen  of  the  warring 
nations. 


■OattitU 


Ptrate  abovU'  4' apart/ '^ 

Pla-n 


Palisades  In  dry  ditch  in  front  o*  parapet. 


PARAPET  TRENCH 


i 


i      o.  b.  Command, 
a.  «.  /fr/rV- 


Section  of  intrenchment  made  In  stiff  soil..  The 
legends  designate  in  military  terms  the  various  portions 
of  such  an  intrenchment. 


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Book  of  Engineering  and 

Industry 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL— SEVERING  THE  TWO  AMERICAS 

CONQUEST  OF  THE  SEA 

BEACONS  OF  THE  SEA 

HARNESSING  THE  WORLD'S  GREAT  WATERFALLS 

UNDERGROUND  ENGINEERING 

FOOTPATHS  IN  THE  AIR 

FOOD  BEVERAGES— TEA,  COFFEE,  CHOCOLATE 

MARVELS  OF  GLASS  MAKING 


269 


Oil        " 

S  ^     9 


270 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERIXG  AXD  IXDUSTRY 


271 


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SEVERING      THE      TWO      AMERICAS 


THE  completion  of  the  Panama 
Canal  marks  the  end  of  the 
greatest  engineering  undertak- 
ing in  the  history  of  human  progress. 
It  was  envisioned  by  men  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Balboa,  the  famous  dis- 
coverer of  the  Pacific,  but  it  remained 
for  present  day  enterprise  and  skill  to 
make  it  an  accomplished  fact.  More 
like  a  story  from  the  Arabian  Nights 
than  the  story  of  the  work-a-day 
world,  this  marvelous  stairway  of 
water,  separating  two  continents  and 
uniting  two  oceans,  may  well  be  classed 
among  the  new  wonders  of  the  world. 

The  FRENCH  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY 

Though  a  subject  of  vision  and  dis- 
cussion for  upward  of  four  hundred 
years,  no  step  was  taken  toward  the 
actual  planning  of  the  canal  until  the 
year  1876.  In  that  year  Columbia 
granted  a  concession  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  by  way  of  Panama 
to  Lieut.  Wyse,  an  officer  in  the 
French  army.  This  concession  Lieut. 
Wyse  sold  to  a  group  of  French 
financiers,  who,  because  of  the  prestige 
he  had  acquired  by  reason  of  his 
brilliant  success  at  Suez,  persuaded 
Count  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps  to  join 
them  as  chief  engineer.  De  Lesseps 
went  out  to  the  Isthmus  in  1879,  and, 
having  gone  over  the  ground  with  his 
experienced  eye,  pronounced  in  favor 
of  the  undertaking  and  determined  on 


the  course  between  Colon  and  Panama 
City,  over  which  the  United  States 
Government  was  afterwards  to  under- 
take the  completion  of  the  canal. 
Early  in  1881  these  Frenchmen  or- 
ganized the  Panama  Canal  Co.,  -to 
own  the  concessions  and  carry  through 
the  undertaking. 

In  1889,  after  eight  years  of  active 
work,  this  company  went  into  bank- 
ruptcy, and  a  new  one  that  succeeded 
it  in  1894  was  enabled  to  resume 
operations  only  to  an  extent  sufficient 
to  keep  alive  its  franchise. 

Acquisition    of    franchise    by   the 
united  states 

In  1902,  under  the  administration 
of  President  Roosevelt,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  which  had 
become  more  than  ever  interested  and 
had  had  under  consideration  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  through  Nicar- 
agua, concluded  to  take  up  the  work 
in  Panama  if  satisfactory  arrange- 
ments could  be  made  with  the  French 
company  for  the  acquiring  of  its 
rights.  It  was  pending  these  negotia- 
tions in  1903  that  Panama  declared 
her  separation  from  Columbia  and 
became  an  independent  republic.  On 
the  28th  of  November,  1903,  the 
French  company  having  agreed  to  sell 
for  $40,000,000,  the  Hay-Bunau-Var- 
illa  treaty  between  the  new  republic 
and  the  United  States  was  signed.    It 


GATUN  LOCKS 

General  view  from  temporary  tower  on  north  end  of  approach  wall.     Looking  south.     Sea  gates  under  pressure 


OPERATION   OK   <,\H  N   LOCKS 
Looking  north  from  north  gates,  showing  lower  guard  gates,  dredging  fleet  in  distance  and  Atlantic  entrance  to  cana' 


% 

<u(^a 

\ 

■ 

OPERATION  OF  GATUN  LOCKS 

First  boat  through.    Tugboat  "Gatun"  entering  lower  lock,  west  chamber      Looking  south  from  center  wall 


27« 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


273 


was  promulgated  on  the  26th  of 
February,  1904.  Under  its  terms, 
$10,000,000  was  paid  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Panama  for  the  right  of  way 
and  an  annual  rental  of  $250,000 
agreed  upon,  to  begin  nine  years  after 
date.  The  United  States  guaranteed 
the  independence  of  Panama  and 
secured  absolute  control  over  what  is 
now  known  as  the  Canal  Zone,  a  strip 
of  land  ten  miles  wide  extending  from 
Colon  to  Panama  City,  through  the 
center  of  which  runs  the  course  of  the 
great  waterway.  The  French  com- 
pany's franchise  and  property  rights 
were  purchased  at  the  figure  stated 
and  the  formal  transfer  to  the  United 
States  was  made  on  the  4th  of  May, 
1904. 

Colonel  goethals  the  man  and  the 
occasion 

Six  days  after  the  promulgation  of 
the  treaty  President  Roosevelt  ap- 
pointed the  body  known  as  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  have 
charge  of  canal  construction.  The 
Commission  was  reorganized  at  vari- 
ous times  and  finally  the  government 
determined  to  take  over  the  work 
itself.  In  April,  1907,  Col.  Goethals 
was  appointed  Chairman  and  Chief 
Engineer,  and  under  his  direction  this 
gigantic  work  has  been  brought  to 
completion. 
Turning  in  the  Waters 

On  August  31,  1913,  a  charge  of 
48,000  pounds  of  dynamite  blew  up 
the  so-called  Miraflores  dike  and  per- 
mitted the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
to  approach  the  Miraflores  locks 
situated  eight  and  one-half  miles 
inland  from  the  Pacific  entrance  of 
the  canal.  On  October  1,  a  severe 
earthquake,  more  marked  indeed  than 
the  San  Francisco  trembler,  put  the 
great  work  to  the  supreme  test  and  at 
the  same  time  served  to  throw  the 
population  into  consternation  and 
distress.     Fortunately,  not  the  slight- 


est harm  befell  the  locks,  and  the 
critics  of  the  plan  as  well  as  the  usual 
small  army  of  prophets  of  evil,  were 
silenced  temporarily  at  least.  The 
black  population  returned  to  its  rou- 
tine labors  following  a  few  days  of 
"camp  meeting,"  during  the  progress 
of  which  the  welkin  resounded  with 
high-pitched  lamentations,  prayers  of 
many  kinds,  and  unconditional  prom- 
ises to  be  good  in  the  future.  Colonel 
Goethals  and  his  staff  did  not  hesitate 
for  one  moment,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
began  on  October  1  to  turn  water  into 
the  only  remaining  dry  section  of  the 
canal,  the  Culebra  cut.  This  was 
accomplished  by  means  of  four  twenty- 
four-inch  pipes  which  pierced  the 
Gamboa  dike.  President  Wilson  him- 
self applied  the  finishing  touches  to 
this  branch  of  the  work  when  on 
October  10  he  pressed  a  little  pearl 
button  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
which  in  turn  sent  an  igniting  spark 
some  four  thousand  miles  to  Gamboa 
dike,  there  to  tear  out  two  hundred 
feet  of  rock  and  earth  and  permit  the 
waters  of  Lake  Gatun  to  rush  head- 
long through  Culebra  cut  as  far  back 
as  the  Cucaracha  slide. 
The  first  boat  to  pass  the  locks 

Gatun  locks  were  operated  for  the 
first  time  on  September  26,  1913, 
when  the  sea-going  tug  Gatun  was 
passed  through  the  west  flight  from 
the  Atlantic  channel  to  Gatun  Lake. 
Though  various  temporary  methods 
were  employed  in  filling  the  locks  with 
water  this  was  actually  the  first 
occasion  upon  which  any  of  the  locks 
in  the  entire  system  were  used  to  pass 
a  vessel  from  one  level  to  another. 
The  filling  of  the  lower  lock  was  com- 
pleted about  4:45  p.  m.,  when  the  sea- 
gate  was  opened  and  the  Gatun  with 
flags  flying  and  whistle  blowing, 
steamed  into  the  lower  lock.  The  lower 
operating  gates  were  closed  and  the 
tug  came  to  a  stop.    The  process  was 


21k 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


repeated  in  the  middle  lock  and  at 
6:15  p.  m.,  just  as  dusk  was  falling, 
the  vessel  entered  the  lock  for  the  last 
lift.  This  was  accomplished  thirty 
minutes  later  when  the  two  last  gates 
swung  open  and  the  tug  passed  out 
into  Gatun  Lake.  The  entire  passage 
required  an  hour  and  a  half. 
Wonders  of  engineering 

But  when  one  pauses  to  remember 
that  this  simple  operation  has  taken 
almost  ten  years  to  make  possible,  at 
a  cost  of  $375,000,000,  and  a  toll  of 
thousands  of  lives,  a  more  appreciative 
feeling  comes  to  the  onlooker.  Almost 
220,000,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  and 
rock  have  been  excavated  and  5,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  of  concrete  have  been 
poured  into  the  locks,  each  of  which 
is  1000  feet  long  and  110  feet  wide, 
and  will  accommodate  a  vessel  1000 
feet  long.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there 
are  twelve  lock  chambers,  or  as  they 
are  designated,  six  twin  locks.  There 
are  lengthwise  culverts  eighteen  feet  in 
diameter,  running  through  the  great 
lock  walls,  and  it  is  through  these  that 
water  is  taken  in  from  the  upper 
levels.  Smaller  lateral  culverts  run 
in  and  under  the  lock  floors  and  from 
them  the  water  pours  into  the  lock 
chambers  through  great  holes.  Electric 
motors  operating  giant  valves  are  used 
to  control  the  flow  of  water  in  and 
out  of  the  chambers.  Electric  "mules" 
tow  vessels  through  the  locks  at  a  maxi- 
mum and  fixed  rate  of  two  miles  an 
hour. 

The  two  great  engineering  prob- 
lems encountered  and  solved  by  the 
Americans  were:  the  control  of  the 
waters  of  the  Chagres  River  and  the 
cut  through  the  Continental  Divide. 
The  first  was  met  by  the  construction 
of  a  huge  dam,  Gatun  dam,  one  and 
one-half  miles  long  and  one-half  mile 
wide  at  the  bottom  across  the  valley 
of  the  Chagres  River  at  Gatun.  This 
resulted  in  the  creation  of  Lake  Gatun 


over  an  area  of  164  square  m'les.  It 
covers  an  area  of  64  square  miles  and 
the  worst  flood  recorded  in  the  history 
of  the  Chagres  River  would  barely 
raise  the  surface  one  foot  in  nine  hours. 
Smaller  dams  have  been  built  near 
Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores  locks,  and 
like  the  Gatun  structure,  they  are 
now  overgrown  with  vegetation  and 
appear  to  be  part  of  nature's  own 
handiwork.  The  other  difliculty  was 
overcome  by  the  obvious  method  of 
drilling  the  Culebra  cut  through  the 
Continental  Divide  in  the  teeth  of 
the  greatest  discouragements. 

Prodigious  landslides 

By  far  the  greatest  obstacle  encoun- 
tered has  been  the  cut  at  Culebra.  A 
cut  of  such  great  dimensions  has  never 
before  been  attempted,  and  the  rock 
through  which  it  was  made  was  of  a 
peculiarly  intractable  nature.  But  the 
difiiculties  of  the  work  have  been 
greatly  augmented  by  the  enormous 
landslides  which  have  been  in  progress 
more  or  less  uninterruptedly  since  the 
French  began  to  dig.  These  land- 
slides have  necessitated  the  excavation 
of  20,000,000  cubic  yards  of  dirt  from 
the  waterway. 

A  TRIP  THROUGH  THE  CANAL 

A  vessel  passing  from  ocean  to 
ocean  will  require  from  ten  to  twelve 
hours,  depending  on  the  speed  main- 
tained in  those  portions  of  the  canal 
in  which  it  travels  under  its  own 
power.  Let  us  take  a  steamer  on  the 
Atlantic  side:  the  starting  point  will 
be  near  the  end  of  Toro  breakwater, 
which  extends  out  two  miles  as  a 
protection  against  the  destructive 
northwest  winds.  Our  vessel  will 
steam  a  distance  of  seven  miles 
through  a  channel  500  feet  wide  to 
Gatun,  where  the  series  of  three 
locks  of  that  name  are  situated. 
Along  the  route  to  the  left  (east 
shore)  may  be  seen  the  twin  cities  of 


THE    GIANT    b'lEAM    SHOVEL.    AT    WUKK 


^<MM 


The  most  gigantic  engineerini;  Icat  ovci  uinliiiakcii  liy  man  waf?  the  cuttin;;  of  the  American  continent  in  two  by  the 
malting  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  most  wontlerl'ul  tools  were  used  and  here  we  see  liow  the  great  shovel  thrust  against 
an  embankment  scraped  away  the  earth.     The  largest  raised  as  much  as  ten  tons  at  one  scoop. 


When   the  shovel  was  full,  it  was  swung  round  over  a  railroad  car,  the  bottom  was  opened,  and  the  earth  fell  into 
the  car.     One  shovel  did  the  work  of  a  hundred  men  and  over  one  hundred  shovels  were  used  on  the  canal. 


Here  is  a  near  view  of  the  earth  being  piished  off  the  cars.  The  machine  that  did  this  was  a  kind  of  plow  that  traveled 
from  one  end  of  the  train  to  the  other,  tmloading  twenty  cars  in  ten  minutes.  One  unloader  did  the  worK  ol  lour  bunured 
Uborera 


•7« 


THE    BED     IN     WHICH     TWO     SEAS     MET 


The  mlBlity  cut  line  throusjh  the  Culebra  mountain  shown  here  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  tlie  world 
IltcraUy  moved  mountains.     Altogether  300.000.000  tons  of  earth  were  removed  for  the  canal. 


'I'ho  engilieer.s 


ThLH  \H  another  part  of  the  cut  throuKb  the  Culebra  mountain.     To  blast  away  the  rock  more  than  a  mliiion  cartridgea 
were  expluclcU  In  a  year,  and  the  removal  of  the  material  excavated  la  no  less  wonderful  Uian  the  excavation. 


S7« 


WALLS     THROUGH    WHICH    THE     SEAS    FLOWED 


To  collect  and  harness  sufficient  water  a  great  dam  has  been  built,  and  by  storing  flood  waters  that  formerly  ran  away 
a  lake  ol  164  square  miles,  called  Gatun  Lake,  was  formed.  Here  we  see  a  wall  of  the  Gatun  locks,  the  walls  being  more 
than  half  a  mile  thick  at  the  bottom.  The  round  opening  in  the  wall  is  the  tunnel  through  which  the  surplus  water  will 
flow.     The  Gatun  dam  is  the  mightiest  in  the  world. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks  In  the  Panama  Canal,  showing  south  end  ot  east  chamber  and  construction  ol  safety  and  lower  gatea 


278 


THE  HUMAN  IXTEREST  LIBRARY 


Crystobal  and  Colon  with  their  hos- 
pitals, fine  new  steel-concrete  piers, 
employes'  homes,  commissary  houses 
and  ships  from  the  far  corners  of  the 
earth.  Further  on  is  Mt.  Hope, 
famous  for  its  cemetery  and  receiving 
station  for  all  supplies.  Both  shores 
are  fringed  by  the  myriads  of  plants 
and  flowers  and  trees  which  make  up 
the  tropical  jungle.  Entering  the  locks 
the  steamer  is  lifted  eighty-five  feet 
to  the  level  of  Gatun  Lake  thirty 
minutes  being  spent  in  each  lock. 
Thence  through  a  lake  channel  from 
oOO  to  1  ()()()  feet  wide,  it  steams 
twenty-four  miles  to  Bas  Obispo, 
whence  the  Culebra  cut  leads  through 
nine  miles  of  excavations  to  the  single 
lock  at  IVtlro  Miguel.  The  minimum 
width  of  this  cut  is  300  feet.  This 
lock  lowers  the  vessel  thirty  and  a 
third  feet  to  the  55-foot  level  of  the 
small  artificial  lake,  Miraflores. 
Another  mile  under  its  own  power  and 
the  vessel  is  lowered  through  two 
more  locks  called  ^Miraflores,  to  the 
Pacific  level,  from  which  point  it 
steams  through  a  500-foot  channel 
eight  and  a  half  miles  to  deep  water 
in  the  Pacific.  All  of  which  seems 
.simple  enough. 
What  the  canal  means 

What  does  the  Panama  Canal 
mean?  What  does  it  mean  to  the 
United  States,  to  Latin  America,  to 
Eiirojx',  to  Asia,  to  Australia,  and  to 
all  of  the  world.'' 

These  are  questions  which  every  one 
interested  in  the  progress  of  the  world 
caiHiot  fail  to  turn  over  constantly  in 
his  mind. 

No  other  great  engineering  under- 
taking, not  even  the  construction  of 
t!ie  Suez  Canal,  the  building  of  the 
transcontinental  railways  of  North 
America,  the  construction  of  the  great 
wall  of  (-hina,  has  had  any  .such  effect 
on  the  power,  prestige,  commerce, 
and  opportunity  of  one  or  of  a  group 


of  nations  as  will  have  the  Panama 
Canal. 

For  the  United  States  and  its  twenty 
sister  American  Republics  the  formal 
opening  of  the  canal  will  be  the  solemn 
inauguration  of  a  great  new  Pan 
American  era  of  commerce,  friendship, 
and  peace.  In  separating  North  from 
South  America  with  a  water  channel 
it  will  draw  them  closer  together  in 
ties  of  better  acquaintance  and  larger 
trade. 

Just  as  a  new  railroad  built  through 
a  sparsely  settled  country  between 
two  cities  does  not  begin  to  do  the 
business  at  first  which  comes  to  it 
later  on  through  the  construction  of 
feeders,  the  filling  uj)  of  the  country, 
and  the  growth  of  its  terminal  points, 
so  the  Panama  Canal,  through  the 
extension  of  old  steamship  lines,  the 
putting  on  of  new  lines  and  tramp 
vessels,  and  the  building  uj)  of  the 
countries  reached  by  them,  will  in- 
crease its  commerce  and  its  shipping 
with  eventual  individual  benefits  to 
each  port  within  the  limit  of  its 
influence. 

Probably  the  greatest  good  to  the 
United  States  from  the  canal  will 
result  from  the  cheap,  short,  and 
quick  route  of  water  conununication 
between  its  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pacific 
seaboards. 
Simple  contrasts  in  distance 

Some  simple  contrasts  in  distances 
between  the  Panama  Canal  antl  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  will  show  at  a 
glance  what  the  Panama  Canal  means 
in  the  relations  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf, 
and  Pacific  seaboards  of  the  United 
States.  By  Magellan,  the  distance 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco  is 
1,S,135  miles;  by  Panama,  5262  miles, 
a  saving  of  7873  miles,  or  more  than 
twice  the  distance  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  From  New  Orleans  to  San 
Francisco,  by  way  of  Magellan,  is 
13,551    miles;    by    way    of    Panama, 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


279 


4683  miles,  a  saving  of  8868  miles, 
or  practically  a  month's  steaming  of 
vessels  averaging  12  knots  an  hour. 
Such  figures  need  no  further  argument 
than  themselves  to  illustrate  the  real 
significance  and  meaning  of  the  canal. 


While  the  shortening  of  the  distance 
between  the  domestic  ports  of  the 
United  States  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
remarkable  and  important  fact,  the 
saving  effected  between  the  ports  of 
the  United  States  and  others  beyond 


COMPARATIVE  DISTANCES  (IN  NAUTICAL  MILES)  IN  THE 
WORLD'S  SEA  TRAFFIC  AND  DIFFERENCE  IN  DISTANCES 
VIA    PANAMA    CANAL    AND    OTHER   PRINCIPAL   ROUTES 


VIA 

FROM 

TO 

New 
York 

New 
Orleans 

Liver- 
pool 

Ham- 
burg 

Suez 

geaLtle 

Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

13,953 
6,080 
7,873 

14,369 
5,501 

8,868 

14,320 
8,654 
5,666 

14,701 
9,173 

5,528 

15,397 

10,447 

4,950 

4,063 

San  Francisco .  . 
Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

13,135 
5,262 

7,873 

13,551 
4,683 
8,868 

13,502 
7,836 
5,666 

13,883 
8,355 

5,528 

14,579 
9,629 
4,950 

3,245 

Honolulu 

Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

13,312 
6,702 
6,610 

13,728 
6,123 
7,605 

13,679 
9,276 
4,403 

14,060 
9,795 
4,265 

14,756 

11,069 

3,687 

4,685 

Guayaquil  .... 
Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

10,215 
2,810 
7,405 

10,631 
2,231 
8,400 

10,582 
5,384 
5,198 

10,963 
5,903 
5,060 

11,659 
9,192 
2,467 

793 

Callao 

Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

9,613 
3,363 
6,250 

10,029 
2,784 
7,245 

9,980 
5,937 
4,043 

10,361 
6,456 
3,905 

11,057 
7,730 
3,327 

1,346 

Valparaiso  .... 
Distance 

Magellan 

Panama 

saved 

8,380 
4,633 
3,747 

8,796 
4,054 
4,742 

8,747 
7,207 
1,540 

9,128 
7,726 
1,402 

9,824 

9,000 

824 

2.616 

Wellington.  .  .  . 

Magellan 

Suez        

11,344 

8,857 
2,493 

11,760 

8,272 
3,488 

12,989 

11,425 

1,564 

13.353 

11,944 
1,409 

9,694 

9,205 
489 

Distance 

Panama 

saved 

6,834 

Melbourne 

CapeGoodHope 
Suez        

13,162 

10,392 
2,770 

14,095 

9,813 

4,282 

11,654 

12,966 

1,312 

11,845 

13,452 
1,607 

8,186 

10,713 

2,527 

Distance 

Panama 

saved 

8,342 

Manila 

Suez      

11,589 

11,548 

41 

12,943 

10,969 

1,974 

9,701 

14,122 

4,421 

9,892 

14,608 

4,716 

6,233 

11,869 

5,636 

Distance 

Panama 

saved 

9,370 

Hongkong 

Suez   

11,673 

11,691 

18 

13,031 

11,112 

1,919 

9,785 

13,957 

4,172 

9,976 

14,443 

4,467 

6,317 

11,704 

5,387 

Distance 

Panama 

saved 

9,173 

Yokohama  .... 

Suez      

13,566 
9,798 
3,768 

14,924 
9,219 
5,705 

11,678 

12,372 

694 

11,869 

13,858 

1,989 

8,210 

11,119 

2,909 

Distance 

Panama 

saved 

7,660 

Panama 

2,017 

1,438 

4,591 

5,110 

6,387 

5S0 


THE  nUMAX  IXTEREST  LinTlARY 


its  shores  upon  the  Pacific  is  almost 
equally  significant  and  impressive. 
A  steamship  hound  from  New  York 
to  Honolulu,  using  the  Panama  Canal 
in  preference  to  the  Magellan  route, 
will  save  (UilO  miles;  from  New  York 
to  Wellington,  New  Zealand,  i2493 
miles;  to  Melhourne,  Australia,  2770 
miles;  and  to  ^  Okohama,  Japan, 
.'37ti8  miles.  All  these  distances  give 
also  a  large  advantage  to  the  Panama 
Canal  over  the  Suez  Canal  route,  but 
there  is  practically  no  choice  in  actual 
distance  between  the  Panama  and 
Suez  routes  in  the  steaming  distance 
from  New  York  to  Hong  Kong,  China, 
an<l  ^Manila,  the  capital  of  the  Philip- 
pines. 

The  saving  of  the  Panama  over  the 
Magellan  route  for  vessels  running 
not  only  from  New-  York,  New  Orleans, 
and  ncighi)oring  j)orts  but  from  Eng- 
land and  northern  Europe  to  the 
j)rincipal  ports  of  the  west  coast  of 
South  America  is  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  the  value  and  meaning 
of  the  canal.  The  first  northern  im- 
portant j)()rt  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America  is  Gnayacpiil  in  Ecua- 
dor. A  steamship  bound  from  New 
York  to  Cuayacpiil  going  through  the 
canal  will  be  obliged  to  steam  only 
2H1()  miles,  instead  of  1(),'-215  miles 
via  Magellan,  a  saving  of  7405  miles, 
or  between  twenty  and  thirty  days, 
according  to  the  power  of  the  vessel, 
'j'lic  steamship  from  New  Orleans 
making  this  journey  would  save  S400 
miles;  fntni  Livcrjjool,  ol!)8  miles; 
and  from  Hambnrg,  5000  miles. 
Callao,  the  principal  jjort  of  Peru  and 
the  next  im|)ortant  port  south  of 
(inaya(|nil.  \ia  the  canal,  is  only 
".VM'i'.i  miles  from  New  ^ Ork,  or  ccpial 
to  about  the  average  tlistance  across 
tlie  .\tlantic  Ocean  from  New  York  to 
England.     Jiy  the  Magellan  roihte  it 


is  distant,  9613  miles,  so  that  the 
steamer  going  from  New  York  to 
Callao  via  the  canal  saves  6'-250  miles. 
From  New  Orleans  the  distance  saved 
is  I'iio  miles;  from  Liverpool,  4443 
miles;  and  from  Hamburg,  3905 
miles. 

Valparaiso,  the  chief  port  of  Chile, 
is  generally  considered  the  principal 
terminal  point  for  steamships  which 
will  go  via  the  canal  to  the  west  coast 
of  South  America.  Through  its  har- 
bor, not  only  is  the  large  trade  of 
Chile  reached  but  to  some  extent  that 
of  the  great  Argentine  Republic, 
whose  capital,  Buenos  Aires,  is  con- 
nected with  \'alparaiso  by  rail.  By 
the  canal,  Valparaiso,  which  accord- 
ing to  our  old  ideas  seemed  far  away 
from  New  York,  is  only  distant  4033 
miles  via  the  Panama  Canal.  Although 
it  is  the  nearest  port  of  the  west  coast 
to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  it  is  3747 
miles  nearer  New  York  via  Panama 
than  via  INIagellan.  A  vessel  from 
New  Orleans  to  Valparaiso  saves  via 
the  canal  4742  miles;  from  lyiverj^ool, 
1540  miles;  and  from  Hamburg,  1402 
miles. 
Curvature  of  earths  surface 

There  are  two  facts  not  generally 
appreciated  in  the  matter  of  distances. 
On  account  of  the  curvature  of  the 
earth's  surface  a  vessel  en  route  from 
Liveri)ool  to  the  Panama  Canal  taking 
the  great  circle  route  can  by  only  one 
extra  day's  steaming,  or  a  detour  of 
between  three  and  four  hundred  miles, 
include  New  York  City  as  a  iK)rt  of 
call,  enabling  it  to  coal  there  or  get 
additional  cargo.  Correspondingly,  a 
vessel  en  route  via  Panama  to  Yoko- 
hama, or  vice  versa,  by  only  a  slight 
detour  of  less  than  two  days'  steaming 
can  include  San  Diego,  Los  Angeles, 
or  San  Francisco  as  ports  of  call  for 
both  cargo  and  coal. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


281 


CITY  OF  PANAMA  AND  MAP   OF   THE    CANAL   ZONE 


S82 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


SC  EXES  TX   THE   LUCKY   LITTLE    CITY   OF  PANAMA 


PANAMA  RAILROAD  STATION 


CATUEURAL  PLAZA,  DURING  A  CARNIVAL 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


28S 


THE      CANAL      ZONE 


The  Canal  Zone,  over  which  the 
United  States  exercises  all  the  rights 
of  sovereignty  under  a  treaty  with  the 
republic  of  Panama,  boasts  an  area 
of  448  square  miles.  It  begins  three 
marine  miles  from  the  mean  low  water 
mark  in  each  ocean  and  extends  for 
five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  center 
line  of  the  route  of  the  canal.  The 
cities  of  Colon  and  Panama  City  are 
excluded  from  this  special  sovereignty, 
except  that  the  United  States  may 
enforce  sanitary  ordinances  therein 
and  maintain  order  in  case  the  Repub- 
lic of  Panama  shall  at  any  time  not 
be  able  to  do  so. 
Panama     financially      independent 

RICH  in  metals  and  AGRICULTURE 

Panama  is  the  most  independent 
nation,  financially,  in  the  world.  It  is 
the  only  nation  which  receives  interest 
on   money   it   has   loaned   instead   of 


paying  interest  on  funds  borrowed. 
The  country,  vastly  rich  in  resources 
of  mines,  fields  and  sea, — has  come 
into  its  own — and  all  because  of  the 
canal. 

Panama  has  no  bonded  debt  on 
which  to  pay  interest.  It  has  in- 
vested in  gilt-edge  mortgages  in  the 
United  States,  $6,000,000,  bringing  in 
an  income  yearly  of  about  4}^  per 
cent.  There  is  $300,000  on  deposit  to 
guarantee  the  parity  of  its  currency, 
and  since  1913  the  United  States  pays 
a  perpetual  yearly  rental  of  $250,000 
for  the  canal.  The  income  from  tax- 
ation amounts  to  about  $5,000,000 
yearly,  and  there  is  no  army,  no  navy 
and  no  expensive  courts  to  keep  up. 
All  money  is  available  for  improve- 
ments, and  Panama  is  the  only  nation 
collecting  interest  on  its  own  money 
instead  of  paying  out  interest  on  loans. 


THE  MARKET  BOATS  AT  LOW  TIDE,  PANAMA 


£8A 


THE  nUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


UNITED  SIA  1 


\r  HAMPTON     ROAUS 


CONQUEST 

IX  no  field  of  enterprise  has  man 
acliievcd  more   notable    progress 
than  in  sliii)l)uildins.      Today  he 
plows    the    ocean    in    mighty    vessels 
towering   100  feet  above  the  waves, 
measuring    more    than    1)00    feet    in 
length,  and  nearly  100  feet  in  width, 
proi)elled  at  a  speed  of  from  25  to  ^S 
miles    an    hour    by    wonderful    and 
intricate    machinery,    and    i)ossessing 
in    tlieir  ap])ointments  every  form  of 
luxury    in    tlie    way    of    convenience 
and    comfort.     Indei'd,    the    modern 
liuer  is  a  floating  ])alace  as  well  as    a 
floating  city  containing  a  j)oi)ulation 
of  between  4000  and  5000  souls.     It 
represents  the  genius  and  cunning  of 
the    architect,    the    artist,    and    the 
decorator,  as  well  as  the  liiglu^st  skill 
of  the  sliii)l)uil(lcr  and  engineer.     Its 
construction  demands  three  years  of 
labor,     building    and     fitting    out    a 
modern  liner,  and  an  expenditure  of 
between   }5(;.'-250,000   and   Ji<l(),()()0,0()0. 
\Vith  no  ships  the  si-a  would  bi'  a 
source  of  horror  to  us.     It  would  be  a 


OF     THE     SEA 

fearful  void,  shutting  us  out  from  com- 
nuinication  with  other  parts  of  the 
world.  And  that  is  just  what  the 
sea  was  to  men  before  they  learned 
the  art  of  shipbuilding  and  navigation. 
By  a  series  of  grand  schemes  men 
have  changed  all  this.  There  was  the 
gradual  building  of  great  ships;  there 
was  the  making  of  accurate  instru- 
ments by  wliich  men  could  tell  at  any 
moment  of  the  day  or  night  their 
exact  position  at  sea,  no  matter  how 
far  they  went;  there  was  the  ai>i)lica- 
tion  of  steam  to  the  ])urj)ose  of  the 
ship;  and  there  Wiis  the  laying  of  the 
ocean  cables. 

These  things  accomplished,  the  sea 
remained  no  longer  an  enemy.  The 
ocean  became  a  roadway,  leading  to 
all  i)arts  of  the  world.  Storm  and 
tem])est,  fogs  and  hidden  rocks,  still 
cause  disaster,  it  is  true,  but  the 
accidents  are  rare,  considering  the 
enormous  number  of  ships  there  are. 
The  sea  h;us  become  one  of  our  best 
friends. 


SS£ 


2S6  THE  HUMAN   INTEREST  LIBRARY 

And  all  this   wonderful  change  in  such  as  it  was,  wjis  fitted  to  a  model 

our  afTairs  we  owe  to  a  very  small  boat  and  drove  the  boat  through  the 

number  of  men.     It  will  be  enough  water,  Papin  well  deserves  his  place 

for  our  purpos«;  if  we  glance  briefly  in  the  gallery  of  heroes  who  brought 

at  the  careers  of  the  chief  figures  in  about  steam  navigation, 

these    revolutions    in    the   history    of  Two   great    inventors    who    were 

the  world.  ruined  by  the  French  revolution 

Everv  time  that  some  great  change  Many  names  appear  for  a  little  time 
has  been  proposed  for  the  benefit  of  upon  the  page  of  the  history  of  this 
mankind,  people  with  power  and  invention.  One  of  them,  Jonathan 
inlluence,  who  ought  to  have  given  Hulls,  patented  a  sort  of  steamboat  in 
their  encouragement  and  support,  England  in  1787,  but  years  were  to 
have  always  been  among  the  first  to  P'-^ss  before  anything  practical  was 
say:  "It  can't  be  done,"  and  "It  done.  More  men  crowded  to  the 
shan't  be  done."  That  is  just  what  task,  and  we  find  several  skilled  in- 
happened  concerning  the  steamship  ventors  working  in  rivalry  at  the  same 
and  the  ocean  telegraph.  Take  first  time.  One  of  these  was  the  unfor- 
the  steamship.  No  invention  ever  tunate  Marquis  de  Jouffroy,  who, 
had  a  harder  struggle  for  life.  Fate  born  in  France  in  17.51,  set  himself, 
and  men  both  seemed  against  it.  at  26,  the  task  of  driving  a  boat  by 
The  man  who  first  made  a  machine  steam.     He  adopted  Papin's  idea,  and 

DRIVE   A    BOAT  THROUGH    WATER  in  eight  ycars  made  three  successful 

The  Spaniards  say  that  a  country-  boats.  The  first  was  40  feet  in 
man  of  theirs,  named  Blasco  de  Gary,  length;  but  it  was  the  third  which  is 
who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  said  to  have  been  the  first  real  steam- 
made  a  model  steamboat  in  1543.  boat.  He  might  have  gone  on  to 
Every  country  is  anxious  to  claim  the  complete  success,  but  the  French 
honor  of  an  invention,  if  the  invention  Revolution  drove  him,  an  exile  from 
has  i)rovcd  a  success.  his   country,  to   America.     When    he 

A    century    later,    Denis    Papin,    a  returned  to  France,  he  was  too  late; 

famous  Frenchman,  a{)peared  on  the  others  had  seized  his  ideas  and  begun 

scene.     He  was  a  physician,  born  at  to  reap  the  honors  which  should  have 

Blois  in  1(147,  and  he  died  in  England  been  his.     He  died  in  1882. 
in  171,'.     Frenchmen  declare  that  he  At  about  this  time  two  American 

in\rnted  tlie  steam-engine  and  steam  engiiuvrs,  named  James  Rumsey  and 

naxigalion,    and   in   many   books   his  John  Fitch,  were  making  experiments, 

name  is  gixi  n  as  having  achieved  that  Rumsey  is  of  imi)ortance  to  us  JUs  being 

K'sult.     But  that  is  wrong.     He  was  the  man  who  first  turned  the  atten- 

a    man    of    splendid    brain,    but    his  tion  of  Robert  Fulton  to  the  subject, 

thoughts  did  not  turn  to  the  making  Filch   came   into   prominence   in   the 

of  a  true  steam-engine  as  we  know  it.  American  Revolution,  acting  as  gun- 

Wlrit    he    invented    was    an    engine  smith   for   the   Americans,   who   were 

worked  not  really  by  exi)anding  steam,  fighting  for  their  liberty  against  the 

but    by    atmospheric    pressure.     His  British.     His    first    model    steamship 

idea  wjus  a  brilliant  one,  and  it  led  to  was  made  in  1785,  but  five  years  later 

great  things     in  the  hand.s  of  New-  he  built  a  proper  vessel,  with  i)ad(lle- 

comen,   Brindh'y,  and  Siaeaton.     We  wlieels    at    the    sides.     He    Went    to 

must    remember   that  it  was  not  the  France  just  as  Joutfroy  was  leaving, 

true  steam-engine;  but  as  his  engine,  and,  like  Jouffroy,  was  ruined  by  the 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  287 

Revolution.     It  is  said  that  while  he  either  with  carelessness  or  contempt, 

was  there  his  plans  were  shown  to  as    a    useless    scheme.     My    friends, 

Fulton.       Anyhow,    he    returned    to  indeed,  were  civil,  but  they  were  shy. 

America  starving,  and  killed  himself.  As  I  had  occasion  to  pass  daily  to  and 

Theman  WHO  CAMETO  PAINT  PICTURES  from    the    building    yard    while    my 

BUT  MADE  A  STEAMBOAT  boat  was  in  progress,  I  often  loitered 

It  was  for  something  quite  different  unknown  near  idle  groups  of  strangers, 

from  shipbuilding  that  Robert  Fulton  and  heard  them  scoff  and  sneer  and 

went  to  England.     He  was  a  painter  ridicule.      Never  did  a  single  encour- 

of  portraits,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  aging  remark,  a  bright  hope,  a  warm 

1765,  but  set  out  for  England  in  1786,  wish,  cross  my  path.  •  My  work  was 

in  order  that  he  might  study  this  art  always  spoken  of  as  Fulton's  Folly." 

under  Sir  Benjamin  West.     He  became  But  at  last  the  ship  was  built,  and 

acquainted   with    Rumsey,    who   had  set  out  with  passengers  for  a  trial  trip, 

also    gone    to    England    earlier,    and,  The  vessel  moved  off,  went  a  little  way, 

after  discussing  inventions  with  him,  then  stopped.     Everybody  except  Ful- 

gave  up  all  thought  of  painting.     Ful-  ton  thought  that  this  was  the  end — 

ton's  brain  teemed  with  ideas.     He  that  he  had  failed,  as  they  all  had 

invented  things  for  the  improvement  expected.     But    he    went  below  and 

of  canals,  for  cutting  and  polishing  soon  put  right  some  trifling  mishap, 

marble,    for   twisting    rope,    for   iron  and   the   boat   steamed   away,    while 

bridges,  for  spinning  flax,  for  dredging  people  were  saying:   "I  told  you   it 

rivers,  and  for  making  boats  go  under  would  be  so;  a  foolish  scheme;  I  wish 

water  and  blow  up  ships.     But  the  we  were  safely  out  of  it. "     The  vessel 

great  work  of  his  life  was  done  for  the  went  its  way,  a  journey  of  150  miles  in 

steamship.  32  hours.     Fulton  was  delighted,  but 

In  1802  he  built  a  steamship,  but  its  his  friends  still  doubted;  they  thought 

engine  was  so  heavy  that  it  fell  through  that  the  vessel  would  never  be  able  to 

the  bottom  of  the  vessel  into  the  River  get  back  to  New  York,  and  that  if  it 

Seine,  in  France,  where  he  was  trying  did  it  could  never  make  another  trip, 

it.     He  did  not  lose  heart,   but   re-  No  wonder  he  felt  discouraged.     He 

covered  the  engine  and  built  it  into  himself   wondered   if  such   a   voyage 

a   stronger   boat.     This   he   made  to  could   be   repeated,   and  if   it   could, 

go,  but  it  was  too  slow  to  be  success-  whether  it  was  of  any  value, 

ful.     Going  back  to  England,  he  pre-  Why  one  of  the  early  steamboats 

pared  plans  and  had  an  engine  built  was  allowed  to  fall  to  pieces 

by  Boulton  and  Watt.    Then  he  came  Fulton  was  the  first  man,  therefore, 

to  America  and  left  the  engine  to  be  to  make  steam  navigation  what  we 

brought  over,  packed  up  in  a  ship,  call  a  commercial  success.     Fitch  had 

When  it  arrived,  he  set  to  work  to  put  shown  that  something  of  the  sort  could 

it  together.     His  story,  told  in  his  own  be  done,  but  Fulton  profited  by  Fitch's 

words,  gives  us  an  excellent  idea  of  experience  and  by  that  of  Jouffroy. 

the  hard  lot  of  the  inventor  of  those  He  died  in  1815,  but  not  until  he  had 

times.  built  several  other  boats. 

Robert  FULTON'S  FIRST  steamer,  AND  Fulton's    successful    steamer    was 

THE  scoffing  OF  STUPID  men  lauuchcd    in    1807.     Nineteen    years 

"When    I    was    building    my    first  earlier  a  successful  steamer  had  been 

steamer    in    New    York, "    he    wrote,  launched  in  Scotland,  but  this  was  not 

"  the  work  was  reviewed  by  the  public  a  commercial  success.     It  was  built 


283 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


by  William  Symington,  a  Scotch 
mechanic,  who  was  bom  in  1763,  and 
died  in  1831.  He  first  of  all  built  a 
steam-cnpne  to  run  on  the  roads, 
then  carried  out  the  l^uilding  of  the 
steainsiiij)  for  a  thouifhtt'ul  Scotsman 
named  William  Miller.  Symington's 
vessel  for  IS! i Her  was  succ-eeded  by 
another  wliicli  he  ])uilt  for  Lord  Dun- 
das.  It  was  launched  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  Canal,  and,  without  any 
trouble  towed  two  barges,  weighing 
together  140  tons,  a  distance  of  20 
miles  against  a  powerful  wind.  This 
was  still  five  years  earlier  than  Fulton's 
success.  But  what  hapjjcned.''  The 
owners  of  the  canal  said  that  the 
steamer  would  create  such  a  current 
that  it  wovdd  wash  away  the  banks 
of  the  canal,  and  so  this  fine  steamer 
was  run  aground  and  allowed  slowly 
to  fall  to  pieces  on  the  bank  of  the 
canal.  Fulton  saw  this  vessel,  and 
doubtless  gained  a  hint  or  two  from 
it. 

A    POOR    MAN    WHO    CONFOUNDED    THE 
WISDOM    OF   THE    WISE 

But  Symington's  work  was  not  all 
wasted.  One  of  the  men  em])loyed  in 
making  the  woodwork  of  liis  first 
vessel  was  Henry  Bell,  the  son  of  ])oor 
Scottish  j)arents.  Born  in  17(57,  he 
followed  first  one  trade  and  then 
another,  and  seemed  unlikely  to  do 
any  good  until  he  was  brouglit  face  to 
face  with  the  i)rol)lems  which  the  luck- 
less Symington  was  trying  to  sohe. 
Symington's  experiments  coininced 
Bell  that  success  might  yet  be  gained 
with  steam-vessels,  and  for  the  next 
thirteen  years  he  gave  all  his  thoughts 
to  the  plan. 

A\e  hear  of  him  in  ISOO  trying  to 
make  the  British  Government  believe 
in  the  possibility  of  the  scheme,  but 
he  was  unsuccessful.  How  could  he 
hope  to  succ<'<'(l  in  official  circles  when 
one  of  the  greatest  and  j)est  men  of 
the  day — Sir  Joseph  Banks,  president 


of  tlie  Royal  Society — could  say  to  all 
proposals  for  vessels  driven  by  steam- 
engines:  "A  very  pretty  plan,  but 
there  is  just  one  j)oint  overlooked — 
that  the  steam-engine  rc(juires  a  firm 
basis  on  which  to  work."  Talented 
man  though  he  was.  Banks,  himself 
overlooked  one  point,  that  even 
though  it  floated  on  water,  the  hull 
of  a  shij)  does  give  the  firm  basis 
the  steam-engine  retpiires.  Bell  gave 
up  ho})e  of  encouragement  from 
the  Government,  and  when  he  had 
managed  to  get  some  money,  he  set 
to  work  in  ISll  and  had  a  little 
steamship  of  his  own  built  on  the 
Clyde. 

How  SCOTTISH  INVENTORS  AND  ENGI- 
NEERS LED  THE  WAV  WITH  STEAMBOATS 

The  ship  was  called  tiie  Comet,  and 
was  launched  in  January,  181 2,  be- 
ginning at  once  to  carry  freight  and 
passengers  on  the  Clyde.  Great  was 
the  terror  that  it  created  among  ig- 
norant people.  People  thought,  as 
they  saw  it  puffing  along,  snorting 
sparks  and  smoke,  and  going  against 
the  wind  and  the  tide,  that  it  was 
some  evil  monster.  When  it  aj)- 
j)roached  the  shore  to  pull  up,  they 
ran  away  and  hid  themsehcs  like 
savages  in  some  primeval  land. 

News  of  the  Conicfs  success  soon 
spread  abroad,  and  in  1813,  the  first 
of  the  Thames  steamers  were  run  by  a 
man  named  Dawson,  while  a  coura- 
geous man  named  ]>awrence,  of  Bristol, 
sent  up  a  steamer  from  his  native  city 
to  carry  the  peoj)le  of  London  up  and 
down  their  great  river.  The  oppo- 
sition of  the  Thames  boatmen  i)roved 
too  much  for  Lawrence,  and  his  vessel 
had  to  return  to  the  River  Severn, 
liut  the  steamship  industry  was  now 
fairly  founded,  in  s|)ite  of  the  "wise" 
men  and  the  Government ;  and  many 
ships  were  built  on  the  Clyde  to  run 
between  (dasgow  and  Liverpool  and 
other  ports. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  289 

The  FIRST  CROSSING  OF  THE  ATLANTIC  1838,  when,  on  the  same  day,  two 

OCEAN  BY  STEAM  AND  SAILS  English    vcssels    steamed    into    New 

From  this  time  forth  there  was  no  York.     They  were  the  Great  Western 

more  opposition  to  the  steamship  as  — a  steamship  built  by  Sir  Isambard 

a  means  of  sea  passage.     The  next  Kingdom  Brunei  and  a  smaller  vessel, 

important  step  was  its  first   voyage  called    the    Sirius.     The    Sirius  had 

across  the  Atlantic.     This  was  made  by  started  from  England  four  days  ahead 

an  American  ship  called  the  Savannah,  of  the  Great  Western,  but   the   Great 

but  it  did  not  steam  all  the  way.     It  Western,  being   bigger   and  stronger, 

was  built  as  a  sailing  ship  by  Francis  nearly    caught    up,    and    the    Sirius, 

Fickett,  of  New  York,  in  1818;  but  reached  New  York  only  a  few  hours 

it  was  decided  afterwards  to  fit  it  up  ahead.     The  journey  had  taken  the 

with  a  steam-engine.     This  was  done,  Sirius  eighteen  days,  and  the  Great 

and    it    set    sail    for    England    from  Western  only  fourteen,  instead  of  the 

Savannah  on  May  24,  1819,  reaching  month  which  a  sailing  ship  required. 

Liverpool    twenty-seven    days    after.  The  steamboat  was  now  a  success. 

The  greater  part  of  the  distance  There  was  a  long  fight  between  rival 
had  been  covered  by  the  help  of  sails,  sides  to  get  the  screw  propeller  U'?ed 
steam  having  been  used  only  for  for  driving  ships  instead  of  the  old 
eighty  hours.  The  Savannah  returned  wheels  at  the  sides  called  paddle- 
to  America  and  was  not  considered  wheels,  but  in  the  end  the  screw  won 
useful,  for  its  engine  was  taken  out  and  for  all  but  smooth  waters.  Similar 
it  depended  until  it  was  wrecked,  upon  doubt  had  to  be  overcome  before  the 
its  sails.  Therefore,  although  America  iron  ship  was  built  to  take  the  place 
rightly  claims  to  have  sent  the  first  of  wood.  Still  later  there  has  come 
steamship  across  the  Atlantic,  we  must  another  change  in  the  method  of  driv- 
remember  that  it  sailed  for  the  greater  ing  the  ship.  The  new  plan  is  called 
part  of  the  voyage,  and  steamed  only  the  steam-turbine.  With  his  new 
a  little  now  and  then,  about  one  hour's  method  of  driving  a  vessel  we  have 
steaming  for  eight  hours'  sailing.  bigger  steamers  than  ever. 
How  THE  REAL  STEAMSHIPS  REACHED  Thc  monstcr  occau  liucrs  that  now 
NEW  YORK  ON  ONE  DAY  ply   bctweeu  the  great  ports    of   the 

The  first  crossing  of  the  Atlantic  by  world  are  almost    universally   of   the 

a   real   steamship   was   completed   in  turbine  type. 

BUILDING  A  BIG,  MODERN  OCEAN  LINER 

IT  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  in  the  evolving  of  the  vessel.     From 

tliere  is  nothing  that  man  fashions  the  time  the  ship  is  jjlanned  in  the 

today    that    calls  for  more  skill,  drawing  loft,  till  she  takes  the  water 

ingenuity,  forethought,  and  judgment  at  her  launching,  the  brains  of  learned 

than  the  designing  and  building  of  a  mathematicians,  assisted  by  the  might 

large  ship.     Be  it  a  great  liner  that  of  complicated  and  wonderful  machin- 

will    carry    thousands    of    passengers  ery,  and  the  labor  of  an  army  of  skilled 

across  the  ocean  at  express  speed,  in  artisans,  have  been  in  constant  requi- 

spacious  and  comfortable  saloons,  or  sition.                   • 

a  mighty  battleship  with  an  array  For  this  reason  there  is  no  place 
of  formidable  guns,  all  the  knowledge,  so  bewildering  and  fascinating  as  a  mod- 
craft,  and  cunning  that  the  modern  ern  shipbuilding  yard.  First  there  are 
shipwright  can  display  will  be  needed  the    building    berths.     These    berths 


r 


1  K(JM    I  Hi    <    \K  \\  II,  Ol'  t;Ol.t>MlH'S  TO   lUK    'I  MI'KKA  lUK ' 


£90 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


291 


may  be  inclosed  by  neat,  steel  lattice- 
work walls,  or  be  entirely  open.  Here 
the  hulls  are  built  up,  piece  by  piece, 
amid  an  ever-growing  forest  of  scaffold- 
ing. From  the  overhead  girders,  that 
span  the  site,  run  cranes  that  pick  up 
heavy  steel  plates  and  beams,  weighing 
many  tons,  as  if  they  were  mere  toys, 
and  lift  them  into  the  desired  position. 

Indeed,  all  the  mar^•els  of  machinery 
are  here,  driven  by  steam,  electricity, 
compressed  air  and  water.  There  are 
the  great  presses  that  bend  the  steel 
plates  into  the  desired  shape  and  form; 
machines  that  punch  holes  by  the 
score  in  them,  for  the  rivets,  as  easily 
as  you  can  stick  a  knife  through  a 
piece  of  paper,  while  others  bite  large 
holes  in  the  hard  steel,  or  reduce  the 
size  of  the  plates  by  literally  slicing  off 
a  piece,  as  deftly  and  as  easily  as  you 
could  carve  a  slice  off  a  loaf  of  bread. 
Above  all,  there  is  the  wonderful 
activity,  the  constant  clang  of  the 
riveters'  hammers,  the  snorting  of 
many  engines,  the  glow  of  furnaces, 
the  rattle  of  heavy  chains,  the  shouts 
of  the  foremen,  the  toiling  mass  of 
humanity,  all  creating  an  ordered 
chaos  the  like  of  which  can  be  found 
nowhere  but  at  those  busy  yards  by 
the  riverbanks  where  great  ships  are 
born. 

Naturally,  the  men  in  the  yard  can- 
not start  upon  the  ship  till  it  has  been 
planned.  This  is  the  work  of  the 
draughtsmen,  and  at  all  the  big  yards 
there  is  what  is  termed  a  drawing  or 
mold  loft,  an  immense  room,  so  large 
that  designs  can  be  made  to  the 
actual  scale  of  the  vessel.  This  is 
necessary  if  the  ship  is  larger  than 
any  existmg  vessel  or  of  a  different 
type  from  what  the  builder  has  turned 
out  before.  In  that  case  the  draughts- 
man, taking  the  floor  of  his  room  as  an 
immense  blackboard,  chalks  out  in 
mighty  lines  all  the  girders,  frames 
beams  and  plates.     Everything,  down 


to  the  rivets  and  rivet-holes,  is  drawn 
full  size.  From  these  great  drawings 
the  working  plans  are  prepared.  Then 
in  an  immense  floor  of  pine-wood, 
called  the  "  scrieve-board, "  the  body 
plan  of  the  ship  is  cut,  from  which 
wooden  models  are  made  of  her  out- 
lines. 

From  these  plans  the  steel  of  which 
the  ship  is  to  be  built  is  ordered,  as 
well  as  all  other  necessary  material. 
Meanwhile  the  berth  is  got  ready, 
and,  if  the  ship  is  a  large  one,  attention 
has  to  be  paid  to  the  floor.  Before  the 
keel  of  the  Mauretaiiia  was  laid,  some 
16,000  piles  of  timber,  13  inches 
square,  and  averaging  from  30  to  35 
feet  in  length,  were  driven  into  the 
ground.  Along  the  top  of  these  were 
laid  great  beams,  and  on  them  again 
a  complete  floor  of  thick  plates.  Much 
the  same  procedure  was  done  in  the 
Vulcan  yards  in  Germany,  before  work 
was  begun  on  the  building  of  the 
Hamburg-American  liner  Vaterland, 
of  which  we  show  several  illustrations. 
This  vessel  is  the  longest  and  largest 
of  liners.  It  is  950  feet  long,  100  feet 
in  breadth,  and  has  a  tonnage  of  some 
56,000. 

Now  commences  the  erection  of  the 
hull,  which  is,  in  essence,  a  steel  box 
of  curious  design.  Down  the  center 
of  the  floor  are  placed  portable  balks 
of  wood  forming  piles  from  4  to  5 
feet  high,  and  known  as  keel  blocks. 
It  is  upon  these  that  the  keel  of  the 
ship  is  laid.  It  is  a  girder  of  the 
strongest  kind,  as  it  needs  to  be,  seeing 
that  at  one  moment  it  may  be  in  the 
trough  of  a  wave,  deeply  immersed 
fore  and  aft  only,  and  the  next  riding 
on  its  crest  with  bow  and  stern  almost 
out  of  the  water.  It  has,  too,  to 
withstand  the  terrific  blows  of  ocean 
billows,  which  tend  to  bend  it  side- 
ways. 

The  strength  of  the  ship  lies  in  this 
keel   and  the   center  girder  running 


VlkVV   OF  THE   "VATKRI-ANn"    IINOER   <;ONSTRU<rriON 

At  the  momeollbls  la  ihe  loosest  and  loTKcst  of  Itners.    It  Is  9&0  feet  Ions.  I0Ote«tlD  breadth,  and  baa  a  tonnage  of  M.OOO. 


M« 


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S93 


from  one  end  of  the  ship  to  the  other. 
In  the  case  of  the  Vaterland  this  center 
girder,  immediately  above  the  keel 
plate,  is  6  feet  high,  and  13^  inches 
thick.  On  either  side  are  other  gir- 
ders, running  parallel  to  it,  and  from 
these,  at  various  intervals  on  both 
sides,  spring  the  ribs  or  frames,  which 
curve  upwards,  and  to  which  the 
plates  that  form  the  sides  of  the  ship 
are  fastened.  The  ribs  are  held  in 
place  by  horizontal  rafters  or  beams 
that  carry  the  decks. 

In  the  case  of  the  modern  liner  it  is 
now  built  with  an  inner  skin.  That 
is  to  say,  there  are  virtually  two  hulls, 
one  within  the  other,  carried  well  up 
above  the  water-line.  The  vessel  is 
also  provided  with  a  double  bottom, 
while,  as  an  additional  precaution,  in 
case  of  injury  by  collision  that  part  of 
the  vessel  below  the  water-line  is 
divided  into  water-tight  compart- 
ments. 

The  recently  launched  Imperator 
is  almost  one-fifth  of  a  mile  long.  Her 
beam  of  98  feet  compares  favorably 
with  the  width  of  a  city  street. 

She  carries  five  anchors,  the  main 
one  weighing  12  tons,  the  combined 
weight  of  the  five  anchors  and  chains 
being  217  tons.  The  cargo  of  many  a 
small    steamer    is    not    much    larger. 

The  vessel  has  a  height  of  96  feet, 
her  great  sides  being  built  upon  327 
steel  ribs  on  either  side,  each  weighing 
over  a  ton.  The  weight  of  the  steel 
plates,  angles,  profiles,  and  the  like 
totals  260  tons.  More  than  2,000,000 
steel  rivets  were  used  in  her  con- 
struction, each  weighing  11  lbs.  Be- 
cause of  her  great  size  her  decks  are 
particularly  imposing.  Two  of  her 
three  broad  decks  are  partially  en- 
closed. The  promenades  vary  in 
width  from  16  to  23  feet,  while  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  deck  is  equal  to  a  walk  of 
five  ordinary  city  streets. 

Like    the    German    leviathan,    the 


Olympic,  Mauretania,  and  other  liners 
of  recent  construction  are  marvelously 
rich  in  luxurious  appointments.  The 
ocean  traveler  of  today  is  pampered 
by  the  provision  of  electric  elevators, 
swimming  baths,  palm  gardens,  res- 
taurants, cafes,  and  self-contained 
flats.  For  instance,  one  of  these 
vessels  boasts  of  a  restaurant  under 
the  management  of  the  Ritz-Carlton 
Hotel,  where  meals  are  served  a  la 
cane  at  any  hour.  There  are,  in  ad- 
dition, a  grill-room,  tea-room,  veranda 
cafe,  and  a  number  of  ladies'  sitting- 
rooms,  a  palm  garden,  and  a  superbly 
appointed  ball-room,  as  well  as  a  stage 
for  theatrical  performances  and  con- 
certs. 

The  smoking  room  of  this  wonderful 
vessel  is  a  beautiful  saloon  of  the  Tudor 
period.  It  has  a  large  open  fireplace, 
the  red  brickwork  over  which  realistic- 
ally reproduces  that  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  bricks  in  question  came 
from  a  Buckinghamshire  cottage  of 
the  Tudor  period,  which  was  de- 
molished for  the  purpose.  The  ball- 
room is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  great- 
est innovations  of  the  ship.  It  is 
72  feet  long,  58  feet  wide,  and  18  feet 
high;  the  floor  is  of  parquet,  which, 
when  not  being  used  for  dancing,  is 
covered  with  a  carpet;  the  walls  are 
decorated  with  costly  old  Gobelin 
tapestry,  and  have  bow  windows  10 
feet  high  on  either  side.  It  has  been 
constructed  with  no  pillars  visibly 
supporting  it.  The  scheme  of  decora- 
tion is  Louis  XV.  Another  unique 
feature  of  the  ship  is  the  two  self- 
contained  flats,  comprising  drawing- 
room  and  veranda,  with  large  windows 
opening  out  over  the  sea,  dining-room, 
two  bed-rooms,  two  bath-rooms,  dress- 
ing-room, box-room,  and  pantry. 
These  are  among  the  most  expensive 
dwelling  places  in  the  world,  for  the 
occupants  pay  a  fare  of  from  $2500 
to  $5000  for  a  single  short  voyage. 


MAIDEN     VOYAGE     OF    THE    "IMPERATOR" 


HAMBLRG  POPULACE  WITNESSING  THE  STEAMERS  DEPARTURE  I  ROM  THE  PORT  OF  HAMBURG 


•IMPLKAIOK  •  AUKIMNG   IN  NEW  YORK  HARHOR,  SHOWING  THE  OUTLINES  Ot    ITS  IMMENSE 

HULK  AGAINST  THE  CITYS   SKYSCRAPERS 

t9i 


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295 


THE  FLOATING  RITZ-CARLTON 

On  the  "Imperator"  there  is  a  restaurant  under  the  management  of  the  Ritz-Carlton  Hotel,  where  meals  are  served 
6  la  carte  at  any  hour. 


There  seems  no  end  to  the  money 
that  ship-o^vTiers  must  lavish  on  their 
vessels  today  to  attract  the  custom 
of  the  capricious  millionaire  voyageur. 
On  one  ship  the  Roman  bath,  with  its 
decorative  Pompeian  pillars  and  orna- 
mental cascades  of  running  water,  is 
a  masterpiece.  The  swimming  pool 
has  been  built  after  the  designs  of  the 
ancient  Romans.  The  total  length  of 
the  bath  is  65  feet,  the  width  41  feet, 
and  the  greatest  depth  of  water  7  feet. 
There  are  also  electric,  Turkish,  and 
steam-baths,  massage  apparatus,  and 
hair-dressing  saloons  with  the  most 
modern  equipments,  as  well  as  a 
splendid  gymnasium  containing  every- 
thing to  satisfy  the  sportsman's  most 
exacting  requirements.  Other  fea- 
tures include  a  running  track,  a  sweet 
shop,  a  florist's  shop,  and  a  photogra- 
pher's dark  room. 


The  first  class  and  main  dining  room 
is  a  spacious  and  beautifully  decorated 
saloon,  98  feet  wide  and  25  feet  high, 
capable  of  seating  700  persons.  All 
told,  the  ship  can  accommodate  720 
first,  600  second,  900  third,  and  1800 
steerage  passengers,  besides  the  crew, 
which  totals  1180  hands,  giving  a 
total  of  5200  souls.  As  she  is  capable 
of  performing  some  fifteen  round  trips 
per  annum,  and  the  passage  money 
alone  per  voyage  may  amount  to 
$400,000  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
owners  handle  a  sufficient  income  from 
the  passengers'  fares  to  make  the  con- 
sideration of  their  comfort  eminently 
worth  while. 

It  is  difiicult  to  realize  what  it  means 
for  the  population  of  a  town  to  go 
afloat  in  one  huge  vessel.  But  for  the 
perfect  organization  now  in  vogue  it 
would  be  impossible   to   feed   them. 


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For  a  seven  days'  voj'age  between 
Hamburg  and  New  York  a  single  sliip 
takes  on  hoard  '■2')  tons  of  fresh  meat, 
48,000  eggs,  and  GO  tons  of  potatoes. 
The  hirder  also  contains  14  tons  of 
fresh  vegetables  and  GOOO  tins  of 
canned  vegetables,  liesides,  there  are 
over  fi\e  tons  of  fowl  and  game,  and 


43^  tons  of  fish  and  shell-fish,  800  lbs. 
of  mushrooms,  and  4000  cans  of  pre- 
served fruits.  No  less  than  1  "2,500 
quarts  of  milk  and  cream,  400  lbs.  of 
cheese,  500  lbs.  of  chocolate  and 
cocoa,  and  7000  lbs.  of  coH'ee  are 
also  consumed  between  shore  and 
shore. 


THE    WONDERS  OF    A    BATTLESHIP 

Til  10    modern    battleshij)    stands  of  men  who  have  chained  to  their  will 

forth  as  one  of  the  greatest  won-  two    mighty    weapons,    each   capable 

ders  of  man's  toil  and  ingenuity.  of  throwing  a  projectile  with  deadly 

Into  .a  vast  whole  enter  in  one  way  or  acruracy  to  a  distance  of  eight  miles, 

anotiierall  the  metals  from  the  roughest  and  with  a  tremendous  bursting  charge 


iron  to  pure  gold,  all  the  woods  from  the 
commonest  deal  to  the  most  exi)ensive 
oaks  and  mahogany,  and  all  the  fabrics 
fromc-anvas  to  silk,  and,  n  ore  impor- 
tant still,  lal)()r  that  costs  most  of  all. 
To  take  a  peep  at  one  of  these  mon- 
sters is  to  enter  a  world  that  is  prac- 
tically unknown  to  the  landsman. 

A    POPULATION   OF    1000  MEN 

Step  aboard;  note  the  sj)acious  deck, 
the  crowd  of  seamen  who  are  j)art  of 


and  shell  of  1400  lb.  filled  with  the 
latest  form  of  chemical  explosive. 
The  officer  commanding  the  turret 
sits  on  his  tiny  seat  out  of  the  way; 
a  small  tubj  not  unlike  the  periscoi)e 
of  a  submarine  passes  through  the 
hood  of  the  turret  and  conveys  the 
scene  outside  to  his  eye.  Before  him 
are  telephones  and  dials  that  sjxvik 
to  him  in  a  strange  language  which  he 
understands.     High    above   his    head 


the  population  of  close  U])on  one  are  the  range-finders  in  the  control 
thousand  men,  and,  above  all,  observe  top,  perched  dizzily  at  the  ajjcx  of 
the  grim  guns  that  are  the  greatest  the  tripod  mast;  provided  Avith  delicate 
l^owcr  of  this  monster  ship.  These  and  intricate  instruments,  they  are 
guns  are  all  on  the  center  or  keel  line  able  to  detect  the  range  to  a  nicety. 
of  the  ship,  so  that  each  can  fire  at  The  information  thus  gleaned  by  their 
almost  any  angle  and  have  a  big  sweep  superior  range  of  vision  is  telephoned 
of  the  horizon.  In  all  the  latest  and  and  signaled  by  electricity  to  the  cap- 
greatest  ships  the  guns  are  super-im-  tain  of  the  turret.  Either  by  hy- 
posed,  that  is,  the  guns  in  the  second  draulic  or  electrical  power  the  shell 
turret  from  the  bow  and  the  second  is  brought  from  the  shell  room  right 
turret  from  the  stern  fire  over  the  down  in  the  bowels  of  the  ship  on  a 
turrets  of  the  forward  and  after  miniature  elevator.  AVhen  this  tray, 
guns.  This  mt'ans  that,  in  cha.se,  four  with  its  death-dealing  burden,  comes 
guns  can  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  opi)osite  the  bnx'ch  of  the  gun,  which 
enemy  alu  ad.  is  automatically  openeil,  a  rammer 
Now  climb  through  the  small  aper-  drives  the  shell  home,  and,  in  a  matter 


ture  that  forms  the  entrance  doors 
to  these  barbettes  and  get  inside, 
shut  from  the  outside  world  by  twelve 
inches  of  the  hardest  sttx'l  that  modern 


of  seconds,  the  explosive  charge  fol- 
lows. The  breech  clangs  and  locks 
by  the  same  movement,  the  electric 
contact    is    connected,    antl    the    gun 


methods  can  ])roduce.     Here  is  a  busy      ready  for  firing.     When  all  is  ready, 
space,  populated  by  less  than  a  score      it  is  the  simple  i)ull  of  a  gleaming  pistol 


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297 


THE  BULL- DOG'S  TEETH 

The  photo  shows  the  guns  mounted  complete  and  ready  for  service  on  board  a  Dreadnought.  Since  the  firing  of  200 
rounds,  each  passing  through  the  barrel  in  one-fortieth  of  a  second  may  wear  out  the  A  tube  of  a  big  gun,  its  actual  working 
life  may  be  no  more  than  5  seconds. 

trigger    that    sends    the    great    shell  The  working  chamber 
hurtling     through     space.     While     it  Once    more    clamber    through    the 

fills  the  air  with  thunderous  sounds,  manhole,  leave  the  gunhouse,  and  give 

the  blast  is  already  cleaning  the  gun  a    glance    at    the    working    chamber 

for  the  next  round.  inmiediately  below  it,  wherein  is  the 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


SECTION   SHOWINC;  THIC   INTERIOR 


This  sectional  view  of  the  very  powerful  "Ulo  de  Janeiro,"  bouRht  by  Turkey  from  lirazll  while  si  ill  under  oompletlon  at 

her  speed  Is  22  knots:  her  length  Is  032  feet.     She  civrrles  founoen  12-lncli  and 

swasli-pliito  eii^'inc  that  turns  the  On  the  hitest  and  greatest  sliips 
great  turret  in  any  direction  desired,  there  are  five  of  th(\se  great  gun- 
So  wouderful  is  the  geariug  that  it  can  liouses,  all  exactly  alike,  all  inauned 
rotate  the  turntable  at  a  fast  speed  of  by  an  e(|ually  alert  crew,  aud  all  a 
one  revolution  in  one  minute,  or  at  a  mass  of  gleaming,  business-like  steel, 
slow  spet'd  (if  one  revolution  in  ten  In  addition  to  this  the  vessel  will  carry 
hours.  Other  machines  are  here  to  a  sin-oudary  l)attery,  coiisisling  of 
Work  the  anunuiiilion  lioists,  that  fjuick-liriug  guns  for  rcix'lliiig  torpedo 
piuss  in  trunks  through  this  chamber  boat  attack.  The  majority  of  new 
down  to  tlie  magazine  aud  shell  rooms,  vessels    are    armed    with    the    4-inch 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTPxY 


299 


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OF  A  DREADNOUGHT  AT  A  GLANCE 

the  Elswick  Yard,  makes  clear  all  the  details  described  in  this  article.  The  "Rio  de  Janeiro's"  displacement  is  27,500  tons; 
twenty  6-inch  guns.     Her  complement  ol  crews  should  number  1000  men. 


weapon,  weighing  26  cwt.,  and  able  to 
send  a  shell  clear  through  an  on- 
rushing  torpedo-boat  1}^^  miles  away. 
In  later  ships  the  6-inch  gun,  a  new  and 
wonderful  weapon,  is  mounted;  this 
is  necessitated  by  the  rapidly  increas- 
ing size  of  modern  torpedo  craft. 

Leave  the  artillery,  which  is  the 
chief  item  (for  is  not  a  battleship  sim- 
ply intended  to  act  as  a  floating  plat- 


form for  guns?),  and  turn  to  those 
dim  regions  far  below  the  armor  belt, 
down  below  the  water  line,  an  inferno 
of  heat  and  oily  smells,  where  work 
the  "  black  gang. "  The  modern  fight- 
ing ship  of  the  speedy  battle-cruiser 
type  will  have  as  many  as  48  great  water- 
tube  boilers,  which  are  roaring  boxes 
of  blistering  heat  when  the  vessel  is 
steaming    hard.     There    is    the    con- 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


tinuous  clang  of  the  shovel,  there  is 
the  intermittent  search-like  glow  as 
furnace  doors  are  opened  to  examine 
the  fires  or  add  more  fuel;  there  are 
the  oil  burners  with  their  pump  room 
above,  with  engine,  pumps,  filters, 
and  heaters,  and  with  tanks  below  in 
the  double  bottom  to  aid  the  coal  with 
oil  should  the  Admiral  suddenly  call 
for  speed.  There  is  the  roar  of  a  score 
of  draught  fans  sucking  down  the 
necessary  air,  and  along  the  broadside 
runs,  most  wonderful  of  all,  a  miniature 
colliery  in  full  working  order,  where  can 
be  found  dim  human  forms  working  by 
thelight  of  Davy  lamps,  whilethe  great 
fabric  thunders  through  the  riven  seas. 

Visit  yet  another  quarter  where  the 
Chief  Engineer  holds  sway.  Here  is 
anotluT  domain  of  oil-smelling  heat, 
with  walls  lined  with  miles  of  steel  and 
copj)er  mains,  some  gleamingly  bright, 
while  others  are  asbestos  covered. 
Over  all  rules  a  clean-shaven  officer, 
and  under  him  are  various  grades  of 
artificers.  Everywhere  are  dials,  and, 
in  different  compartments,  the  vast 
turbines  that  rotate  the  propellers  and 
push  the  27,000  tons  of  metal,  wood, 
and  men  through  the  whistling  seas. 

Clim))  to  the  bridge,  small  in  size, 
but  lofty  and  airy.  If  it  be  day  the 
panorama  of  the  ship  is  below  you;  at 
your   back   a   great   fore   funnel,   big 


enough  to  admit  a  motor-bus,  sends 
a  gentle  brown  cloud  into  the  sky. 
Aft  this  are  the  boats  and  pinnaces, 
the  great  tri|)od  mast  with  tiie  fire 
control  and  director  boxes  high  above, 
and  the  aerials  of  the  wireless  telegra- 
I)hy  higher  still.  All  the  battle  squad- 
ron are  spread  out  ahead  and  astern; 
all  the  great  ships  are  seething  with 
life  each  has  its  thousand  souls,  each 
has  its  throbl)ing  steel  heart,  and  its 
gigantic  teeth  sticking  menacingly 
from  the  turrets.  Each,  by  means  of 
flags  and  balls  is  telling  the  other 
strange  truths  of  speed  while  the 
officer  in  command,  pacing  the  bridge, 
and  the  stolid  quarter-master  at  the 
puny  wheel  (that  steers  so  vast  a  ship 
by  the  aid  of  steam)  keep  a  clear  eye 
on  the  nest  ah(>ad.  As  it  drops  a 
little  we  droj)  also;  the  engine  speed  is 
up  and  down,  changing  from  minute 
to  minute.  If  it  be  dark,  a  great  beam 
of  light  may  sweep  up  from  over  the 
horizon,  and  one  of  our  searchlights 
answers  back  by  a  beam  that,  in  fine 
clear  weather,  can  be  seen  a  dozen 
or  more  miles  away. 

Such  is  a  fighting  ship,  great  and 
grim,  built  only  to  protect  us  from  our 
foes.  In  most  cases  it  is  Imilt,  it  lives 
its  short  twenty  odtl  years  of  life,  and 
finally  goes  to  the  shipbreakcr  without 
ever  firing  a  single  gun  in  anger. 


STROXGEST  SHIP   IN   TIIE    WORLD 


UXK^l'E  among  boats  is  the 
Russian  ice-breaker,  Ermack. 
On  account  of  its  peculiar 
formation  and  design  it  can  claim  to  be 
the  strongest  vessel  afloat.  IiuKmmI, 
its  flesigners  declare  that  if  it  were 
lying  on  its  beam  ends  alongside  a  ciuay 
300  feet  long,  at  each  end  of  which 
there  was  a  giant  crane  with  a  lifting 
ca))a!ity  of  lOOO  tons,  and  these  two 
got  hold  of  it  and  lifl(>d  it  clear  out 
of  the  water,  it  would  hang  between 


them  as  rigid  as  a  bar  of  steel.  If  the 
same  test  were  a])plied  to  a  Dread- 
nought, or  any  other  battleship,  it 
would  crumple  up  by  its  own  weight. 
This  unique  example  of  the  ship- 
builders' art  is  nothing  less  than  a  hull 
of  steel  305  feet  long,  71  feet  broad, 
4''2  feet  6  inches  deep,  having  a  displace- 
ment of  8000  tons,  and  driven  by  the 
concentrated  energy  of  I'i.OOO  horse- 
power. It  is  a  double  ship  from  end 
to  end,  and  its  two  skins  are  so  con- 


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301 


THE   RUSSIAN  ICE  BREAKER   "ERMACK" 

This  unique  example  of  the  shipbuilders'  art  consists  of  a  hull  of  steel  305  feet  long,  71  feet  broad,  42'-^  feet  deep. 
having  a  displacement  of  SOOJ  tons  and  driven  hv  fie  concentrated  energy  of  12,000  horse-power.  Every  winter,  while 
engaged  in  keeping  the  Baltic  ports  open,  she  is  called  upon  to  smash  up  ice  twenty  feet  and  more  in  thicliness. 


nected  and  fortified  bv  bulkheads,  and 
longitudinal  bulkheads  or,  as  we  should 
say  in  landsman's  language,  partitions 
of  steel  framed  in  girders  of  enormous 
strength,  that  they  are  practically  un- 
crushable,  while  the  ship  itself  is  prac- 
tically unsinkable.  It  is  divided  into 
forty-eight  water-tight  compartments. 
Its  mission  on  the  sea  is  to  keep  the 
ports  of  the  Baltic  open  during  the 
winter  months  by  cutting  a  passage- 
way for  other  ships  through  the  thick 
ice.  When  it  is  caught,  as  it  has  been 
many  scores  of  times,  between  a  couple 
of  closing  masses  of  ice,  it  at  once 
rises  slowly  and  easily,  and  ;  without 


so  much  as  a  shiver.  Then,  if  its 
weight  of  8000  tons  is  not  sufficient 
to  break  the  ice,  its  powerful  pumps 
are  set  to  work,  and  certain  of  its  com- 
partments are  filled  with  water.  In 
this  way  an  additional  weight  of  2000 
tons  is  obtained,  making  a  total  of 
10,000  tons.  The  ice  has  either  to  sup- 
port this  weight  or  give  way.  Hither- 
to it  has  always  done  the  latter.  Its 
keel  and  sides  are  as  round  as  an  apple; 
there  is  not  an  angle  for  the  ice  to  grip. 
Frequently  it  rescues  more  than  100 
steamers  during  a  season  that  are 
unable  to  extricate  themselves  from 
the  ice. 


THE      MANUFACTURE       OF      ARMOR 


TIIK  iiiiieteeiith  century  gave 
l)irlli  to  the  iiwn's  nuxst  per- 
sistent opjxjuent,  known  as 
"armor,"  and  the  figlit  for  sui)remacy 
between  the  offensive  gun  and  tlie 
defensive  armor  has  been  going  on 
ever  since  with  the  hahince  incHning 
first  to  one  side,  then  to  the  other. 

In  so  far  as  it  is  of  record,  John 
Stevens  of  Hoboken,  New  Jersey, 
was  the  first  to  propose  the  use  of 
armor  for  the  protection  of  war  vessels 
in  iSl-i,  and  now  it  is  even  used  for 
coast  defense  in  some  cases,  the  forts 
in  the  harbors  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and 
Manihi  liay  containing  armored  tur- 
rets simihir  to  those  on  ships.  As  is 
well  known,  the  first  armored  war 
vessels  in  this  coni:try  were  the  re- 
nowned Monitor  and  Merrimac. 

Armor  of  all  kinds  and  descrijjtions 
has  l)een  tried  with  varying  success. 
Target  structures  of  almost  every 
conceivable  description  have  been 
made  and  tested.  These  were  plates 
of  cast  iron  and  wrought  iron,  sheets  of 
metal  bolted  together  and  faced  both 
flat  and  edgewise,  alternating  lay(>rs  of 
metal  and  wood;  of  metal  and  rubber 
disposed  in  various  ways,  and  of 
springs  behind  solid  plates,  etc.  The 
results  of  all  these  exj)eriments  have 
shf)wn  that  the  most  edicient  armor 
is  a  hard-faced,  tough-backed,  homo- 
genct)us  plate,  made  by  what  is  called 
the  "Kiiipp"  process,  alter  the  famous 
German  ordnance  firm  of  that  name, 
who  were  the  first  to  make  these 
plates. 

Armor  is  made  in  this  country  by 
the  Bethlehem,  Carnegie,  and  Midvale 
Steel  Companies,  who  have  expended 
many  millions  of  dollars  in  the  costly 
and  massive  machinery  necessary  to 
produce  these  large  armor  plates, 
weighing  as  much  as  a  hundr(>d  thou- 
sand j)ounds,  and  of  various  shapes. 


The  manufacture  of  modern  face- 
hardened  armor  comprises  a  series  of 
operations  which  requires  the  greatest 
care  and  attention  to  details  to  pro- 
duce the  best  results,  and  these  opera- 
tions are  so  elaborate  that  a  jjcriod  of 
nine  months  is  consumed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  armor  from  the  time  the 
drawings  showing  the  plates  are  re- 
ceived until  the  plates  are  completely 
finished  and  ready  to  be  installed. 

The  first  process  in  making  the 
armor  plate  is  the  casting  of  the  steel 
ingot  from  which  the  plate  is  to  be 
forged.  Tiiis  is  done  in  a  large  cast 
iron  mold  lined  with  sand.  The 
molten  metal  from  the  furnace  is 
carried  in  a  ladle  to  the  mold,  and 
poured  in  vertical  tubes  coimected  to 
the  bottom  of  the  mold  so  that  it  is 
filled  from  the  bottom,  or  "bottom 
poured,"  as  it  is  called. 

As  soon  as  the  metal  lias  solidified 
and  cooled  off  the  mold  is  strijjjjcd 
from  it  and  the  ingot  is  i)icked  up  by 
a  big  electric  crane  and  taken  to  a 
heating  furnace  to  be  heated  for 
forging.  Figure  (1 )  shows  one  of  these 
large  ingots  after  it  is  removed  from 
the  mold  by  the  crane;  the  bucket 
behind  the  two  workmen  is  the  ladle 
used  in  filling  the  mold.  The  ingot 
being  properly  heated,  is  remo\'ed 
from  the  furnace  and  forged  to  the 
approximate  size  of  the  finished  plate, 
which  is  usually  aliout  one-third  the 
thickness  of  the  ingot.  To  forge  a 
heavy  armor  plate  reciuires  tremendous 
power,  and  the  forging  presses  for  this 
purpose  are  very  massive  and  j)ower- 
ful.  Each  time  full  pressure  is  ap- 
plied with  one  of  the  presses  it  is 
ecjuivaUMit  to  placing  the  weight  of  a 
battleship  on  top  of  the  armor  to  mash 
it.  The  ingot  is  swung  into  position 
and  its  end  placed  under  the  upper 
die  of  the  forging  press,  which  is  then 


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303 


FIGURE  1.     STEEL  INGOT  TO  ARMOR  PLATE 


FIGURE  2.     ARMOR  PLATE  SAWING  MACHINE 


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THE  nUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


FIGURE  3.      BARBETTE  OF  BATTLESHIP   "TEXAS' 


FIGURE  4       ARMOR    I'l.ATE   REAMING   MACHINE 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


305 


forced  down  upon  the  ingot,  the  throw 
being  so  regulated  as  to  diminish  the 
thickness  about  3  inches  a  stroke. 
The  metal  flows  evenly  in  all  direc- 
tions under  the  irresistible  and  steady 
pressure  of  the  press,  and  after  each 
stroke  the  ingot  is  moved  along  until 
the  thickness  is  the  same  throughout. 
Thus  one  sees  a  mass  of  tough  steel 
molded  into  shape  as  if  it  were 
molasses  cand3% 

The  plate,  being  approximately 
forged,  has  all  scale  removed  from  its 
surface  and  is  ready  for  "carbonizing." 
This  is  an  adaptation  of  the  well  known 
process  of  cementation  which  means 
heating  the  metal  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  the  presence  of  carbon,  so  that 
the  carbon  is  absorbed  by  the  metal. 
The  plate  is  now  forged  to  final  size 
and  then  annealed  to  relieve  any 
strains  in  the  metal.  It  is  next 
rough  machined  and  then  bent  to 
shape,  after  which  it  is  tempered  to 
produce  the  hard  face  to  break  up 
the  projectiles  fired  at  it.  This  is 
done  by  spraying  the  hot  face  with 
cold  water  under  pressure.  The  ex- 
act details  of  the  above  processes  are 
manufacturers'  secrets. 

The  plates  are  now  ready  for  final 
machining,  which  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult, owing  to  the  toughness  of  the 
metal.  The  special  armor  plate  saw- 
ing machine  is  shown  in  figure  2, 
cutting  the  edges  off  an  armor  plate. 


This  is  a  very  slow  and  laborious 
operation,  as  is  all  armor  machining. 
Then  the  plate  is  put  through  an 
armor  planing  machine,  which  re- 
moves extremely  small  shavings  at 
each  stroke.  After  machining,  the 
plates  are  next  carefully  fitted  to- 
gether, to  insure  that  all  joints  are 
well  made,  and  are  an  accurate  and 
tight  fit.  This  is  called  "erecting," 
and   is   done   on   heavy  iron  flooring. 

Figure  3  shows  the  barbette  of  one 
of  the  turrets  of  the  battleship  Texas, 
which  is  eighteen  inches  thick  and 
forty  feet  in  diameter,  twelve  feet 
high,  and  made  of  seven  plates  keyed 
together.  Figure  4  shows  the  ream- 
ing or  machining  of  the  holes  for  the 
guns  in  one  of  the  turret  face  plates; 
the  rough  drilled  hole  shows  on  the 
left,  and  the  smooth  one  on  the  right 
side  of  the  picture. 

After  erecting  the  plates  are  dis- 
assembled and  shipped  on  flat  cars  to 
the  ships  to  be  built  in  them. 

Out  of  every  lot  of  plates  manu- 
factured one  is  selected  for  test,  and  is 
fired  at  by  a  gun  of  the  same  size  as 
its  thickness,  and  it  must  not  allow 
the  projectile  to  penetrate  it,  other- 
wise the  whole  lot  of  plates  is  rejected. 
This  is  called  the  "ballistic  test,"  and 
determines  the  quality  of  the  armor  as 
regards  resistance  to  penetration. 
Figure  5  shows  a  plate  that  has  suc- 
cessfully passed  the  ballistic  test. 


FIGURE  5.  PLATE  WHICH  HAS  SUCCESSFULLY  PASSED  THE  BALLISTIC  TEST 


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THE  nUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


I DOYSTONE   LIGHTHOUSE,   ENGLISH   CHANNEL 


BEACONS      OF      THE      SEA 


E\'ER  since  man  began  to  navi- 
gate the  waters  he  has  en- 
deavored to  light  them  at 
night.  This  he  aceomi)Hshes  to(hiy  l)y 
the  erection  of  beacons  or  towers 
upon  the  shore  and  rocks,  from  the 
summit  of  which  a  beam  of  light  is 
automatically  flashed  over  the  ocean, 
and  also  by  means  of  lightships  and 
illuminated  buoys.  How  necessary 
thcx-  lights  are  to  guide  and  warn  the 
mariner  is  obvious  by  the  returns  of 
wrecks. 

The  f;ithcr  of  the  modern  lightliou.se 
w.is  uiid<nible(lly  the  iincieut  Pharos 
of  Alexandria,  in  Egyj)t.  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was 
l.nill  by  Ptolemy  I'hiladelphus  (^283— 
■■217  H.  C),  on  a  small  island  al  the 
rill  ranee  to  tin-  harbor,  connected  by 
a  causeway  wilh  the  mainland.  The 
Pharos  cost  800  talents;  if  these  were 


silver  talents — as  most  likely  they 
were — that  would  be  equal  to  $850,- 
000,  the  largest  sum  ever  expended 
upon  a  single  lighthouse.  The  struc- 
ture had  a  base  of  some  400  feet,  and 
towered  4.50  feet  above  .sea-level.  As 
the  whole  was  built  of  white  marble, 
.the  edifice  must  have  been  at  once 
elegant  and  impressive.  At  the  sum- 
mit fires  were  kept  burning  to  direct 
the  mariner  through  the  tortuous 
entrance  of  IIk"  i)a_\'.  It  is  recorded 
by  some  of  the  anc-ients  that  the  flame 
of  the  Pharos  could  be  discerned  100 
miles  at  sea.  This,  of  course,  is  an 
exaggeration,  as  the  most  up-to-date 
light  of  modern  times,  with  all  the 
latest  inx'entions  for  increasing  its 
intensity,  is  only  visible  tiiirty  miles 
out.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  smoky 
gleams   of    the   ancient    Pharos    were 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


m 


INTERIOR   VIEW   OF  EDDYSTONE   LIGHTHOUSE 


-^■■y> 


W-^ 

- 

r^^ 

^^ 

This  picture  sliow3  the  interior  structure  and  arrange- 
ment of  one  ot  tbe  famous  beacona  of  the  world. 


seen  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles  on  a 

clear  night. 

Church,  palace  and  beacon 

The  Romans  built  many  lighthouses, 
and  it  is  said  that  several  exceeded  in 
splendor  and  magnificence  the  famous 
Pharos,  but  not  one  of  them  remains. 
The  earliest  example  extant  of  a  light- 
house is  the  famous  Tower  of  Cor- 
douan,  France,  which  dates  from  805 
A.  D.  but  has  been  rebuilt  on  several 
occasions.  The  present  edifice,  which 
was  begun  by  M.  Louis  de  Foix,  in 
1584,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable edifices  in  the  world.  This 
lighthouse  (originally  180,  now  207 
feet  in  height),  is  beacon,  church,  and 
royal  residence  in  one,  many  of  the 
French  kings  having  occujjied  it. 

Until  the  time  of  John  Smeaton,  who 
invented  the  dovetailed  stone  tower, 
lighthouses,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
were  built  of  wood.  It  was  Smeaton's 
success  in  placing  a  stone  edifice  on 
the  dreaded  Eddystone  Rocks,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  which  gave  an 
impetus  to  lighthouse  building. 

Smeaton's  first  tower  of  solid  stone 
braved  the  elements  on  the  Eddystone 
for  123  years,  when  it  was  dismantled 
and  reerected  on  the  Hoe  at  Plymouth, 
and  another  tower  put  up  in  its  place 
on  an  adjoining  reef.  The  reason  for 
the  removal  of  the  lighthouse  was  that 
the  rock  on  which  it  stood  had  been 
worn  away  by  the  action  of  the  sea. 
Long  before  this  occurred,  however, 
it  had  been  demonstrated  that  the 
stone  tower  was  the  best  device  for 
equipping  a  wave-washed  rock  with 
a  light.  Stone  towers  sprang  into 
existence  on  dreary  rocks  around  the 
British  Isles  and  in  America. 

There  are  now  about  260  light- 
houses around  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain  alone,  and  762,  having  resi- 
dent keepers,  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States. 


50.9 


THE  nUMAy  IMEREST  LiniURY 


THE  PRESENT  BOSTON  LIGHT 

Built  In  1783  by  Massachusetts  and  ceded  to  the  United  States  In  1700 


FIRST  AMERICAN  LIGHTHOUSE  also  revolving,'  mechanism,   it  hiwm^ 

Tlu>  first  lighthouse  on  the  American  previously  been  a  fixed  li^'ht.     In  1888 

continent   Nvas  built  by  the  province  Boston    light    is   described   as    "a   re- 

of     Massachusetts,     1715-16,     on    an  volving  light,  consisting  of  14  Argand 

island  at  the  entrance  to  Boston  liar-  lanij)s,  with  parabolic  reflectors,"  the 

bor.     The    light    was    supported    by  lamps  being  "of  about  the  volume  of 

ligiit  dues  of  one  j^enny  ])er  ton,  levied  similar    lamps     in     family     use."     In 

l)y  the  recei\er  of  impost  at  Boston  on  1881)    large    reflectors    21     inches    in 

all    incoming    and    outgoing    vessels  diameter    were    fitted    to    this    light, 

except  coasters.     This  lighthouse  was  Boston    light    was    provided    with    a 

an  o})ject  of  attack  during  the  early  Fresnel  lens  in  18.51). 


part  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and 
was  burned  by  the  Americans  and 
finallv  blown  up  bv  the  British  in 
1770.  A  new  lighthouse  on  the  same 
site  was  built  in  1783  by  Massa- 
chusetts, and  this,  with  various  al- 
terations, is  the  present  Boston  light. 
Although  candles  and  even  coal 
fires  have  been  used  in  lighthouse  illu- 
mination in  England  to  a  much  later 
<lal<',  lioston  light  was  j)robably  il- 
hiiiiiiiali'd  from  the  first  by  oil  lamps. 
Ill  17S!)  the  light  was  j)ro<lu(cd  by 
1(5  lamps  in  groups  of  4.  (-rude  len.ses 
and  r((lectors  were  fitted  in  1811,  and 


Apparently  a  great  gnn  was  the 
only  fog  signal  at  this  statit)n  until 
about  185'2,  when  a  fog-bell  was  in- 
stalled. A  mechanical  striking  bell 
was  installed  in  18(5!),  in  IS?";?  a  fog 
trumpet,  and  in  1887  an  air  siren. 

The  oldest  of  the  existing  lighthouse 
structures  in  this  country  is  the  tower 
at  Sandy  Hook,  New  York,  built  in 
17G4.  The  lighthouse  at  Cape  Ilen- 
lopen,  Delaware,  was  completed  the 
same  year.  These  are  similar  in 
design — massive  structures  of  stone 
and  brick,  with  walls  7  feet  thick  at  the 
base. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


509 


SANDY  HOOK  LIGHTHOUSE,  NEW  YORK 

This  and  Cape  Henlopen  lighthouse,  both  built  in  1764,  are  the  oldest  existing  lighthouse  towers  in  this  country. 

walls  at  the  base  are  7  feet  thick. 


The 


Location  and  construction  of  light- 
houses 

The  first-class  light  and  fog-signal 
stations  are  located  at  the  more  promi- 
nent and  dangerous  points  along  the 
seaboard,  and  on  a  well-lighted  coast 
such  stations  should  be  sufficiently 
close  that  a  coasting  vessel  may 
always  be  in  sight  of  a  light.  The 
smaller  lights  are  placed  to  mark 
harbors,  inside  channels,  and  dangers. 
Along  the  navigable  rivers  numerous 
post  lights  are  maintained  to  indicate 
the  channels. 

For  New  York  harbor  and  immedi- 
ate approaches  alone  268  aids  to  navi- 
gation are  required,  including  46  shore 
lights,  two  light  vessels,  and  36  lighted 
buoys;  there  are  192  buoys  of  all 
classes  and  37  fog  signals,  including 
sounding  buoys. 


At  the  principal  stations  provision 
is  made  either  in  the  tower  or  in 
separate  buildings  for  the  mechanical 
equipment  connected  with  light  and 
fog  signal,  for  storage  of  oil  and 
supplies,  for  quarters  for  keepers  and 
their  families,  boats,  etc. 

Various  materials  have  been  em- 
ployed in  lighthouse  construction — 
stone,  brick,  iron,  steel,  concrete,  rein- 
forced concrete,  and  wood;  in  new 
work,  however,  the  latter  is  now  little 
used  because  of  the  desirability  of 
permanency. 
Wonderful  sea-swept  lighthouses 

Lighthouse  construction  on  the  land 
is  usually  comparatively  simple,  except 
when  there  is  difficulty  of  access  to  the 
site.  But  often  it  is  important  for  the 
protection  of  shipping  that  lighthouses 
be   erected   either   on   rocks   or   reefs 


Bio 


THE  HUMAN  LXTEREST  LIBRARY 


exposed  to  the  sea  or  actually  in  the 
water,  on  sand  or  rock  bottom.  Such 
work  has  called  forlli  the  ^'reatest  skill 
of  en<4incers. 

Numerous  types  of  construction 
have  heen  used.  Where  the  founda- 
tion is  exjwsed,  even  at  the  lowest 
tides,  masonry  towers  have  heen,  with 
great  labor  and  often  danj^er,  fitted  to 
the  bed-rock;  otherwise  the  structure 
has  been  erected  on  iron  piles  driven, 
screwed,  or  pumped  into  tiie  sand  or 
coral,  or  on  caissons  floated  to  the  site 
and  set  on  the  bottom  or  sunk  deeper 
by  the  pneumatic  process,  or  by  the 
use  of  coffer-dams,  within  which  the 
masonry  tower  has  been  erected; 
smaller  structures  have  been  placed  on 
rip-rap  foundations. 

The  earliest  example  now^  existing 
of  a  sea-swe|)t  lighthouse  is  the  beauti- 
ful lower  of  C'ordouan,  built  in  1584 
to  Kill,  on  a  rock  in  the  sea  at  the 
mouth  of  the  (iironde,  on  the  west 
coast    of    France.        This    lighthouse 


4^ 

4£a^^|P 

j 

1 

^  ^'     .^B 

^ 

I  1,.-  I..  ,  .  .       :  ,.:  I  i.,h., .  rii.iirde 

('•inliiijuii,  I  i>iiii>l(  ii  (1  111  liil  1  and  HliicL'  allcrcU:   lliv  olduat 
■ea-awcpi  llKbUiouM!  duw  Lu  cxlslcoco. 


has  since  been  altered  and  raised  in 
height.  The  original  structure  was 
elaborately  decorated,  and  one  floor 
was  occupied  by  a  chapel. 

The  most  famous  of  the  sea-swept 
lighthouses  is  the  Eddystone,  13  miles 
from  Plymouth  harl)or,  England.  This 
was  comj)leled  in  l(i!)!),  after  four  y<'ars 
of  work.  During  the  lirst  year  all  that 
was  accomplished  was  drilling  I'i  holes 
in  the  rock  and  fastening  irons  iu 
them.  This  lighthouse,  with  the 
keepers  and  the  engineer  who  built  it, 
disappeared  in  the  great  storm  of 
November,  170'3,  and  since  that  time 
three  other  lighthouses  have  in  succes- 
sion been  erected  on  the  Eddystone. 

MiNOTS  LEDGE  LIGHT 

The  earliest  lighthouse  built  iu  this 
country  iu  a  dangerous  position,  ex- 
posed to  the  open  ocean,  was  that  im 
INIinots  Ledge,  a  reef  off  Boston  harbor 
which  had  long  been  a  terror  to 
mariners. 

There  was  a  great  gale  in  April,  1S.51. 
"The  light  on  the  Minot  was  last  seen 
from  Cohasset  on  Wednesday  night 
at  10  o'clock.  At  1  o'clock  Tlnu'sday 
morning,  the  17th,  the  lighthouse  bell 
was  heard  on  shore,  one  and  one-half 
miles  distant;  aiul  this  being  the  hour 
(»f  high  water,  or  rather  the  turn  of  the 
ti<le,  when  from  the  oi)i)osition  of  the 
wind  and  the  tide  it  is  supposed  that 
the  sea  was  at  its  very  highest  mark; 
and  it  was  at  that  hour,  it  is  gi-nerally 
believed,  that  the  lighthouse  was 
destroyed;  at  daylight  nothing  of  it 
was  visible  from  shore,  and  hence 
it  is  most  prol)a))Ie  it  was  overthrown 
at  or  about  the  hoin*  named."  Two 
keepers  were  in  I  he  tower  ami  were 
lost,  and  this  extract  from  the  oflicial 
n^port  tells  the  story  of  one  of  the  great 
light  house  tragedies. 

The  present  massive  stone  lighthouse 
was  built  on  the  same  site  on  Minots 
Ledge,  connnenced  in  1855  and  com- 
pleted in   18G0.     It  ranks  among  the 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


311 


difficult  lighthouse  engineering  works 
of  the  world.  During  the  first  summer 
only  130  working  hours  were  obtained 
on  the  rock,  and  after  three  years' 
work  only  four  stones  of  the  founda- 
tion were  laid.  The  reef  rock  was  pre- 
pared to  fit  the  stones  of  the  lower 
courses  and  the  latter  were  cut  to  inter- 
lock. Dwellings  for  the  keepers' 
families  were  built  on  the  shore,  ac- 
commodations for  the  men  only  being 
provided  in  the  tower. 

Longfellow  visited  Minots  light  in 
1871,  and  in  a  letter  thus  describes  it: 
"The  lighthouse  rises  out  of  the  sea 
like  a  beautiful  stone  cannon,  mouth 
upward,  belching  forth  only  friendly 
fires." 
White  shoal  light 

^Yhite  Shoal,  a  dangerous  spot  in 
Lake  Michigan,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac,  was  marked  for 
19  years  by  a  light  vessel  anchored 
over  it.  On  account  of  the  ice,  this 
vessel  could  not  be  kept  on  the  station 
during  a  portion  of  the  season  of  navi- 
gation in  the  spring  and  fall.  As  the 
unmarked  shoal  was  a  serious  menace 
to  navigation  at  these  seasons,  an  ap- 
propriation was  made  for  building  a 
lighthouse,  and  this  was  completed  in 
1911  at  a  cost  of  $225,000. 

A  timber  crib  72  feet  square  and  18 
feet  high  was  built  on  shore  and 
floated  out  to  the  site,  where  the  depth 
of  water  was  22  feet.  The  bottom, 
which  is  of  coarse  gravel,  was  covered 
with  2  feet  of  rock,  and  the  crib  was 
filled  with  stone  and  sunk.  Above 
this  was  built  a  concrete  pier,  which 
supports  the  lighthouse. 

The  Hght  is  of  1,200,000  candle 
power,  flashing  white  every  8  seconds. 
In  addition  to  the  compressed  air  fog- 
whistle  there  is  a  submarine  bell 
signal,  located  in  60  feet  of  water  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  station. 
This  bell  is  supported  on  a  tripod 
standing  on  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  is 


operated  by  electric  power  transmitted 
through  a  cable  from  the  light  station, 
and  strikes  "23." 

Tillamook  rock— one  of   the  most 

EXPOSED  IN  the  WORLD 

Two  lighthouses  involving  great 
difficulties  have  been  built  on  rocky 
islets  of  the  Pacific  coast — Tillamook 
Rock,  completed  in  1881,  and  St. 
George  Reef  in  1891.  Tillamook  is  a 
high,  precipitous  rock  south  of  the 
Columbia  River  and  about  a  mile  from 
shore.  It  is  exposed  to  the  sweep  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean.     Landing  on  the  rock 


IWli  TILLAMOOK   ROCK   LIGHT   COMl'LE'lEU 

The  seas  here  are  terrific.     On  October  19,  1912,  a  wave 
broke  a  pane  of  the  lantern  132  feet  above  the  sea. 

was  very  dangerous,  and  the  foreman 
was  drowned  the  first  day  a  working 
party  was  landed.  There  was  serious 
difficulty  in  providing  any  protection 
on  the  rock  for  the  workmen.  It  was 
necessary  to  blast  off  the  top  of  the 
rock  to  secure  sufficient  room  for  the 
lighthouse. 

This  light  station  is  one  of  the  most 
exposed  in  the  world.  The  tower  is 
136  feet  above  high  water,  but  the 
keepers  reported  that  in  a  storm  in 
1887  the  seas  broke  over  the  building, 
some  going  above  the  tower,  and 
serious  damage  was  done.     In  another 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


storm  a  mass  of  concrete  "filling 
weighing  half  a  ton  was  thrown  over 
the  fence  into  the  enclosure,"  at  a 
level  of  88  feet  above  the  sea. 

St.  GEORGE  REEF  LIGHT,  CALIFORNIA 

St.  George  Reef  light  is  built  on  a 
rock  lying  6  miles  off  the  northern 
coast  of  California.  The  rock  was  so 
exposed  and  swept  by  the  seas  that 
workmen  could  not  safely  live  upon  it, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  moor  a  schooner 
near  the  rock  to  provide  quarters  for 
the  men,  who  were  transported  back 
and  forth  by  a  traveler  on  a  cable. 
The  total  cost  of  the  work  at  St. 
George  Reef  was  about  $712,000, 
making  it  the  most  expensive  light- 
house that  has  been  built  in  this 
country.  These  two  exposed  light 
stations  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  the 
only  ones  having  five  keepers. 
Famous  shore  lights 

The  tallest  light-tower  in  the  United 
States  is  that  at  Cape  Hatteras,  on  the 
low-lying  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
which  is  200  feet  from  base  to  top  of 


lantern.  The  highest  light,  however, 
is  that  at  Cape  Mendocino,  on  the 
coast  of  California,  which  is  shown  422 
feet  above  high  water;  it  is  on  a  cliff, 
the  lighthouse  itself  being  only  20  feet 
in  height. 
Troubles  from  ice,  birds,  and  sand 

Sand  creates  difficulties  at  some  light 
stations  located  among  dunes  or  shift- 
ing wastes  of  sand.  At  Cape  Hen- 
lopen  the  sand  driven  by  the  wind  has 
cut  deeply  into  the  wood  framing  of 
the  keepers'  dwellings,  and  has  ground 
the  window  glass  so  that  it  is  no  longer 
transparent;  but  the  lantern  of  the 
light  is  too  high  to  be  so  affected. 

Even  the  flj^ing  birds  make  trouble 
at  lighthouses,  as  the  brilliant  light 
so  attracts  them  that  they  will  fly 
directly  for  it,  and  striking  the  heavy 
glass  of  the  lantern  are  killed. 
From  wood  fires  and  candles  to  oil 

VAPOR  and  electric  LAMPS 

The  early  lighthouses  were  lighted 
by  wood  or  coal  fires  burned  in  open 
braziers,  and  later  by  candles  inclosed 


THE  tallest  LIGHT  TOWER  OF  THIS  COUNTRY,  200  FEET  HIGH:  THE  CAPE  HATTERAS  LIGHTHOUSE, 

NORTH  CAROLINA 

The  spiral  painting  is  to  furnish  a  distinctive  day-marls  to  mariners.  "A  light  must  be  about  200  feet  above  the 
water  to  be  seen  from  the  deck  of  a  vessel  20  nautical  miles  distant;  beyond  that  distance  the  curvature  of  the  earth  would 
prevent  a  light  at  this  elevation  being  seen." 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDI'STN]' 


SIS 


in  lanterns;  the  resulting  light  was 
necessarily  weak  and  fitful,  and  a  large 
part  was  lost  by  being  diffused  in 
directions  of  no  use  to  mariners.  Oil 
lamps  were  early  introduced  in  this 
country  and  at  the  present  time 
lamps  with  from  one  to  five  con- 
centric wicks,  and  biu'ning  a  high 
grade  of  kerosene  oil,  are  used  in  a 
majority  of  lighthouses.  For  the  more 
important  lights  the  incandescent  oil 
vapor  lamp  is  now  used.  In  this 
lamp  the  oil  is  heated  and  then  vapor- 
ized, and  is  burned  mixed  with  air 
under  a  mantle  which  is  made  in- 
candescent. 

Electric  lights  are  used  at  a  few 
light  stations  only.  The  expense  is 
too  great  to  warrant  the  employment 
of  electricity  at  many  important 
stations. 

The  electric  light  at  Navesink,  on 
the  highlands  just  south  of  New  York 
harbor,  is  the  most  powerful  coast 
light  in  the  United  States.  This  light 
shows  each  five  seconds  a  flash  of  one- 
tenth  second  duration  estimated  at  60 
million  candle  power.  Although,  on 
account  of  the  curvature  of  the  earth, 
the  light  itself  cannot  be  seen  more 
than  22  miles,  its  beam  has  been 
reported  to  have  been  observed  in  the 
sky  at  a  distance  of  70  nautical  miles. 
Powerful    reflectors,     lenses,    and 

PRISMS  ARE  used 

In  order  to  increase  the  effective- 
ness of  illumination,  reflectors,  lenses, 
and  prisms  are  used  to  concentrate  the 
light  and  throw  it  out  either  in  a  plane 
around  the  horizon  or  in  a  beam  or 
limited  arc,  where  it  will  be  most  useful. 

With  the  most  complete  lenses 
about  60  per  cent  of  the  light  is 
rendered  useful,  the  balance  being 
lost  at  the  top  and  bottom  and  by 
absorption  of  the  glass  of  the  lens  and 
the  lantern.  The  largest  lens  in  service 
is  that  at  Makapuu  Point  light, 
Hawaii,  which  is  8|  feet   in  diameter. 


A     BEAUTIFUL     GLASS     LENS     AND     MOUNTING 
RECENTLY     BUILT     IN     FRANCE     FOR     THE 
KILAUEA      LIGHTHOUSE      NOW      UNDER 
CONSTRUCTION    IN    THE    HAWAIIAN 
ISLANDS 
It  will  be  the  landfall  light  approaching  the  islands  from 
Japan.     The  light  will  give  a  double  flash  of  940,000  candle 
power  every  10  seconds.     The  lens  and  mounting  "weighs 
nearly  4  tons  and  turns  on  a  mercury  float,   making  a 
complete  revolution  every  20  seconds  and  giving  a  double 
flash  of  about  940,000  candle  power  every   10  seconds. 
The  light  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  be  visible  40  miles, 
but  because  of  the  earth's  curvature  it  can  be  seen  only 
21  miles." 

The  most  powerful  flashing  lights 
are  arranged  to  have  the  entire  lens 
revolve,  the  beam  from  each  panel  of 
the  lens  appearing  as  a  flash  as  it 
sweeps  past  the  observer.  To  obtain 
rapid  and  smooth  revolution,  the  lens 
is  mounted  on  a  mercury  float,  and  a 
lens  weighing,  with  fittings,  as  much 
as  7  tons  may  make  a  complete  revolu- 
tion in  30  seconds. 

A  recent  example  is  the  lens     for 
Kilauea      light      station,      Hawaiian 
Islands. 
Buoys 

Floating  buoys  are  efiicient  and 
relatively  inexpensive  aids  to  naviga- 
tion. They  are  used  to  mark  dangers 
— as  shoals,  rocks,  or  wrecks — to 
indicate  the  limits  of  navigable  chan- 
nels, or  to  show  the  approach  to  a 
channel.     They     varv     in     character 


3U 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


A   BELL  BUOY  TAKEN   ON  BOARD  LIGHTHOUSE  TENDER 

Shows  marine  growth  and  the  necessity  for  periodic  cleaning  and  painting  of  buoys 


AN  UNATTENDED  LIGHT  VESSEL  ON  THE  COAST  OF  ENGLAND 

!♦  has  no  crew,  and  is  equipped  with  flashing  gas  light,  aerial  fog  bell,  and  submarine  log  bell,  all  automatic.     The  beUs 
are  operated  by  the  motion  o(  the  vessel  In  the  aea. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


315 


according  lo  their  purpose  or  the 
distance  at  which  they  should  be  seen. 
The  simpler  forms  are  the  wooden  and 
iron  spar  buoys,  and  iron  can  and  nun 
buoys.  For  warxiing  in  thick  weather, 
buoys  are  fitted  with  bells,  whistles, 
and  submarine  bells,  all  actuated  by 
the  motion  of  the  sea. 

Some  important  buoys  are  lighted, 
usually  by  means  of  oil  gas  com- 
pressed in  the  buoy  itself  or  acetylene 
gas  compressed  in  tanks  placed  in  the 
buoy  or  generated  in  it. 

The  buoy  off  the  entrance  to  Am- 
brose Channel,  New  York  harbor,  at  a 
height  of  27  feet  above  the  water, 
shows  a  light  of  810  candle  power, 
occulting  every  10  seconds  and  visible 
10  miles.  This  buoy  recently  burned 
for  one  year  and  four  months  without 
recharging.  The  buoy  is  nearly  60 
feet  long  and  weighs  over  17  tons. 


FOG  SIGNALS 

The  most  powerful  coast  lights  may 
be  rendered  of  little  or  no  use  to  navi- 
gation by  thick  fog  or  rain.  To  assist 
vessels  under  such  conditions,  making 
their  course  more  safe  or  allowing 
them  to  proceed,  fog  signals  of  many 
sorts  have  been  established.  Of  these 
the  bell  is  the  most  common. 

The  fog  signals  now  in  use  in  the 
United  States,  consist  of  sirens, 
whistles,  reed  trumpets,  aerial  bells, 
and  submarine  bells.  Sirens  and 
whistles  are  operated  by  compressed 
air  or  steam,  and  trumpets  by  com- 
pressed air.  To  furnish  air,  com- 
pressors driven  by  internal  combustion 
engines  are  used,  and  for  steam  signals 
boilers  are  employed.  The  larger  fog 
bells,  up  to  4000  pounds,  have  hammers 
actuated  by  a  weight  and  clockwork. 
The  smaller  bells   are  rung  by  hand. 


There  is  nothing  sailors  dread  more  than  a  fog,  when  lighthouses  and  lightships  become  useless.  The  sailors  are  like 
men  deprived  of  their  sight.  Then  it  is  that  the  foghorns  begin  to  sound.  A  foghorn  is  often  heard  for  twenty  miles,  but 
in  some  weathers  only  for  one  or  two  miles.     This  picture  shows  the  Bass  Rock  foghorn. 


316 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


g"^:  ■' 


KTft^ 


THE    RACINE    RI.l.I      I  It  .111  IIOl  SK,    IN    LAKE 
MICHIGAN,   COVERED  WITH  ICE 

Winter  seriously  increases  the  work  of  maintaining  aids 
to  navigation;  the  spray  or  sleet  freezing  may  completely 
envelop  the  tower  in  ice,  obscu-ing  the  light  until  the 
lantern  is  cleared.  In  northern  waters,  w'here  there  is 
floating  ice,  many  of  the  gas  buoys  must  be  removed  in 
winter  and  replaced  by  spar  buoys,  over  which  the  ice  may 
pass  without  serious  damage  to  the  buoy.  The  spray 
freezes  to  bell  buoys  sometimes  until  the  weight  of  ice 
overturns  them. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  various 
noise-making  buoys;  bells,  whistles, 
and  submarine  bells  are  attached  to 
buovs  and  are  made  to  sound  by  the 


movement  of  the  buoy  due  to  the  sea. 
Nearly  all  fog  signals  excepting  those 
on  buoys  are  operated  to  sound  a 
characteristic  signal  so  that  they  may 
be  distinguished,  there  being  a  suc- 
cession of  blasts  or  groups  of  blasts 
or  strokes  at  regular  time  intervals, 
which  are  made  known  for  each  station . 
Even  adjacent  buoj'^s  are  differentiated 
by  the  use  of  whistles  and  bells  and  by 
variation  of  tone. 
Submarine  bells 

Submarine  bells  were  first  regularly 
employed  as  fog  signals  in  the  United 
States  in  190G.  The  bell  is  suspended 
in  the  water  from  a  light  vessel  to  a 
depth  of  25  to  30  feet  and  is  operated 
by  compressed  air,  or  the  bell  is 
mounted  on  a  tripod  on  the  bottom 
and  worked  by  electric  power  trans- 
mitted from  the  shore  through  a  cable, 
or  it  is  suspended  from  a  buoy  and 
actuated  bv  the  motion  of  the  sea, 
which  moves  a  vane  and  winds  a 
spring.  Submarine  bells  have  fre- 
c[uently  been  heard  through  the  water 
at  distances  of  15  miles  and  more. 


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AN  UNATTENDED  FLASHING  G.V.S   LIGHT  ON   RICHARUSO.N  S   ROCK,     GALII  0RN:.\. 

This  light  will  flash  every  three  seconds  for  seven  months  before  it  requires  another  charge  of  gas.     This  would  be 
a  difficult  and  expensive  site  on  which  to  establish  a  regular  lighthouse  with  keeper's  quarters. 


HOW  LIFE  SAVING  BELLS  ARE  FIXED  AND  WORKED 


HiaswaM^ifiMttaB^Mi 


g^g^^ggg^ig^ai 


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asmm 


^j^H.*.i,H  ..^.^^  ^ 


iteMlk 


■"•'-•■        --^--^-^^ 


A.  Position  of  receiving  apparatus  in  bow  ot  siiip.  B.  Tripod  and  beil  altutlied  to  a  iiglitliouse.  C.  Electric  cable. 
D.  Diver  laying  a  submarine  bell.  E.  Submarine  bell  suspended  from  a  lightship.  ¥.  Submarine  bell  buoy. 
G.   Handworked  boat  gong. 


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S18 


HARNESSING     THE     WORLD'S     GREAT    WATERFALLS 


THE   POWER  OF  A  DROP  OF  WATER 


PROBABLY  nothing  in  the  uni- 
verse is  regarded  by  the  ma- 
jority of  people  as  of  less  im- 
•portance  than  a  drop  of  water.  If  we 
want  to  say  how  insignificant  a  thing 
is,  and  how  little  work  it  can  accom- 
plish, we  usually  say  it  is  like  "a  drop 
in  the  ocean."  And  yet  the  power  in 
a  drop  of  water  is  so  vast  that,  added 
to  the  power  in  every  other  drop,  it 
could  do  all  the  work  of  the  world  a 
thousand  times  over.  This  is  no  new 
discovery,  for  it  has  been  known  from 
very  early  times.  Solomon  had  dis- 
covered the  power  of  water  when  he 
wrote,  "A  continual  dropping  weareth 
away  stone."  But  it  is  only  now,  in 
these  davs  in  which  we  live,  that  men 
are  making  practical  use  of  the  tre- 
mendous fact  that  water  has  stored 
up  in  it  energy  enough  to  light  our 
cities,  drive  our  machinery,  and  move 
our  trains — energy  so  tremendous 
that  the  power  of  coal  and  steam  are 
weak  and  old-fashioned  compared 
with  it. 

It  has  been  stated  by  a  great  en- 
gineer that  within  a  very  few  years, 
in  all  those  countries  that  have  water- 
falls and  swiftly  flowing  rivers,  trains 
will  no  longer  be  driven  by  steam,  and 
streets  be  lighted  by  gas,  but  electricity 
will  be  used  for  everything,  not  only 
because  it  is  so  much  better,  but  be- 
cause it  will  be  cheaper  than  any  other 
kind  of  power.  And  this  mighty  step 
forward  will  all  be  due  to  the  power 
that  lies  in  a  drop  of  water. 

If  we  put  our  finger  under  the 
water-faucet  and  then  turn  on  the 
water,  we  find  that  the  water  presses 
with  such  force  against  the  finger  that 
it  cannot  be  held  in,  but  spurts  out  all 
around.     ^Miat,    then,    must    be    the 


accumulated  force  of  a  mighty  mass  of 
water  falling  from  a  great  height. 

The  world  over  men  are  now  har- 
nessing the  force  of  falling  water,  which 
for  thousands  of  years  has  been  Tun- 
ing to  waste.  The  most  notable 
example  of  this  is  that  of  Niagara. 

Long  ago,  engineers  realized  that 
if  only  a  fraction  of  the  water  could 
be  harnessed,  Niagara  Falls  could 
be  made  to  do  a  vast  amount 
of  work.  It  has  been  estimated  by 
some  expert  that  the  power  running 
to  waste  at  the  falls  is  equal  to 
five  million  horsepower,  more  than 
double  that  of  all  the  coal  mined  in 
the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  if  that  were 
used  in  furnaces  and  turned  into  steam. 
This  power  is  worth  tens  of  millions  of 
dollars  a  year,  and  yet,  until  recently, 
all  that  it  has  done  has  been  to  wear 
away  a  deep  bed  for  the  river  in  the 
solid  rock. 
Period  of  discovery 

The  Niagara  Falls  were  only  dis- 
covered by  white  men  in  1678,  and 
it  has  been  said  that  up  to  that  time 
the  roaring  waters  had  been  feared. 
Then  they  were  admired,  and  now,  at 
last,  they  are  being  used  to  develop 
the  greatest  electrical  power  plant  in 
the  world.  This  development  is  the 
pioneer   and   leader   of   the   electrical 


age. 


The  Niagara  River  falls  300  feet  in 
five  miles,  50  feet  in  the  upper  rapids, 
165  feet  at  the  falls  and  85  feet  in  the 
lower  river.  In  its  entire  length  of 
36  miles,  the  river  falls  326  feet.  The 
total  power-producing  capacity  of 
the  great  cataracts  is  estimated  at 
from  five  million  to  seven  million 
horsepower,  and  five  companies  are 
now  developing  about  450,000  horse- 


319 


320 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


power  on  both  the  American  and 
Canadian  sides  of  the  river.  The 
average  flow  of  the  river  is  122,400 
cubic  feet  per  second.  A  flow  of  one 
cubic  foot  per  second  equals  one 
square  mile  of  water  1.16  inches  deep 
in  a  30-day  month.  The  flow  of  the 
Niagara  River  is  furnished  by  six 
thousand  cubic  miles  or  from  four 
lakes  having  90,000  square  miles 
of  reservoir  space.  The  extreme  width 
of  the  river  is  one  mile,  and  the  two 
channels  above  the  falls  are  3800  feet 
wide.  The  American  fall  is  165  feet 
high  and  one  thousand  feet  wide,  and 
the  Horseshoe  falls  is  159  feet  high  and 
2600  feet  in  width.  The  greatest 
depth  of  the  river  just  below  the  falls 
is  192  feet.  The  power  of  the  Niagara 
Rapids  and  falls  is  estimated  to  equal 
the  power  available  or  being  generated 
from  all  the  coal  mined  daily — about 
200,000  tons.  The  flow  of  water 
over  the  Falls  of  Niagara  is  about 
25  million  tons  an  hour  or  one  cubic 
mile  per  week. 
Beginning  of  power  development 

The  beginning  of  the  project  of  the 
electrical  development  of  power  at 
Niagara  Falls  was  the  passage  by  the 
New  York  Legislature  of  a  special 
charter  in  1886,  granting  to  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  the 
right  to  develop  120,000  horsepower 
for  a  tunnel.  The  projectors  esti- 
mated that  120,000  horsepower  ex- 
ceeds the  theoretical  power  at 
Lawrence,  Holyoke,  Lowell,  Tur- 
ners Falls,  Manchester,  Windsor 
Locks,  Bellows  Falls,  and  Cohoes, 
and  exceeds  the  power  actually  de- 
veloped at  these  places  and  at  Augusta, 
Paterson  and  Minneapolis.  The  com- 
pany was  then  given  the  right  to  con- 
struct a  tunnel  with  a  capacity  of 
100,000  horsepower  more. 

The  work  of  excavation  for  the 
tunnel  was  started  October,  1890. 
The  intake  canal,  one  and  one-quarter 


miles  above  the  falls,  is  250  feet  wide, 
twelve  feet  deep  and  1200  feet  long. 
The  wheelpit  is  178  feet  deep.  The 
tunnel  is  7-181  feet  long  and  the  in- 
terior dimensions  21  feet  by  185  feet 
six  inches.  It  runs  about  200  feet 
below  the  City  of  Niagara  Falls.  The 
velocity  of  the  water  flowing  through 
it  is  about  20  miles  an  hour,  the  slope 
being  six  feet  in  one  thousand  feel. 
In  excavating  for  it  300,000  tons 
of  rock  were  taken  out.  For  lining 
it  16  million  bricks  were  used. 
The  initial  installation  was  for 
15,000  horsepower.  This  company 
and  its  auxiliary,  the  Canadian  Ni- 
agara Power  Company,  are  now  de- 
veloping about  160,000  horsepower 
and  diverting  less  than  four  per- 
cent of  the  flow  of  the  river.  Its 
generators  are  of  5000  and  5500 
horsepower  in  its  two  power  houses 
at  Niagara  Falls,  New  York,  and  of 
10,000  horsepower  at  its  plant  at 
Niagara  Falls,  Ontario. 
Output  of  five  power  stations 

Today  electrical  energy  equal  to 
580,000  horsepower  is  obtained  from 
this  single  waterfall.  This  is  the  com- 
bined output  of  the  five  power  stations 
that  dot  the  banks  of  the  Niagara 
River.  Two  are  on  American  terri- 
tory and  three  on  Canadian  soil. 
The  latter  are  far  and  away  the  largest 
institutions  of  their  kind  in  existence, 
generating  110,000,  125,000,  and  180,- 
000  horsepower  respectively. 

Here  it  may  be  mentioned  that  one 
horsepower  represents  the  hard  labor 
of  at  least  ten  men,  so  that  the 
Niagara  development  of  today  seems, 
at  first  glance,  to  represent  the  energy 
of  5,800,000  men.  But  man  has 
elected  to  work  no  more  than  eight 
hours  a  day,  while  Niagara  gives  out 
its  power  from  sunrise  to  sunrise, 
so  that  the  Niagara  development 
stands  for  the  force  of  17,400,000  able- 
bodied  men. 


WE  CAN  SEE  AT  A  GLANCE  IN  THIS  PICTURE  HOW 
THE     NIAGARA      FALLS     ARE      HARNESSED 


g   4)   M 

5  o« 


S«l 


THE     GIGANTIC     WHEEL     TURNED     BY     NIAGARA 


This  picture,  showing  the  outside  of  a  turbine,  gives  some  idea  of  the  tremendous  size  of  these  marvelous  steel  water- 
wheels.  The  wheel  that  revolves  Inside  this  will  generate  enough  electricity  to  light  a  town,  and  the  entire  turbine  weighs 
ISO  tons. 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


S2» 


HOW  POWER  IS  GENERATED  AND  CONTROLLED 


X'/ 


INTERIOR  OF  GENERATING  STATION,  ONTARIO  POWER  COMPANY 


CONTROL  ROOM.  ONTARIO  POWER  COMPANY 


Sn  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

Putting  Niagara  to  work  in  this  fashion  that  all  water  passing  through 
fashion  has  resulted  in  a  great  manu-  the  cylinder  must  push  the  vanes  aside 
facturing  city  arising  on  the  American  in  its  course,  imparting  to  them,  and 
side  of  the  falls,  in  which  not  a  single  therefore  to  their  axis,  a  circular  mo- 
steam-engine  pants,  though  coal  is  tion.  Attached  to  the  turbines  are 
very  cheap  in  the  locality.  Even  in  revolving  shafts  of  steel  reaching  up 
Buff  alo,  where  coal  costs  only  a  nominal  to  the  generators  in  the  power  house 
sum,  electric  power,  transmitted  23  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  which 
miles  from  the  falls,  has  completely  operate  the  dynamos  and  thus  pro- 
ousted  steam — a  fact  which  is  not  a  duce  the  electrical  energy, 
matter  of  astonishment,  considering  In  the  case  of  the  new  Canadian 
that  the  generating  companies  supply  power  houses,  the  tunnels  or  pen- 
current  at  the  rate  of  $25  per  year  stocks  are  of  immense  size,  and  were 
per  horsepower,  running  continuously,  laboriously  cut  through  the  solid  rock. 
Every  year  the  great  electrical  ten-  The  largest  is  11  feet  in  diameter.  At 
tacles  reach  out  farther  and  farther,  their  bases  there  are  deep  wheel-pits 
and  grip  town  after  town.  Already  in  which  the  various  turbines  do  their 
the  street  cars  of  Syracuse  on  the  east  mighty  work.  To  get  rid  of  the  water 
and  Toronto  on  the  west — ^250  miles  after  it  has  passed  through  the  tur- 
apart — are  operated  by  Niagara  power,  bines,  channels  have  been  bored 
as  is  also  a  section  of  the  Erie  Railway,  through  the  rock  on  a  gentle  gradient 
150  miles  distant.  Within  a  short  to  points  below  the  falls. 
time  from  now  towns  300  miles  away  Driving  a  tail-race 
and  more  will  be  tapping  the  energy  The  tunnel,  or  "tail-race,"  of  the 
of  the  famous  falls.  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  the 
No  VISIBLE  WHEELS  WHICH  INDICATE  fi^st  to  be  crccted,  is  7000  feet  long, 
POWER  with  a  maximum  section  of  21  feet  by 

There  are  stories  told  of  tourists  18  feet  10  inches.  The  driving  of 
visiting  the  falls  who,  after  being  im-  this  tunnel  occupied  1000  men  con- 
pressed  by  their  grandeur,  ask,  "Where  tinuously  for  three  years,  required 
are  the  wheels  from  which  the  power  the  removal  of  300,000  tons  of  rock, 
is  obtained?"  As  a  matter  of  fact,  and  consumed  16,000,000  bricks  for 
there  is  nothing  at  all  at  the  falls  its  lining.  Add  the  quarrying  out  of 
themselves  to  indicate  that  man  has  123,455  cubic  yards  of  rock  for  the 
in  any  way  harnessed  them  for  his  wheel-pits,  and  it  will  be  realized  that 
benefit.  But  at  five  points  on  the  here  a  very  considerable  engineering 
river,  above  the  falls,  there  are  little  feat  has  been  performed, 
dams  or  openings  into  which  the  Of  the  Canadian  power-stations  the 
water  runs,  and,  by  falling  upon  tur-  largest  is  that  belonging  to  the  On- 
bines  laid  deep  down  in  the  bowels  tario  Power  Company,  the  output  of 
of  the  earth,  generates  the  power,  which  is  180,000  horsepower.  Its  erec- 
These  turbines  are  in  all  cases  situated  tion  was  a  bold  and  daring  undertak- 
from  170  to  180  feet  below  the  surface  ing.  About  a  mile  above  the  falls  a 
of  the  river,  and  the  water  is  supplied  great  wall  600  feet  long  was  built  out 
through  vertical  pipes,  known  as  obliquely  into  the  river,  slanting 
penstocks.  downstream.     From  here  water  passes 

A  turbine  is  composed  of  a  number  into  the  tunnel  and  down  on  to  the 

of  vanes  set  spoke-wise  round  an  axis,  turbines    in   the    giant    wheel-pit,    an 

and  enclosed  in  a  cylinder  in  such  a  ingenious  arrangement  of  sluice-gates 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


325 


and  gratings  keeping  back  any  ice 
that  is  brought  down  by  the  river 
during  the  winter  months.  The  tun- 
nel or  penstock  is  7  feet  by  15  feet, 
and  from  its  base  a  lateral  tunnel,  8 
feet  by  15  feet,  has  been  driven  out, 
400  feet  back  of  the  Horseshoe  Fall, 
to  carry  off  the  "dead"  water. 

The  piercing  of  the  rocky  cliff  in  the 
rear  of  the  Horseshoe  Fall  by  this 
lateral  tunnel  was  one  of  the  most 
notable  engineering  exploits  Niagara 
has  known  in  connection  with  its  mag- 
nificent power  development. 

So  far  as  the  power-houses  are  con- 
cerned, all  that  the  visitor  detects  are 
rows  of  mighty  dynamos,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  while  he  is  conscious  of 
a  ceaseless  hum.  This  is  caused  by 
the  armatures  as  they  spin  round  at  a 
speed  of  1500  revolutions  per  minute. 
The  outcome  of  this  activity  is  that 
power  is  generated,  and,  by  means  of 
specially  designed  cables,  carried  to 
distant  places  to  be  used  as  desired. 

In  the  same  way  man  has  harnessed 
the  famous  Victoria  Falls,  on  the 
Zambesi,  in  South  Africa.  These  falls 
have  a  drop  of  close  upon  400  feet  and 
are  more  than  a  mile  in  width.  Their 
potential  energy  is  estimated  to  be 
fully  35,000,000  horsepower,  several 
times  as  great  as  that  of  Niagara. 
Here  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  if 
the  whole  of  the  waterfalls  of  Europe, 
both  large  and  small,  were  utilized  in 
the  service  of  man  tomorrow,  they 
would  not  aggregate  more  horsepower 
than  that  which  could  be  obtained 
from  this  single  waterfall  in  South 
Africa.  So  far  man  has  only  tapped 
a  fraction  of  this  enormous  energy 
now  running  to  waste  at  the  "Roaring 
of  the  Waters,"  namely,  some  150,000 
horsepower,  less  than  one  two-hun- 
dredth part  of  the  whole. 

As  Niagara  and  the  Victoria  Falls 
have  been  harnessed  so,  no  doubt,  in 
course  of  time,  the  same  fate  will  over- 


take the  Yguazu  Falls  situated  on  the 
river  of  that  name,  a  tributary  of  the 
Parana,  in  South  America.  These 
falls  are  over  two  miles  wide  and  have 
a  drop  of  215  feet.  Here  is  continu- 
ally running  to  waste  some  14,000,000 
horsepower. 
Famous  European  waterfalls 

The  great  waterfalls  of  Europe  have 
long  been  harnessed  to  the  service  of 
man.  The  Rhine  Falls  at  Schaff- 
hausen,  the  most  voluminous  of  Euro- 
pean waterfalls,  now  generate  elec- 
tricity for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Then 
the  Rjukan  Falls  of  the  Maan-Elf 
River,  in  the  Norwegian  province  of 
Telemarken,  have  been  tamed  re- 
cently, a  125,000  horsepower  plant 
having  been  erected  there.  This  is  the 
highest  waterfall  in  Europe.  The 
principal  fall  is  800  feet  high,  and  the 
total  height  of  the  two  chief  falls  with 
the  intervening  rapids  amounts  to 
1837  feet,  while  the  average  flow  of 
water  is  1760  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  Falls  of  Trollhattan,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  Scandinavian  waterfalls, 
now  work  for  man,  generating  some- 
thing like  40,000  horsepower.  In- 
deed, the  total  energy  man  obtains 
today  from  falling  water,  in  Europe 
alone,  represents,  it  is  estimated,  not 
less  than  8,650,000  horsepower.  Yet 
we  are  but  on  the  verge  of  a  revolution 
in  our  methods  of  obtaining  energy  for 
locomotion,  lighting,  heating,  and 
factory  operations,  for  there  are  many 
falls  and  large  volumes  of  water 
still  running  free  that  are  capable  of 
being  tamed  for  man's  service. 

Electric  current  is  sold  by  the  horse- 
power and  also  by  measure  and  watt 
hour.  The  volt  is  the  unit  of  electri- 
cal current.  A  volt  multiplied  by  an 
ampere  is  a  watt.  A  watt  is  the  unit 
of  electrical  power.  One  thousand 
watts  make  a  kilowatt.  Seven  hun- 
dred and  forty-six  watts  make  one 
horsepower. 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE  KEOKUK  DAM  ACROSS  THE  FATHER  OF  WATERS 

FOR  more  than  half  a  century 
dwellers  upon  either  shore  of 
the  Mississippi  near  the  Des 
Moines  rapids  have  watched  the 
rushing  waters  and  longed  for  the  day 
when  the  mighty  river  should  be 
harnessed  for  the  benefit  of  mankind. 
For  many  years  such  an  undertaking 
was  impossible.  But  the  advent  of 
the  "concrete  age"  has  enlarged  the 
powers  of  the  engineer  and  the  won- 
derful development  of  the  Middle 
West  has  at  last  furnished  the  capital 
essential  to  the  stupendous  under- 
taking. 

This  greatest  of  all  water-power 
developments  is  the  outgrowth  of 
public  energy  exerted  continuously 
over  a  long  series  of  years,  although 
the  last  ten  years  only  were  the  ones 
productive  of  tangible  results.  The 
work  was  started  by  the  organization 
of  a  small  corporation,  consisting 
really  of  the  people  of  Keokuk,  Iowa, 
and  Hamilton,  111.,  organized  to  facili- 
tate action,  the  money  necessary  to 
launch  the  enterprise  being  paid  from 
the  respective  city  treasuries. 


Safeguarding    the    rights    of    the 

PUBLIC 

Upon  petition  Congress  accorded 
to  this  corporation  the  rights  and 
franchises  essential  to  the  construction 
of  a  dam  at  Keokuk.  But  the  act 
granting  the  franchise  placed  every 
detail  of  the  work  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  War  Department.  It 
was  also  provided  that  a  colossal  lock 
of  the  Panama  type  should  be  con- 
structed and  an  immense  dry  dock, 
and  that  these  should  become  the 
property  of  the  Federal  Government 
and  yet  be  perpetually  operated  at 
the  expense  of  the  corporation. 

The  Government  also  secured  deep- 
water  navigation  for  sixty-five  miles 
above  the  proposed  dam. 


Searching  for  capital  to  build  the 

DAM 

The  local  corporation,  after  receiv- 
ing its  franchise  from  Congress,  began 
a  search  for  some  one  to  take  over 
its  rights  and  construct  the  dam.  It 
finally  came  in  contact  with  Hugh  L. 
Cooper,  who  had  built  many  large 
water  plants,  including  the  great  one 
at  Niagara  Falls.  He  became  much 
interested  in  the  Keokuk  project  and 
a  few  years  later  he  built  the  great 
dam  and  as  its  chief  engineer  at- 
tained international  fame. 

But  the  intervening  years  were 
nerve-racking  ones.  The  first  fifty- 
eight  capitalists  Mr.  Cooper  ap- 
proached turned  him  away  coldly, 
saying  the  proposition  could  not  be 
made  a  success.  He  spent  all  his 
own  assets  in  the  search  for  capital. 
Just  before  the  five  years  provided  in 
the  franchise  for  beginning  work  ex- 
pired, Stone  &  Webster,  a  Boston 
financial  house,  heavily  interested  in 
public  utilities  throughout  the  coun- 
try, agreed  to  finance  the  proposition 
and  gather  the  capital  for  it,  which 
they  did,  largely  in  Europe. 

A  year  was  spent  partly  in  con- 
struction, but  chiefly  in  assembling  an 
organization  of  hundreds  of  engineers, 
thousands  of  workmen  and  over  a 
million  dollars'  worth  of  machinery, 
most  of  it  built  from  original  designs 
for  the  work.  Then  the  entire  dam 
was  rushed  to  completion  in  about  two 
years,  although  it  contains  the  same 
amount  of  masonry  as  the  great 
pyramid  of  Cheops  which  is  said  to 
have  required  for  its  building  the 
labor  of  a  hundred  thousand  men  for 
about  a  hundred  years. 
The  largest  power  dam  in  the  world 

The  Keokuk  dam,  the  largest  power 
dam  in -the  world  extends  for  nine- 
tenths  of  a  mile  from  the  Illinois  bluffs 
across  the  ri'^'er  to  its  junction  with  the 


THE    KEOKUK     DAM,    LOCK    AND    DRY    DOCK 


The  Keukuk  waterpower  jiist  previous  to  its  completion,  showing  tlie  dam  stretching  across  the  Mississippi  to  the 
power  house  which  extends  down  the  river  to  the  government  loclt  In  the  foreground.  Between  the  lock  and  the  reader  Is 
the  dry  dock  partially  completed.  This  lock  and  dry  dock  belong  to  the  United  States  after  being  completed  at  the  cost 
of  the  company. 


The  world's  greatest  power  (lam  uuiii  uctos.s  the  Mississippi  to  join  the  power  house  lu  the  iiisiaiiee  ou  iiie  luwa  cule 
of  the  river. 


The  colossal  Keokuk  lock  la  tbe  Missiasiuui  aa  wide  as  those  at  Panama  and  with  a  higher  lilt  than  any  one  lock  ou  thtt 
Isthmua. 

SS7 


338 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


power-house  near  the  Iowa  side  of  the  of  over  one  hundred  square  miles,  and 
Mississippi.  The  power-house  extends  its  surface  is  kept  constantly  at  the 
down  the  river  and  is  one-third  of  a  same  height  by  opening  or  closing 
mile  long,  half  a  city  block  wude,  and  gates  in  the  dam  as  the  stage  of  water 
as  high  as  a  fifteen-story  building,  in  the  river  changes. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  power  house,  The  giant  power  house 
between  it  and  the  Iowa  shore,  is  the  The  power  house  has  thirty  identical 
great  lock,  as  wide  as  those  at  Panama  units,  each  composed  of  a  gigantic 
and  wuth  a  higher  lift  than  any  of  water  wheel  connected  by  a  shaft 
them.  Between  the  lock  and  the  with  a  mammoth  electric  generator 
west  bank  of  the  river  is  the  mam-  above  it.  Each  of  these  wheels  is 
moth  dry 
dock  in 
which  boats 
are  built  and 
repaired. 
The  upper 
end  of  the 
forebay  is 
closed  with 
a  massive 
con  Crete 
drift  skim- 
mer. The 
total  length 
of  the  work 
is  ten  feet 
less  than  two 
and  one-half 
miles;  all 
solid  c  o  n  - 
Crete.  The 
concrete  ma- 
sonry is  set 
down  into 
the  hard 
limestone 
bottom  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  which  was  exca-     through  immense  transformers  which 


One  of  the  thirty  titanic  turbines  of  the  Keokuk  water-power  plant, 
several  times  as  large  as  any  ever  built  before.  It  weighs  several  hundred 
thousand  pounds  and  revolves  with  the  power  of  ten  thousand  horses. 


over  f  o  u  r 
times  as 
large  in  di- 
mensions as 
any  ever 
built  before. 
They  were 
hauled  on  a 
car  built  for 
the  purpose, 
after  the 
water  tank 
spouts  and 
coal  chutes 
had  been  re- 
moved along 
the  route 
from  the 
foundry  in 
Ohio  to  Keo- 
kuk. From 
the  largest 
generators 
ever  built 
the  electric 
current  is 
conducted 


vated  for  that  purpose  inside  cofferdams, 
one  of  which  enclo.sed  thirty-five  acres. 
The  dam  is  fifty-three  feet  high, 
forty-two  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and 
twenty-nine   feet   wide   on   top,    and 


step  it  up  to  110,000  volts  at 
which  pressure  it  goes  over  the  trans- 
mission line  to  St.  Louis  and  inter- 
mediate cities.  This  transmission  line 
consists  of  six  large  copper  cables  sup- 


consists  of  119  arched  spans,  between  ported   on   steel   towers   standing   on 

the  piers  of  which  are  spillways  over  concrete    pillars.     The    total    power 

which  the  water  flows;    each  spillway  developed  on  the  water  wheel  shafts 

being  topped  by  a  huge  steel  gate,  is  300,408  horsepower,  and  after  de- 

The  lake  above  the  dam  has  an  area  ducting   losses   there   remain   200,000 


BOOK  OF  EXGIXEERIXG  AND  INDUSTRY 


329 


horsepower  to  be  used  in  manufactur- 
ing. The  power  developed  in  that 
one  power  house  is  greater  than  the 
total  water-power  generated  in  any 
state  in  the  Union  save  three — Maine, 
California  and  New  York. 
The  wonderful  lock  gates 

The  features  of  the  lock  are  the  re- 
sult of  its  exceptional  size.  The 
lower  gates  weigh  a  million  pounds 
and  the  sag  strain  on  the  top  of  the 
hinges  is  364,000  pounds  in  each  of 
the  two  gates.  Yet  they  move  so 
easily  that  only  a  little  force  is  re- 
quired to  swing  them  open  or  shut, 
and  they  meet  in  the  middle  of  the 
lock  so  perfectly  that  there  is  no  more 
leakage  of  water  than  the  quantity  one 
may  wring  from  a  pocket  handker- 
chief. The  upper  gate  is  a  marvel  of 
mechanical  engineering  and  is  a  bas- 
ically new  invention  in  lock  gates. 
The  work  has  attracted  the  attention 
of  economists  on  account  of  its  great 
efiPects  on  the  Middle  West  and  the 
entire  Union  by  its  influence  on  manu- 
facturing. Most  of  the  water  power 
in  operation  in  the  United  States  is 
around  the  borders  of  the  country  and 
is  used  chiefly  for  lighting  and  traction 
power  because  its  distance  from  raw 
material  and  markets  lessens  its 
value  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

Disposal  of  the  electricity  gener- 
ated 

This  Keokuk  water  power  of  colos- 
sal size  is  in  the  very  center  of  the 
populous  Mississippi  Valley  where  its 
electric  power  is  especially  available  to 
energize  machines  in  factories.  It  is 
intended  specifically  for  that  use.     It 


produces  many  times  enough  power  to 
supply  the  manufactures  now  in  its 
sphere  of  influence,  and  a  vast  amount 
of  manufacturing  must  be  moved  into 
its  power  zone  to  consume  the  electric 
current  now  produced.  The  trans- 
mission lines  run  to  Burlington,  Iowa, 
40  miles  to  the  north  and  to  St.  Louis, 
150  miles  to  the  south,  tapping  inter- 
mediate cities.  The  current  is  spe- 
cially available  at  Keokuk,  Iowa,  and 
Hamilton,  Illinois,  at  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  gigantic  work. 
A    new   industrial   district    in   the 

COUNTRY'S  heart 

The  proprietary  company  recog- 
nized that  its  large  quantity  of  power 
could  not  be  sold  quickly  to  factories 
brought  into  the  power  zone  and  early 
began  a  campaign  to  build  up  a  new 
industrial  district  in  the  heart  of  the 
country.  To  this  end  it  is  assisting 
each  of  the  cities  in  the  power  zone  to 
make  themselves  attractive  to  manu- 
facturers and  factory  operatives.  It 
is  based  on  the  greater  economy  in 
electric  power  produced  by  water  over 
steam  power  produced  by  coal. 
Though  located  in  the  midst  of  the 
cheapest  coal  in  the  world  it  will 
more  than  meet  the  competition  of 
that  coal  in  its  prices  for  power. 
Eight  million  tons  of  coal  saved 

YEARLY 

This  Mississippi  water  power  con- 
serves for  other  uses  than  manufac- 
turing over  8,000,000  tons  of  coal 
yearly.  It  will  make  a  new  manu- 
facturing center  for  the  United  States 
and  start  a  new  industrial  era  for  the 
already  rich  Mississippi  Valley. 


S30 


TEE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


MARVELS    OF    UNDERGROUND     ENGINEERING 


OF  all  the  problems  which  have 
confronted  the  engineer  dur- 
ing the  past  twenty  years, 
none  has  been  more  persistent  than 
that  of  the  relief  of  traffic  congestion 
in  our  great  cities. 

City  after  city  has  discovered,  when 
the  cost  of  acquiring  property  at  sur- 
face has  become  prohibitive,  that  its 
main  traffic  arteries  are  hopelessly 
faulty  in  design  for  efficient  service; 
and  the  false  expedients  which  have 
been  devised  for  relief,  only  to  present 
new  and  more  difficult  problems,  are 
too  familiar  to  need  enumeration. 
Surface  congestion 

There  are  three  types  of  congestion 
— pedestrian,  passenger  vehicular,  and 
freight  vehicular,  the  last  two  being 
capable  of  further  subdivision. 

In  many  cities  the  congestion  on  the 
footpath  itself  is  so  great  that  walking 
is  a  waste  of  time.  In  parts  of  the  City 
of  London  an  hour's  hard  walk  at  noon 
would  accomplish  less  than  a  mile  and 
a  half. 

Each  large  city  presents  a  different 
problem  for  solution,  as  the  result  of 
the  conditions  which  have  governed 
its  growth.  London's  chief  problem 
has  been  to  secure  a  passenger  trans- 
port service  connecting  the  districts, 
constantly  expanding  north,  south, 
and  west,  with  the  city  business  cen- 
ter and  the  busy  port  to  the  east. 

In  Paris  the  problem  was  partly  a 
military  one.  It  was  necessary  to 
secure  intercommunication  between 
isolated  suburbs  set  radially  about  the 
center,  both  within  and  without  the 
fortifications,  as  well  as  to  make  possi- 
ble the  rapid  concentration  of  troops 
to  any  part  of  the  defences. 

Boston  and  Philadelphia  have  com- 
paratively short  subway  systems  for 
passenger  traffic — particularly  Phila- 
delphia— in  Chicago,  following  on  the 


extension  of  the  railway  system  of 
America,  it  became  imperative  to  find 
some  means  of  handling  the  freight 
transfers  of  the  twenty-five  great 
trunk  lines  which  meet  there. 

New  York  City  has  had  to  face  the 
most  difficult  problems  of  all.  Here 
the  original  city,  situated  on  the  long 
and  narrow  Manhattan  Island,  has 
extended  southeast  over  the  southern 
portion  of  Long  Island  (owing  to  port 
facilities)  and  west,  on  to  the  main- 
land around  the  termini  of  the  trunk 
lines  which  serve  the  continent.  The 
problem  in  New  York  was  that  of 
establishing  intercommunication  north 
and  south  along  the  axis  of  Manhattan 
Island,  and  east  and  west  across  the 
broad  East  River  to  Brooklyn,  and  the 
great  estuary  of  the  Hudson  to  Jersey 
City  on  the  mainland. 
Elevated  railways 

The  first  attempts  to  relieve  con- 
gestion of  traffic  at  surface  took  the 
form  of  elevated  railways,  and  those 
of  New  York  and  several  continental 
cities  are  models  of  ingenuity  in  con- 
struction. These,  however,  except  in 
those  cases  such  as  the  Barmen-Elber- 
feld  Monorail,  where  they  can  be  con- 
structed over  existing  water  courses, 
invariably  introduced  other  undesir- 
able conditions. 

The  early  subterranean  railways 
(such  as  the  London  Metropolitan  and 
District)  were  constructed  on  the  cut- 
and-cover  system.  Steam  was  the 
motive  power  used  by  the  trains,  and 
the  use  of  fire  under  the  boiler,  with 
the  attendant  smoke  difficulty,  made 
large  tunnel  sections  and  frequent 
communication  with  the  open  air 
imperative. 

The  conditions  which  have  led 
immediately  to  the  construction  of 
relatively  deep  tunnel  communications 
have  been  accurate  geological  knowl- 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  331 

edge  of  the  continuity  and  thickness  underground  communication;  but  the 
of  certain  soft  strata,  and  the  march  problem  in  the  one  case  has  been  the 
of  physical  science  in  the  department  transport  of  passengers,  and  in  the 
of  electricity,  combined  with  the  in-  other  that  of  freight, 
genuity  of  the  engineer  in  following  Chicago  possesses  some  sixty  or 
closely  the  discovery  of  scientists  in  seventy  miles  of  underground  railway 
both  domains,  and  bending  them  to  on  which  not  a  single  passenger  is  car- 
service  in  his  work  of  construction.  ried,  the  work  of  transport  being  con- 
It  must  not  be  imagined  that  all  fined  to  mails,  merchandise,  coal,  and 
cities  can  be  provided  with  such  an  rubbish.  The  track  serves  every 
admirable  system  of  deep  level  under-  street  in  the  business  district,  and  a 
ground  communications  as  London  great  deal  of  the  residential  quarter, 
has.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  existence  Goods  for  delivery  to  the  railway 
of  the  stratum  known  as  the  London  termini  or  other  parts  of  the  city  are 
clay,  which  overlies  the  chalk  and  sent  to  the  nearest  collecting  station 
lower  London  tertiaries,  the  con-  and  conveyed  over  the  railway  system, 
struction  of  such  communications,  if  Ashes  and  coal  are  collected  and  dis- 
they  existed  at  all,  would  have  been  tributed  in  the  same  way.  The  mail 
on  the  cut-and-cover  system,  to  take  bags  are  handled  on  mechanical  ele- 
advantage  of  the  soft  subsoil.  Econom-  vators,  from  the  subway  into  the  post- 
ic  considerations  would  have  made  office  building  and  vice  versa,  and  the 
them  far  more  limited  in  extent,  and  streets  are  relieved  of  freight  traffic  to 
great  inconvenience  in  the  way  of  the  extent  of  about  30,000  tons  daily, 
traffic  dislocation  during  their  con-  Large  business  houses  have  private 
struction.  elevator  shafts  from  the  basements  to 
In  the  Paris  Metropolitan  and  the  the  subway  below.  In  recent  years. 
New  York  subway,  we  find  typical  wherever  a  large  building  has  been 
cut-and-cover  work,  and  the  London  erected,  a  temporary  shaft  has  been 
County  Council  tunnel  under  Kings-  constructed  to  the  subway,  and  all 
way  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  the  excavated  material  from  the 
type  of  such  construction.  The  neces-  foundations  has  been  fed  straight  into 
sary  arrangements  for  traffic  diversion,  cars  below,  at  an  average  depth  of  45 
and  acquirement  of  surface  property,  feet  below  the  surface, 
add  enormously  to  the  cost  of  an  The  tunneling  for  Chicago's  freight 
undertaking  of  this  kind.  railway  was  carried  out  at  the  rate  of 
Both  Paris  and  New  York  present  some  300  feet  per  day,  and  the  exca- 
the  same  difficulty  of  rock  at  or  near  vated  material  added  a  park  of  over 
the  surface  with  a  certain  thickness  twenty  acres  on  the  lake  shore  to  the 
of  subsoil  and  surface  gravels  to  help  city's  open  spaces,  free  of  cost  to  the 
out.     A  large  proportion  of  the  New  community. 

York  subway  had  to  be  blasted  from  It  was  originally  intended  to  operate 

the  solid   rock.     New   York  has  the  the  King  William  Street  and  Elephant 

added  complication  of  the  necessity  and  Castle  subway,  London,  by  a  steel 

of  carrying  the  tunnels  beneath  wide  cable.     Following    on    the    successful 

and  deep  river  channels.  construction    and    operation    of    this 

London  and  Chicago  are  related,  in  subway,    it    was    for    the    first    time 

that  each  is  underlaid  by  a  thick  sub-  generally  realized  that,  conditions  be- 

stratum  of  plastic  clay  and  an  admira-  ing  similar  under  the  whole  of  Lon- 

ble  medium  in  which  to  construct  deep  don,  a  network  of  subterranean  rail- 


sss 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


333 


ways  was  possible,  to  deal  with  the 
passenger  traffic  problem  in  every 
part  of  the  city  and  suburbs.  The 
year  1893  saw  the  construction  au- 
thorized of  not  less  than  six  separate 
tubes. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  today  to 
build  subways,  even  when  their  con- 
struction involves  tunneling  under  the 
beds  of  great  rivers.  But  when  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  tunnels  under 
the  North  and  East  Rivers,  ninety- 
seven  feet  below  high-tide  level,  were 
bored  from  the  New  Jersey  shore 
across  to  and  under  Manhattan 
Island  and  thence  to  Long  Island  there 
was  no  engineering  precedent  for  the 
undertaking. 

The  tunnels  or  tubes  themselves 
consist  of  a  series  of  iron  rings,  and 
the  installation  of  every  ring  meant 
an  advance  of  two  and  one-half  feet. 
Eleven  segments  and  a  key  piece  at 
the  top  complete  the  circumference, 
and  an  entire  ring  weighs  about  fifteen 
tons.  The  cast-iron  plates,  or  sec- 
tions of  the  ring,  have  flanges  at  right 
angles  to  the  surface,  and  it  is  through 
these  that  the  successive  rings  are  held 
together  with  bolts.  The  record  prog- 
ress in  one  day  of  eight  hours  was 
five  of  these  rings,  or  twelve  and  one- 
half  feet.  Hydraulic  rams,  placed 
against  the  flanges  every  few  inches 
around  the  tube,  were  used  to  push 
forward  the  huge  shields  with  which 
the  tunnels  were  bored.  This  type 
of  shield  weighed  194  tons. 

Longest,  if  not  the  largest,  of  the 
holes  burrowed  under  New  York  by 
human  moles  is  the  great  water  tunnel 
through  which  the  mountain  streams, 
impounded  by  the  Ashokan  dam  and 
brought  to  the  city's  edge  by  the  Cats- 
kill  aqueduct,  will  be  distributed 
through  the  five  boroughs.  There  are 
four  distinct  types  of  aqueduct,  cut- 
and-cover,  grade-tunr.cl,  pressure-tun- 
nel, and  steel-pipe  siphon,  north  of  the 


city  line.  The  city  aqueduct,  through 
which  Catskill  water  will  be  distrib- 
uted, is  a  circular  tunnel  in  solid  rock, 
fifteen  feet  in  diameter  at  the  upper 
end  and  reduced  to  eleven  feet  in  the 
outlying  boroughs.  From  two  ter- 
minal shafts  in  Brooklyn  steel  and 
iron  pipe  lines  will  extend  into  Queens 
and  Richmond.  A  cast-iron  pipe, 
resting  on  the  harbor  bottom,  will 
cross  the  Narrows  to  the  Silver  Lake 
reservoir  on  Staten  Island,  holding 
400,000,000  gallons.  The  total  length 
of  this  delivfciy  system  is  over  thirty- 
four  miles.  The  tunnel  has  depths  of 
200  to  750  feet  below  the  street  sur- 
face, thus  avoiding  interference  with 
streets,  buildings,  subways,  sewers 
and  pipes.  These  depths  are  necessary, 
also,  to  secure  a  substantial  rock 
covering  to  withstand  the  bursting 
pressure.  The  tunnel  construction 
involves  twenty-four  shafts,  about  4000 
feet  apart,  located  in  parks  and  other 
places  where  they  interfere  very  little 
with  traffic.  Through  these  shafts, 
also,  the  delivery  of  the  water  is  ac- 
complished through   additional  pipes. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  such 
undertakings  is  the  great  aqueduct 
which  traverses  no  less  than  246  miles 
to  supply  Los  Angeles  with  water. 

Determined  to  secure  a  supply  of 
the  purest  water  obtainable,  the  en- 
terprising authorities  of  this  American 
city  have  tapped  a  source  high  among 
the  mountains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
From  that  distant  place  a  crystal 
river  will  flow  through  divers  con- 
duction agencies  before  it  reaches  the 
water-taps  of  city  consumers.  For 
over  twenty-two  miles  its  way  lies 
through  a  canal;  a  conduit  covered 
with  concrete  conveys  it  for  1643^ 
miles.  More  than  ten  miles  of  tunnel 
have  been  painfully  delved  through 
earth  by  human  moles  to  provide  a 
passage-way  for  it,  while  eighteen  and 
one-fourth  miles  have  been  hewn  and 


The  Jawbone  Siphon  Is  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world, 
length  of  8135  feet,  and  weighs  no  less  than  3243  tons. 


THE  JAWBONE  SIPHON 

Varying  between  7  and  10  feet  in  diameter,  It  has  a  total 


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BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


335 


THE  EASTERN  HALF  OF  SOLEDAD  SIPHON 

The  Soledad  Siphon  8000  feot  in  length,  with  lt3 
diameter  of  1 1  feet,  so  big  that  a  motor-car  can  be  driven 
through  it  without  grazing  either  side. 


blasted  in  the  solid  rock.  In  addition, 
there  are  nearly  two  miles  of  steel 
flume,  the  cleansing  reservoirs  extend 
seven   and   one-half   miles   in   length. 


and  the  engineers  can  take  advantage 
for  twelve  and  one-half  miles — roughly 
one-twentieth  of  the  entire  distance — 
of  the  natural  bed  of  a  stream. 

Great  as  this  achievement  of  delving 
and  blasting  and  adaptation  of  exist- 
ing means  undoubtedly  is,  it  pales 
into  insignificance  beside  the  means 
employed  for  nine  miles  of  the  way, 
by  wliich  the  stream  sufficient  for  a 
population  of  two  million  souls  is  car- 
ried over  mountain  tops  and  down  the 
sides  of  deep  valleys.  To  cope  wdth 
such  difficulties  the  engineers  realized 
that  it  was  necessary  to  employ  the 
siphon  principle.  Never  before  has 
so  much  mammoth  steel  piping,  capa- 
ble of  carrying  three  hundred  million 
gallons  of  water  per  diem,  been  em- 
ployed for  such  a  purpose.  The  Jaw- 
bone Siphon  is  the  most  remarkable 
in  the  world. 


UNDERGROUND   LIFE   OF   THE   BIG   CITIES 


o 


From  a  million  and  a  half  to  a  mil- 
lion and  three-quarters  of  the  residents 
of  New  York  City  spend  at  least  a 
portion  of  each  day  underground,  and 
many  thousands  come  to  the  surface 
so  rarely  that  the  light  of  day  blinds 
them  when  they  reach  it. 

According  to  the  best  obtainable 
statistics  about  20,000  persons  in  New 
York  City  spend  their  entire  working 
hours  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

These  figures  are  not  the  sort  that 
deceive.  They  are  figures  of  fact,  con- 
servatively given,  and  if  in  any  man- 
ner incorrect,  they  err  on  the  side  of 
conservatism. 

On  quite  ordinary  days  1,500,000 
persons  are  accommodated  in  the  New 
York  subways,  and  the  crowds  are 
multiplying  week  by  week. 

Men  go  below  the  surface  to  reach 
the  trains  that  are  to  take  them  from 
the  architectural  wonder,  the  new 
Pennsylvania  Station,  east  and  west 
out  of  the  city.       After  they   have 


reached  the  trains  they  are  dropped 
still  further  underground,  in  order  that 
they  may  pass  beneath  the  bottom  of 
the  Hudson  and  East  Rivers. 

To  get  out  of  New  York  City  by 
means  of  the  New  York  Central  Rail- 
road or  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford  Railroad  it  is  necessary 
to  make  use  of  that  other  architectural 
wonder,  the  Grand  Central  Station, 
and  again  travelers  drop  down  into  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  before  they  may 
start. 

The  Lackawanna  Railroad,  not  to  be 
outdone  by  its  rivals,  advertises  that 
"Miss  Phoebe  Snow"  may  now  travel 
from  Thirty-third  Street  to  Buffalo, 
and  to  do  that  must  go  down  into  the 
earth  and  under  the  North  River  to 
make  her  start. 

All  of  this  underground  business 
sounds  dingy  and  dirty,  but  in  reality 
there  is  much  that  is  clean,  bright  and 
attractive  about  New  York's  under- 
ground world.     The  new  Pennsylvania 


336 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


Station,  to  which  reference  is  made  by 
way  of  illustration,  covers  more  terri- 
tory than  any  other  building  ever  con- 
structed at  one  time  in  the  history  of 
the  world.     From  beneath  its  wonder- 
ful dome  trains  pass   out  under  the 
North  River  to   start   on   their  2000 
mile   trip    into    the   west,    and    other 
trains  travel  eastward  far  beneath  the 
surface  of  Manhattan  Island,  then  out 
under  the  East  River  into  Lonr^  Island. 
Wonderful    and    beautiful    as    the 
Pennsylvania  Station  is,  it  has  a  fair 
rival  in  the  new  Grand  Central  Sta- 
tion, only  recently  opened  to  the  public. 
Practically  every  skyscraper  in  New 
York  City,  and  they  are  numbered  by 
the  hundreds,  adds  its  quota  to  the 
"underworld"  population  of  the  city. 
Before  the  greater  structures — those 
that  rear  their  way  thirty,  forty  and 
fifty   stories   into   the   air — are   really 
started,  their  foundations  are  sunk  far 
down  into  the  living  rock  which  forms 
practically  all  of  Manhattan  Island. 
In  many  cases  very  comfortable  apart- 
ments are  to  be  found  forty  or  fifty 
feet  below  the  street  surface,  and  there 
families  are  raised,  children  growing  to 
maturity  without  ever  having  known 
the  comforts  of  a  home  above  ground. 
Practically   all   of  the   great   news- 
papers of  New  York  City  have  their 
batteries  of  presses  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth.     Some  of  them,  notably 
the  Herald,  so  arrange  their  windows 
as  to  make  their  pressrooms  visible 
from  the  sidewalks,  malcing  them  show 
places  that  attract  tens  of  thousands. 
In  the  great  hotels  of  New  York  the 
mechanical    departments    are    all    far 
beneath  the  street  surface.     These  de- 
partments are  well  worth  visiting,  and 
in  most  cases  the  hotel  proprietors  are 
only  too  glad  to  permit  their  kitchens, 
bakeshops,     furnace    rooms,     engine- 
rooms,  and  laundries  to  be  inspected. 
These  places  ordinarily  are  the  clean- 
est in  the  entire  hotel. 


SS7 


338 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


SB^ 


Then,  too,  in  most  of  the  more  ex- 
pensive hotels  the  grillrooms  are  below 
stairs.  On  these  rooms  and  in  these 
rooms  fortunes  are  spent  by  the 
proprietors  and  their  patrons.  A  few 
years  ago  fashionable  New  York  re- 
fused to  put  its  feet  below  the  street 
level.  Now  it  goes  willingly  into  the 
basement,  there  to  nibble  at  delicacies 
and  sip  vintage  wines  for  which  it  pays 
exorbitant  prices,  the  while  listening 
to  high  -  salaried  cabaret  performers 
who  are  assisted  in  their  performances 
by  world-famous  orchestras. 

Many  of  New  York's  greatest 
department  stores  are  connected  di- 
rectly with  the  subways,  as  are  also 
some  of  its  newer  theaters.  A  party 
once  visiting  in  New  York,  lived  for  a 
fortnight  in  one  of  the  most  fashionable 
and  most  expensive  hotels  in  the  city, 
spent  most  of  their  time  shopping, 
sight-seeing  and  theater-going,  and 
only  once  during  the  entire  fourteen 
days  passed  into  the  open  air  of  the 


outside  world.  From  their  rooms  in 
the  hotel  they  were  dropped  by  ele- 
vator to  the  level  of  the  sul)way. 
Through  the  subway  they  went  to 
department  stores,  theaters,  restau- 
rants, museums  and  even  to  church. 
When  they  started  for  home  they  went 
by  subway  from  their  hotel  to  the 
Grand  Central  Station  and  did  not 
get  out  into  sunlight  until  their  train 
had  well  started  on  its  journey. 

^Yhile  the  underground  development 
of  New  York  has  progressed  farther 
than  that  of  any  other  city,  yet  the 
inevitable  tendency,  wherever  popula- 
tion becomes  congested  and  land 
values  high,  is  to  utilize  the  subter- 
ranean areas  for  business  purposes.  In 
I^ondon,  where  the  skyscraper  has  never 
found  favor,  a  very  marked  devel- 
opment downward  is  now  in  progress. 
The  new  County 
Hall,  which  is  slow- 
ly assuming  shape 
and    substance 


ONE  OF  TH£   EXPENSIVE  GRILL  ROOMS   FAR   BELOW  THE  STREET  LEVEL   IN  NEW  YORK 


SJ^O 


WE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames 
Embankment,  is  one  of  the  many  new 
buildings  in  London  remarkable  for 
their  underground  space,  and  every 
year  sees  extensive  additions  to  the 
underworld  of  London,  where  the  ab- 
normal demands  on  space  have  evolved 
the  underground  man. 

Paris,  too,  has  a  highly  interesting 
underground  life.  Unique  among 
cities  in  many  respects,  in  none  is  it 
so  remarkable  as  in  its  great  sewer 
system,  which  for  years  furnished 
hiding  places  for  criminals  and  secret 
passageways  utilized  by  many  for 
transit  between  different  parts  of  the 
city.     Now  the  subways  of  Paris  have 


become  the  most  popular  means  of 
travel  in  the  French  capital.  There 
are  eight  subway  lines  in  all,  and  their 
popularity  is  due  to  the  small  expense 
of  traveling,  the  quick  and  efficient 
service,  and  the  convenient  system  of 
"change"  stations  permitting  transit 
from  any  one  part  of  the  city  to  any 
other  for  the  same  price. 

Boston  and  Philadelphia  have  pro- 
gressive and  impressive  subterranean 
railway  systems  for  passenger  traffic; 
but  New  York,  where  every  inch  of 
excavation  must  be  blasted  out  of 
solid  rock,  has  however,  developed  the 
human  mole  to  a  greater  degree  than 
any  of  them. 


STE>NVS//KV      LINE 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENT  SUBTERRANEAN  PASSAGES  AND  TUNNELS  EXCAVATED  AT 
THE  GRAND  CENTRAL  STATION  BY  NEW  YORK'S  HUMAN  MOLES 


BOOK  OF  EXGL\h:i:Rl\G  AXD  rXDUSTliV 


341 


SPAN  OF  THE  NEW  BRIDGE  OVER  HELL  GATE,  NEW  YORK 

FOOTPATHS      IN      THE      AIR 


NO  one  can  say  who  built  the 
first  bridge.  Nature  herself 
would  no  doubt  be  man's  first 
teacher.  Man  would  find  a  path 
across  a  chasm  by  clinging  to  a  twisted 
vine;  or  he  would  see  a  ready-made 
bridge  consisting  of  a  fallen  tree-trunk 
across  a  stream.  Those  were  the  first 
bridges,  and  they  were  the  sort  which 
would  have  to  be  made  for  hundreds 
of  years. 

One  day  a  genius  arose,  wdio  dumped 
high  heaps  of  stone  in  a  line  across  a 
stream,  and  on  the  top  of  these  placed 
slabs  of  slate  or  stone  or  fallen  trees. 
Then,  a  long,  long  while  afterwards, 
came  real  bridges.  The  Romans  were 
the  first  to  learn  how  to  make  these. 
They  built  splendid  bridges  on  arches, 
some  of  w^hich  exist  today. 

A  great  reform  was  made  in  bridge- 
building  by  John  Rennie,  an  engineer 
and  architect.  It  had  been  customary 
to  make  the  arches  very  high,  so  that 
the  roadway  sloped  sharply  up  on  one 
side,  and  very  sharply  down  on  the 
other.  But  Rennie  made  his  arches, 
not  like  the  half  of  a  circle,  but  like 
the  half  of  an  egg,  cut  lengthwise. 

There  still  exists  a  famous  single- 
arch  bridge  of  the  old  type,  the  famous 
bridge  at  Pontypridd,  Wales. 

When  the  eighteenth  century  was 
drawing    to    a    close,    men    began    to 


build  bridges  of  cast  iron.  But  engi- 
neers soon  found  that,  though  cast 
iron  can  bear  great  pressure,  it  will 
not  bear  much  pull.  It  cannot  be 
easily  crushed  by  a  w^eight,  but  it  can 
soon  be  snapped  by  weights  which 
pull  at  the  two  ends.  So  then  they 
used  wrought  iron,  which  cannot  easily 
be  pulled  apart.  That  served  until 
steel  came  into  use  in  the  nineteenth 
century. 

It  is  over  the  Hudson  River  in  New 
York  and  over  the  St.  Lawrence  in 
Canada  that  man  has  gained  his 
greatest  victories  in  spanning  wide 
expanses  of  water  with  gigantic  steel 
roadways.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  Great  Britain  has  many  fine 
examples  of  the  bridge-builder's  art; 
the  Royal  Albert  Bridge  at  Saltash, 
the  Britannia  Bridge  over  the  Menai 
Strait,  and  the  Forth  Bridge,  whose 
span  of  1700  feet  has  yet  to  be 
eclipsed,  may  be  quoted  as  daring 
and  remarkable  bridge-building  feats. 

The  first  great  bridge  built  of 
wrought  iron  was  the  Britannia 
Bridge,  in  North  Wales.  The  builder 
was  Robert  Stephenson.  He  made  a 
huge  square  tube  of  iron — iron  at  the 
top,  iron  at  the  sides,  iron  at  the 
bottom,  and  through  this  tube  of 
iron  the  trains  pass.  To  increase  the 
strength  of  the  bridge  he  made  the 


OLD-FASmONED  BRIDGES  IN  PICTUUESQUE  LANDS 


This  picture  gives  us  an  idea  of  what  our  bridges  were  like  once  upon  a  time.  Here  is  one  built  on  piers  made  of 
nothing  but  logs.  On  top  there  is  a  roadway  of  timber.  This  is  the  bridge  at  Sringar,  the  beautiful  old  capital  of  Cashmere, 
Northern  India.     The  houses  recall  the  bridges  of  old-time  London  with  their  shops  and  dwellings. 


This  rough-aiid-riady  bridge  serves  for  fishermen  to 
pass  to  a  rock  oft  the  coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland.  It  con- 
si  3ts  only  of  strong  ropes  and  staves  of  wood.  In  stormy 
weather  it  sways  and  needs  courage  to  cross. 


Tight-rope  walkers  should  like  this  bridge.  It  is  made 
up  of  three  ropes.  Two  of  the  ropes  serve  as  handrails; 
the  third  is  the  footpath.  It  crosses  a  river  in  India 
which  has  many  modest  suspension  bridges  like  it. 


This  Is  the  sort  of  big  bridge  that  we  see  where  the  single  arch  and  cantilever  are  not  used.  It  is  the  Iwakuni  Bridge 
In  Japan,  a  bridge  ot  wood  and  stone,  in  (our  spans.  Only  small  ships  can  pass  under  it,  and  the  roadway  is  as  steep  as 
a  awltcbback  ladder,  and  la  tumished  with  200  steps.    Horses  and  carts  cannot  go  over  it. 


S42 


BEGINNING  TO  B  IT  I  L  D  A  GREAT  BRIDGE 


,.    ..-J 

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-  ^^^^^^£^^^^^^n|^^^^^^' 

^m0^:f.' 

P-S^ 

^^BH 

iiSHBBjl 

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- '  :,^- .  -  • .     ^^--^■S^Bi^MfclfcL' 

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iVH 

This  shows  us  liuw  the  weight  of  a  bridge  is  liistriluilrd;  ii  lUu-tiuu-  wliai  IthLl;! -Iiuil'l.  i  -  rail  tlie  cantilever  prin- 
ciple. These  two  men  are  sitting  on  chairs,  each  holding  two  sticlis.  The  outside  sticlvs  are  fastened  to  weights,  and 
cannot  move.  The  inner  sticlis  are  fixed  to  the  chairs,  and  from  their  tops  another  sticli  is  stretched,  bearing  a  weight  of 
112  pounds.     Yet  the  men  feel  no  weiglit,  and  they  represent  two  pairs  nf  cantilevers. 


This  is  a  caisson,  like  a  great  hollow  chamber,  inside  which  men  can  work  to  set  tip  the  foimdations  of  a  bridge.  The 
caisson  is  here  floated  into  position  for  the  building  of  the  Forth  Bridge.  The  huge  steel  lulxs  reach  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  water,  and  men  work  inside  them  without  danger,  as  if  in  a  workshop. 


This  shows  the  caisson  in  position,  sinking  in  the  water.  It  is  about  70  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  Thuugh  upon  at  the 
lop,  it  has  water-tight  floors  inside,  and  at  the  bottom  there  is  a  chamber  70  feet  wide  and  7  feet  high,  lighted  by  electric 
lamps.  In  wblcb  the  men.  breathing  air  sent  down  in  tubes,  can  work  safely 

34S 


THE    INTERIOR    WORKSHOP    UNDER    THE    WATER 


This  shows  us  the  Inside  of  a  caisson  while  the  men  are  working.  We  can  see  the  tubes  leading  down  from  the  top  to 
the  working  chamber  at  the  bottom.  Inside  one  tube  is  a  ladder  by  which  the  workers  climb  up  and  down.  Other  men 
bring  down  material  and  take  up  the  broken  rock  which  has  been  dug.  Another  tube  brings  down  air  for  the  men  to  breathe. 
If  the  bed  of  the  river  is  muddy  the  mud  is  forced  away  by  the  compressed  air.  Water  is  kept  out  of  the  chamber  by  com- 
pressed air  which  la  made  to  press  with  greater  force  than  the  water.  From  top  to  bottom  the  caisson  is  60  feet  deep  and 
Inside  It  Is  like  engineering  works. 


S44 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


Si5 


iron  at  the  top  and  bottom  tube- 
shaped,  instead  of  soUd,  because  it 
would   better   stand   the   pull   of   the 

weight. 

The  great  iron  tubes  in  which  the 
train  crosses  the  water 

These  tubes  are  built  on  huge  col- 
umns of  masonry,  one  built  on  an 
island  half-way  across  the  water,  and 
the  others  on  the  land  at  the  sides. 
As  ships  were  constantly  passing,  it 
was  impossible  to  put  up  great  scaffolds 
on  which  to  build  up  the  ironwork. 
So  Stephenson  had  the  two  tubes, 
nearly  500  yards  long,  built  in  four 
sections  on  shore.  When  all  was 
ready  the  big  tubes  were  floated  on 
many  boats,  and  ferried  out  to  the 
the  towers. 

As  the  tide  went  out  the  boats 
gradually  sank,  and  the  tubes,  weigh- 
ing 5000  tons  each,  came  to  rest  in 
grooves  prepared  for  them  in  the 
masonry.  Then  the  boats  were 
drawn  awav  and  the  enormous  masses 


of  iron  were  hoisted  up  to  the  proper 
height,  100  feet  above  the  water,  by 
great  engines. 

The  finest  of  all  bridges  is  the  great 
steel  cantilever  bridge.  A  cantilever 
is  copied  from  the  oldest  of  simple 
bridges.  If  two  trees  lean  over  the 
water  from  different  sides  of  a  stream 
we  have  only  to  run  a  plank  from  the 
end  of  one  trunk  to  the  end  of  the 
other,  to  make  a  simple  cantilever 
bridge.  That  is  one  way  of  applying 
it.  The  other  is  to  consider  the 
cantilever  a  bracket.  Secured  firmly  at 
one  end,  a  bracket  will  bear  a  shelf 
with  a  heavy  weight  of  books,  and  the 
steel  cantilevers  forming  a  bridge  are 
merely  huge  brackets.  The  best  ex- 
ample is  the  great  Forth  Bridge. 

The  Forth  Bridge  was  designed  by 
Sir  John  Fowler  and  Sir  Benjamin 
Baker.  They  had  to  cross  two  swift 
channels  of  water.  There  is  an  island  in 
the  middle,  but  on  each  side  of  it  there 
flows  a  channel  of  water  deep  and  swift. 


MODERN  STEEL,  BRIDGE   ACROSS  THE  RHINE  AT  COLOGNE 


THE   GREAT  FORTH  BRIDGE   SECTION  BY   SECTION 


When  the  rock  had  been  prepared  for  the  foundation  of  the  Forth  Bridge,  strong  masonry  was  built  from  the  rock 
below  the  water  up  to  the  top.  Then  huge  pillars  of  hollow  steel,  such  as  we  see  here,  were  put  up  for  the  cantilevers,  and 
were  fastened  down  to  the  masonry  with  enormous  steel  bolts.  They  are  34.3  feet  high,  but  so  strong  that  neither  the 
weight  and  vibration  of  great  trains  nor  the  force  of  storms  can  break  them. 


The  giant  jiiUars  having  been  made  fast,  the  cantilevers  began  to  grow  out  from  them.  Kach  of  these  is  really  a 
double  cantilever.  They  stand  like  brackets  back  to  back.  Perfectly  balanced,  they  stood  firm  while  the  engineers 
built  out  Into  the  air  Irom  them,  as  if  they  were  brackets  fixed  to  the  walls,  bearing  heavy  shelves. 

S46 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  3J^7 

and  1700  feet  broad.     It  was  impos-  crossed   carrying   the   main   cable   of 

sible  to  sink  piers  in  these  channels,  the  bridge,  which  is  200  yards  long, 

so  the  central  pier  was  founded  on  the  and  the  greatest  engineering  wonder 

island,    and   two   others   built   nearer  in  South  Africa, 

the  shores.  The  Tower   Bridge,   in  London,   is 

The  cantilevers,  of  which  there  are  800  feet  long.    When  a  ship  is  too  high 

three   pairs,   carry   the   bridge   across  to  pass  under,  great  machines  cause 

the    two    wide    stretches    of    water,  the  roadway  to  open  in  the  middle. 

They  are  each  1360  feet  long,  and  the  The  two  halves  are  pulled  up,  working 

three,    stretching    out    towards    each  on    enormous    hinges,    and    the    ship 

other,  leave  a  space  of  350  feet  to  be  passes  through. 

covered  between  the  ends  of  the  first  The  Saltash  Bridge  which  spans  the 

and  second,  and  a  similar  space  be-  Tamar  is  2200  feet  long,  the  two  main 

tween  the  ends  of  the  second  and  third,  spans  over  the  river  being  each  455 

Here  ordinary  steel  girders  are  used,  feet  long.     The  height  of  the  central 

In  order  that  ships  may  pass  under  it,  pier  from  its  foundation  to  the  top  is 

the  bridge  is  made  150  feet  above  high  240    feet,    and    the    railway    track    is 

tide,   and  its  top  parts  are  361   feet  carried  110  feet  above  the  level  of  the 

above  the  water.  water.     Obtaining  the  foundations  for 

The  cantilever  bridge  plan  has  since  the  pier  was  a  particularly  dangerous 

been    used   for    many    other   bridges,  piece  of  work.     A  huge   caisson   was 

One  on  this  plan  crosses  Niagara  at  a  sunk  in  midstream,  in  which,  provided 

great   height  above  the  water.     The  with  compressed  air,  the  men  toiled  for 

cantilever  is  used  in  suspension  bridges  two  years.     In  the  winter  storms  the 

also.     Huge  columns   are  erected  on  unwieldy  cylinder  rocked  so  violently 

land,  and  from  them  chains  or  wire  despite  its  heavy  weights  and  chains, 

ropes   are   stretched   across   the   gulf,  that  leakages  occurred,  and  it  was  only 

carrying  a  roadway.  by  beating  hasty  retreats  that  the  men 

How  KITES  AND  ROCKETS  ARE  USED  FOR  cscapcd  drowuiug.     The  two  gigantic 

BUILDING  GREAT  BRIDGES  spaus  wcrc  built    Complete  upon  the 

The  best  suspension  bridge  in  Eng-  shore  and  floated   out   into   position, 

land  is  at  Clifton.     This  is  702  feet  and    then    graduallv     raised    to    the 

across,  and  31  feet  wide.     It  is  more  desired  height,  three  feet  at  a  time  at 

than  200  feet  above  the  River  Avon,  each  end  by  means  of  hydraulic  presses. 

and   it    is    said    that    the   first    string  For  the  finest  and  latest  examples 

attached    to    the    rope    which    pulled  of  the  bridge-builders'  skill  we  have  to 

across  the  cable  was  sent  over  by  a  go  to  New  York.     Here,  in  space  of  a 

kite.  single  square  mile  we  have  the  three 

A  more  unusual  way  was  adopted  greatest   suspension   bridges   in  exist- 

for   starting   the   great   bridge   across  ence — the  Brooklyn,   the  Manhattan, 

the  River  Zambesi,   in  South  Africa,  and  the  Williamsburg   bridges,  while 

The  bridge  is  the  highest  in  the  world,  some    three    miles    above    the    last- 

400  feet  above  the  water,   and  runs  named  there  now  towers   Blackwell's 

from  cliff  to  cliff;  so  they  had  to  fire  Island  Bridge.     They  are  rightly  re- 

a  rocket  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  cord,  garded  as  among  the  wonders  of  the 

The  rocket  took  the  cord  across,  the  engineering  world.     They  vary   from 

cord   was   used   for   hauling   across   a  6000  to  7000  feet  in  length,   with  a 

wire,  and  the  wire  was  used  to  pull  central  span  of  from  1400  to  1500  feet, 

over  a  small  cable.     On  this  a  truck  and  carry  four  tracks  for  railways,  two 


THE   WONDERFUL   ROAD   THAT   A    MAN   CAN   OPEN 


The  Tower  Bridge  is  the  most  beautiful  in  London.  It  is  like  the  old-fashioned  draw-bridge  which  castles  and  fortresses 
had,  only  much  larger  and  stronger.  It  is  called  a  bascule  bridge,  "bascule"  meaning  "balancing."  This  picture  shows 
what  happens  when  the  great  roadway  opens  for  big  ships  to  pass  along  the  Thames.  Each  half  rests  on  a  pivot  and  is 
balanced  by  an  enormous  weight  at  the  tower  end.  When  the  bridge  is  to  be  opened  a  man  pulls  a  lever  which  drives 
water  at  great  pressure  through  a  pipe  and  so  turns  a  series  of  cog  wheels.  The  wheels  move  a  number  of  curved  frame- 
works with  cogs  and  the  two  halves  of  the  road  each  weighing  730  tons,  turn  slowly  on  their  pivots.  The  roadway  at  the 
top  is  always  in  use  and  is  for  foot  passengers. 

348 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  349 

or  more  for  cars,  a  couple  of  roadways  15|  inches,  and  a  breaking   strain  of 

for    vehicles,    and    various    sidewalks  about   12,000  tons.      The  roadway  is 

for     pedestrians,     while    the     towers  85    feet   wide.     The  engineers  declare 

reach  a  height  of  300  feet  and  more  that  the  "natural  life"  of  the  bridge 

above  the  water,  the  aerial  pathway  is  20,000  years. 

being  some  130  feet  above  the  surface  After  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  came  the 

of  the  river.  Williamsburg    structure,    which    was 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge  took  thirteen  erected   in   seven  years  at   a  cost  of 

years  to  build,  and  cost  $16,000,000.  $20,000,000.     It  has  a  total  length  of  a 

It  was  designed  by  John  A.  Roebling,  mile  and  1920  feet,  including  a  main 

the  builder  of  the  Niagara  Falls  sus-  span  of  1600  feet,  and  two  shore  spans 

pension    bridge    and    others.     While  of  600  feet.     The  four  cables  are  each 

engaged  in  the  preliminary  work  he  19  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  built 

met  his  death.     He  was  succeeded  by  up  of  37  strands,  each  strand  contain- 

his  son,  William  A.  Roebling,  who  in  ing  208    wires,   each    3020    feet  long, 

turn  was  injured  by  a  fire  in  one  of  Figure   this   out   and   we   get    19,000 

the  caissons  and  became  a  permanent  miles  of  wire,  possessing  a  weight   of 

invalid.     He  was  removed  to  a  resi-  5000  tons.     The  towers  of  this  bridge 

dence   on    the    heights    of    Brooklyn,  rise  335  feet   above   the  water  level, 

where,  with  indomitable  resolution,  he  and    are    built    of    steel.     Somewhat 

watched   the   details    of   construction  similar   in   design   is   the   Manhattan 

from  his  window  by  the  aid  of  a  tele-  Bridge.     The     wire     consumed     here 

scope,    and,     assisted    by    his    wife,  totals  23,000  miles,  while  no  less  than 

directed  the  progress  of  the  work  to  its  40,000  tons  of  steel  were  used  in  the 

successful  completion.  erection  of  this  single  aerial  pathway. 

It  is  impossible  to  point  to  any  large  More  wonderful  still,  from  an  en- 
bridge  the  erection  of  which  has  not  gineering  point  of  view,  is  New  York's 
demanded  its  toll  of  human  life.  The  latest  structure,  Blackwell's  Island 
recently  completed  Blackwell's  Island  Bridge.  In  length  and  weight  it  rivals 
Bridge  cost  67  lives;  some  70  brave  men  and  in  carrying  capacity  also  surpasses 
were  killed  in  the  Quebec  disaster  in  the  famous  Forth  Bridge.  Its  trusses 
1907,  when  that  partially  completed  are  the  heaviest  ever  built.  There  are 
structure  suddenly  collapsed  after  two  main  spans  of  1182  and  984  feet 
three  years  had  been  spent  upon  it,  respectively,  springing  from  two  piers 
and  some  15,000  tons  of  steelwork  had  erected  on  a  mid-channel  island, 
been  placed  and  bolted  in  position.  From  end  to  end  the  bridge  measures 

With  its  approaches  the  Brooklyn  3725    feet,    and,    together    with    the 

Bridge  is  a  mile  and  a  furlong  in  length,  approaches,  the  total  length  is  swelled 

There  is  a  central  river  span   of  1595J  to  7358  feet. 

feet  from  tower  to  tower,  two  land  In  its  erection  the  somewhat  un- 
spans  from  towers  to  anchorages,  and  usual  course  of  pinning  its  members 
the  land  approach  on  either  side.  This  together,  at  points  of  intersection,  was 
aerial  roadway  is  held  in  place  by  adopted,  instead  of  riveting  them, 
cables,  four  in  number.  They  each  The  truss  members  of  the  super- 
contain  5296  steel  wires  reaching  from  structure  were  not  built  up  bit  by  bit 
anchorage  to  anchorage,  on  either  side  near  the  site,  but  put  together  by  the 
of  the  river,  a  distance  of  3752  feet,  manufacturers  and  forwarded  entire 
This  gives  a  total  of  14,000  miles  of  on  cars  or  groups  of  cars,  and  pinned 
wire.     Each  cable  has  a  diameter  of  as  the    erection    proceeded.     A    very 


ONE    OF    THE    FAMOUS    SUSPENSION    BRIDGES 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood. 

Brooklyn  Bridge  is  one  of  the  biggest  suspension  bridges  in  the  world.  It  crosses  the  East  River,  to  connect  New  Yorli 
with  Brooklyn  The  whole  length  of  the  bridge  is  more  than  a  mile,  and  its  distance  across  the  water  is  1600  feet.  Cables 
pass  over  the  towers  and  from  these  other  cables  hang  down  to  support  the  roadway. 


We  might  here  fancy  ourselves  on  .some  .strange  pier,  but  it  is  the  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
bridge  for  foot-passengers,  for  trains,  and  for  other  vehicles. 

350 


There  are  separate  roads  on  this 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERIXa  AM)  IXDUSTHY 


351 


pretty  bit  of  pinning  it  Avas  too — the 
objects  to  be  connected  being  bars  and 
girders,  some  weighing  120  tons;  the 
pins,  cylinders  of  steel,  some  16  inches 
in  diameter  and  10  feet  long;  the 
thimble,  a  5-ton  battering  ram.  And 
this  work  had  to  be  done  })artly  at  a 
lieight  of  300  feet  above  a  deep,  swift 
current,  navigated  by  steamers, 
barges,  ferries,  and  sailing  ships,  with 
the  bitter  winds  raging  furiously. 

In  the  erection  of  this  l)ridge,  as 
stated,  G7  lives  were  lost.  Curiously 
enough,  the  great  majority  of  these 
fatal  accidents  occurred  among  the 
sailors  who  had  been  engaged  by  the 
contractors  because  of  their  ability 
to  climb.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
successful  modern  bridge-builder  must 
possess  other  qualifications  than  that  of 
climbing.  He  must  know  something 
of  steel,  possess  a  clear  head,  and  be 
ever  on  the  alert. 

But  all  this  is  to  be  changed.  A 
bridge  is  being  constructed  which  will 
have  one  base  in  the  heart  of  Bronx 
Borough,  just  north  of  New  York  City, 
and  the  other  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Station,  Long  Island  City.  It  will 
span  the  East  River.  At  Long  Island 
City  the  tracks  will  run  into  the 
Pemisylvania  Tunnel  under  the  East 
River,  and  the  trip  to  New  Jersey  under 
New  York  City  and  the  Hudson  River 
will  be  imbroken.  This  bridge  is  not 
])eing  built  by  eiiner  the  Pennsylvania 
or  the  New  Haven. 

The  builders  are  the  New  York  Con- 
necting Railroad.  Their  six  miles  of 
railroad  will  form  the  final  link  in  an 
unbroken  line  from  Musgrave,  Nova 
Scotia,  to  Key  West,  Florida. 

The  bridge  will  be  of  span  and  via- 
duct structure.  It  will  have  four 
tracks.  The  route  will  begin  near  One 
Hundred  and  Forty-Second  Street,  th(^ 
lironx,  and  giadually  rise  until  at 
lironx  Kill  it  will  be  about  sixty-fi\(> 
feet  above   the  Ka«t  River.     At  this 


})oint  the  river  separates  the  Bronx 
from  Randall's  Island.  The  bridge 
here  will  be  of  the  lift  type;  that  is, 
each  half  of  the  bridge  rises  from  the 
horizontal  in  a  vertical  i)lane  so  that 
ships  may  pass  betweeu. 

The  large  stone  j)ier  in  the  middle 
of  the  Bronx  Kill  will  separate  the 
channels  for  east-bound  and  west- 
bound shij)s.  At  present  the  channel 
is  very  shallow  and  can  be  used  only  for 
rowboats  and  small  launches,  but  the 
War  De])artment  intends  to  dredge  the 
channel  to  the  same  depth  as  the 
Harlem  River,  so  that  vessels  will  be 
able  to  pass  from  the  Hudson  River  to 
the  Ship  Canal  in  the  Harlem  River, 
and  thence  through  the  Bronx  Kill 
imder  the  bridge  into  Long  Island 
Soimd,   and   return    the   same  way. 

Another  bridge  on  this  long  structure 
spans  the  East  River  at  Little  Hell 
Gate,  as  the  estuary  between  Ward's 
Island  and  Randall's  Island  is  called. 
The  water  at  this  point  has  a  rock 
bottom  so  shallow  that  it  cannot  be 
})lied  by  very  large  boats.  The  bridge 
here  will  be  of  the  riveted-truss  type 
and  will  have  five  spans  between 
Ward's  Island  and  Long  Island. 
From  this  point  to  the  span  over 
Hell  Gate,  the  waterway  between 
Ward's  Island  and  Randall's  Island, 
the  line  will  be  placed  on  a  steel 
viaduct  built  on  masonry  piers. 

The  arched  bridge  over  the  East 
River  at  Hell  Gate  will  be  of  the 
braced-steel  type  and  will  cross  the 
river  in  a  single  span  1017^  feet 
between  the  towers.  The  clearance 
at  high  water  will  be  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  the  others 
over  the  river — 135  Teet. 

The  abutments  will  have  a  base  of 
granite  masonry  surmounted  by  towers 
of  molded  concrete,  which  will  support 
the  heaviest  girders.  This  structural 
steel  will  be  much  liea\  iei-  than  thai 
used  in  the  Firth  of  Forth   Bridge. 


35S 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


THE    PRODUCTION    OF    TEA,    COFFEE    AND    COCOA 


IN  the  days  of  Shakespeare  tea 
cost  from  $30  to  $50  a  pound, 
and  coffee  and  cocoa  were  practi- 
cally unknown.  It  was  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
that  the  three  famous  beverages,  that 
"cheer  but  not  inebriate,"  came  into 
use  among  the  richer  classes  of  Euro- 
pean society.  The  London  coffee- 
houses, in  which  gathered  the  wits, 
poets,  and  politicians  of  London,  in 
the  days  of  Dryden  and  Congreve, 
Addison  and  Pope,  were  the  centers  of 
national  life  for  many  years.  And 
from  them  sprang  the  clubs,  around 
which  many  of  the  social,  literary, 
and  political  activities  of  the  civilized 
world  are  now  grouped. 

Very  likely  the  new  beverages 
greatly  helped  to  foster  all  kinds  of 
sociability,  for  the  reason  that  they 
stimulated  the  mind  wuthout  leading 
to  the  brawls  and  quarrels  of  tavern 
life.  And  the  fact  that  they  were 
at  first  rare  and  expensive  was  no 
doubt  one  of  the  reasons  why  they 
became  extremely  fashionable.  To- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  duty  on  tea  in  England  was 
$12.50  a  pound.  So  a  "dish  of  tea" 
was  a  costlier  thing  than  a  glass  of 
good     wine.     Human     nature     being 


what  it  is,  everybody  was  eager  to 
drink  the  new  beverage.  The  East 
India  Company  began  to  send  to 
China  for  tea.  At  first  they  had 
more  of  the  new  commodity  than  they 
could  dispose  of.  But,  as  is  often  the 
case,  the  supply  created  the  demand, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  English-speaking  races  were 
second  only  to  the  Mongolian  races  in 
their  love  of  tea. 

But  as  the  consumption  was  then 
only  about  two  pounds  of  tea  a  year 
per  head  of  the  population,  small  beer 
and  milk  still  remained  the  common 
beverages  of  the  working  classes. 
Cheap  spirits,  especially  gin,  were 
drunk  by  many  poor  women,  with 
dreadful  results.  At  the  present  time, 
practically  all  the  civilized  races  have 
abandoned  the  breakfast  drink  of 
more  or  less  intoxicating  liquors  for 
one  of  the  three  exotic  stimulants  that 
modern  methods  of  industry  have 
greatly  cheapened  in  price,  and  often 
improved  in  quality.  All  the  British 
races  have  become  inveterate  tea- 
drinkers.  The  Russians  have  acquired 
the  same  taste;  and  the  very  heavy 
duty  on  teas  does  not  prevent  the 
Russian  working  classes  from  adopting 
the  same  beverage  as  the  well-to-do 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  353 

classes  of  their  country.  In  Germany,  adventurers  who  conquered  the  blood- 
Holland,  and  other  parts  of  Northern  thirsty  Aztecs.  The  cacao-tree  flour- 
Europe,  and  in  the  ITnited  States,  ishes  in  Central  America  and  the 
coffee  has  become  the  general  morning  tropical  regions  of  Southern  America, 
stimulant;  while  the  French  and  the  But  the  native  Indians  who  collected 
Mediterranean  peoples  waver  between  the  beans  of  the  tree  that  Linnaeus 
coffee  and  chocolate  as  a  breakfast  enthusiastically  named  "the  food  of 
beverage.  the  gods" — an  appellation  it  still  bears 
The  COFFEE  GROWING  COUNTRIES  in  botany — were  too  slow,  casual,  and 

This  national  difference  in  taste  has  unscientific  workers.      So  the  Portu- 

had  a  considerable  influence  on  the  guese  introduced  the  valuable  tree  into 

agricultural    and    industrial    develop-  their  African  possession  of  San  Thome, 

ment    of    the    tea    plant,    the    coffee  where,    by   means,   unfortunately,    of 

shrub,  and  the  cacao  tree.     In  spite  slave   labor,    more   cocoa   was   lately 

of  the  fact  that  all  these  plants  are  of  produced  than  in  any  other  center  of 

tropical   or   semi-tropical   origin   and  the   industry.     At   present,   however, 

habit,  the  European  nations  interested  our  principal  supply  of  cacao  comes 

in  their  products  have  attempted  for  from  Ecuador. 

centuries  to  cultivate  them.    Here  the  the  tea  plantations  of  assam  and 

progress    of    European    science,    and  ceylon 

particularly  the  science  of  botany,  has  But  the  most  surprising  of  all  the 

had  a  large  influence;  and  the  peoples  shif tings    of    the    production    of    the 

possessing  tropical  colonies  or  depend-  breakfast-table  beverages  is  that  ac- 

encies  have  often  won  a  commanding  complished  by  the  British.    For  more 

advantage    over    the    original    culti-  than  a  thousand  years  the  tea  indus- 

vators.      In  some  cases  this  was  an  try  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 

inevitable  consequence  of  the  widen-  Chinese.     The  origin  of  their  suprem- 

ing  demand  throughout  Europe  for  the  acy   in   the   production   of   the   most 

new  commodities.      For  instance,  all  refreshing  of  drinks  is  lost  in  the  mists 

the  coffee  consumed  in  Europe  used  to  of  their  legendary  ages.     It  is  quite 

come  from  the  province  of  Yemen,  in  possible  that  three  thousand  and  more 

Southern  Arabia.     But  as  the  number  years  have  passed  since  they  took  to 

of    coffee-drinkers    increased,    it    was  cultivating  the  tea  shrubs  that  flourish 

practically  impossible  for  the  Arabians  naturally  in  India,  Burma,  and  other 

to  cope  with  the  demand.     They  still  neighboring  lands  swept  by  the  wet 

retain    the    trade    with    Egypt    and  monsoons.  The  Chinese  were  a  skilful, 

Turkey,  and  provide  a  little  Mocha  patient  and  ingenious  race,  backed  by 

coffee  for  Europe.      But  in  order  to  the  traditions  of  an  ancient  civiliza- 

obtain  a  beverage  that  was  both  good  tion;    and    their    knowledge    of    the 

and  cheap,  the  Dutch  and  the  Portu-  preparation  of  tea  was  for  a  long  time 

guese  and  the  Germans  have  had  to  carefully  kept  from  the  foreigner,  for 

migrate  to  Java  and  Brazil,  and  there  it  was  one  of  the  main  sources  of  the 

develop    immense    coffee    plantations  national  wealth. 

for  the  benefit  of  the  white  races.  But   some   botanists    succeeded    in 

Where  chocolate  comes  from  studying  the  tea  plant,  and  found  it 

A   similar   thing   has   happened   in  was  an  evergreen  shrub  of  the  same 

regard  to  cocoa  and  chocolate.    As  is  family  as  the  camellia,   that  is  well 

well  known,  cocoa  was  introduced  into  known  for  its  beautiful  flowers.    Then 

Europe  from  Mexico  by  the  Spanish  it  was  discovered,  in  1820,  that  the 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


tea  plant  was  growing  wild  in  Assam, 
and  the  wild  plant  was  sent  to  the 
director  of  Kew  Gardens,  near  Lon- 
don, for  examination.  Unfortunately, 
the  director  would  not  believe  in  the 
plain  evidence  submitted  to  him;  and 
he  dashed  the  hopes  of  the  men  who 
thought  of  establishing  tea  ])lanta- 
tions  in  India,  by  stating  that  the 
Assam  shrub  was  not  a  true  tea  plant. 
It  was  not  until  1840  that  the  facts  of 
the  matter  were  clearly  and  firmly 
proved,  to  the  discredit  of  the  director 
of   Kew    Gardens. 

The  Assam  Tea  Company  was 
then  formed,  and  by  developing  the 
scientific  cultivation  of  the  fine  native 
Indian  tea  it  has  now  paid  its  share 
holders  nearly  750  per  cent  on  their 
capital. 

Introduced  into  Ceylon  after  the 
coffee  plantations  of  that  island  were 
destroyed  by  a  harmful  microscopic 
fungus,  the  wild  tea  plant  of  Assam 
has  now  enabled  the  Ceylon  planters 
alone  to  excel  the  tea  exports  of  the 
whole  of  the  Chinese  Republic.  When 
the  tea  industrv  of  India,  Cevlon, 
Burma  and  the  Shan  States  is  con- 
trasted as  a  whole  with  the  export  tea 
trade  of  China  and  Japan,  the  swiftly 
won  supremacy  of  the  British  planter 
is  seen  to  be  tremendous.  The  British 
possessions  do  more  than  double  the 
export  tea  trade  of  China;  and  for 
some  years  a  good  many  million 
pounds  of  Indian  and  Ceylon  tea  of 
poor  cjuality  have  been  imported  into 
China. 

The  Japanese,  who  recently  con- 
trolled practically  all  the  tea  trade 
with  the  United  States,  are  also  be- 
ginning to  feel  very  keenly  the  com- 
petition of  the  British  tea  planter. 
They  are  now  so  hard  pressed  that 
they  are  giving  up  the  struggle,  and 
the  taste  for  fine  Indian  and  Ceylon 
teas  is  now  rapidly  spreading  through- 
out North  America. 


The  best  of  all  teas 

Only  the  plantations  on  the  island 
of  Formosa  seem  to  be  safe  from  the 
scientific  attack  of  British  botanists 
and  planters.    Formosan  tea — known 
in  the  market  as  Oolong — has  a  curious 
and  special  flavor  which  tea-blenders 
prize.     With    the    exception    of    For- 
mosan tea  and  the  mate  tea  of  South 
America,  India  and  Ceylon  now  pro- 
duce teas  of  every  practical  variety. 
The    choicest    kind    of    Indian    hill- 
grown   teas   are   excelled   by   nothing 
that  China  exports,  and  for  blends  of 
cheap,   strong,  pure  leaf  the  planta- 
tions of  Ceylon  are  unrivaled.     The 
Chinese  themselves  have  had  to  go 
to  India  and  study  the  science  of  the 
tea  industry  in  order  to  learn  to  handle 
in  a  clean  and  efficient  manner  their 
own  produce.     The  Indian  tea  plant 
has  been  introduced  into  Java,  and 
there  cultivated.     Java  is  now  com- 
bining   with    India    and    Ceylon    in 
sending  the  refuse  of  their  factories  to 
Chinese  ports. 

The  amazing  agricultural  victory 
Avhich  has  been  won  against  the 
experienced  Chinese  was  achieved  by 
three  concurring  factors.  These  factors 
were  modern  science,  personal  enter- 
prise, and  modern  power  machinery. 
Modern  science,  in  the  persons  of  a 
few  botanists,  discovered  the  wild  tea 
plant  of  Assam,  and  thus  provided 
I)lanters  with  a  stronger  and  more 
productive  shrub  than  the  highly 
cultivated  })lant  of  the  Chinese.  The 
leaf  of  the  Assam  shrub  is  twice  the 
size  of  that  of  the  Chinese  plant;  and 
when  it  is  grown  in  the  still,  steaming 
heat  of  Ceylon  and  other  tropical 
regions,  it  produces  two  crops  where 
the  Chinese  plant  only  gives  one 
picking.  Such  are  the  natural  ad- 
vantages of  the  plant  that  men  of 
science  discovered.  The  tea-planter 
l^egan  by  adopting  the  Chinese  meth- 
ods of  cultivation,  for  which  the  wild 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  TEA  PLANT  IN  CEYLON 


PLANTING   A  YOUNG  TEA   SEEDLING   IN   RECLAIMED  LAND 


COOLIES   HOEING  ON   A  TEA  PLANTATION 

J6S 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


plant  was  unsuited.  Again  botanists 
came  to  his  aid,  and  taught  him  how 
to  treat  the  Indian  shrub  in  a  maimer 
that  best  favored  its  growth. 

Having  thus  learned  to  make  the 
very  best  of  his  natural  advantages, 
the  planter  then  became  a  man  of 
enterprise.  He  called  upon  engineers 
to  provide  him  with  power  machinery 
for  dealing  with  the  tea  leaves  that 
the  natives  picked  for  him.  This  was 
a  very  wise  act,  and  it  required  some 
foresight  to  conceive  it.  For  the  sup- 
ply of  native  hand  labor  grew  abundant 
and  remarkably  cheap,  and  it  would 
have  been  easy  to  carry  out  all  the 


CHINESE  FATHER  AND   SON  CARRYING  TEA 

operations  of  preparing  the  tea  leaf 
by  means  of  manual  work.  But  the 
tea-planters  aimed  at  preparing  an 
article  that  should  be  exceptionally 
clean,  and  treated  with  the  utmost 
precision  in  every  process,  so  that 
large  quantities  could  be  regularly 
turned  out  possessing  identical  quali- 
ties. So  they  began  to  use  machinery ; 
and  the  malpractices  of  a  large  class  of 


their  rivals  in  China  further  helped 
them  to  secure  the  world's  market. 
Tea  growing  in  china 

In  the  green-tea  districts  of  China 
practically  every  cottager  has  his  own 
little  tea-garden.  It  supplies  the 
wants  of  the  family,  and  brings  in  a 
small  but  very  useful  amount  of 
money.  The  picking  begins  about  the 
middle  of  April.  The  first  crop  con- 
sists of  scarcely  expanding  leaf  buds, 
and  the  tea  made  from  them  is  costly 
and  exquisite.  It  is  chiefly  used  in 
gift  offerings  at  marriage.  The  pluck- 
ing of  the  bud  is  liable  to  injure  the 
plants,  but  usually  the  abundant 
spring  showers  renew  the  strength  of 
the  shrub,  and  in  two  or  three  weeks 
it  is  ready  for  the  second  picking. 
This  is  the  most  important  of  the 
season;  but  when  the  plant  has  again 
recovered,  the  third  and  last  gathering 
is  begun.  This,  however,  produces  an 
inferior  variety  of  tea.  The  instru- 
ments used  by  the  Chinese  in  preparing 
the  tea  leaf  are  very  simple. 

Quite  a  large  proportion  of  the  tea 
that  comes  from  China  is  manufac- 
tured in  the  huts  and  sheds  of  the 
peasantry.  Round,  shallow  pans  of 
thin  iron  are  built,  several  together, 
in  a  brickwork  furnace.  The  fireplace 
is  at  one  end,  the  rough  chimney  at 
the  other,  so  that  the  flue  runs  beneath 
the  row  of  pans.  When  the  leaves  are 
brought  from  the  garden  they  are 
placed  in  a  drying-house,  which  is 
often  the  cottage  itself.  The  furnace 
is  then  lighted,  and  the  leaves  are 
thrown  into  the  heated  pans,  and  con- 
tinually stirred  by  the  cottager  and 
his  family.  The  heat  causes  the  leaves 
to  crack  and  exude  their  sap,  and  in 
about  five  minutes  they  grow  soft  and 
pliable.  They  are  then  placed  upon 
bamboo  tables,  and  the  workers  take 
up  handfuls  of  the  leaves,  and  knead 
them  in  much  the  same  fashion  as  a 
baker   works   dough.     The   object  of 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


357 


this  process,  that  lasts  about  five 
minutes,  is  to  twist  the  leaves  and 
press  out  the  sap  and  moisture,  which 
escapes  through  the  chinks  in  the 
surface  of  the  table. 

The  moisture  that  still  remains  in 
the  leaves  is  then  gotten  rid  of  very 
gradually  and  gently  by  taking  the 
rolled  leaves  and  spreading  them  out 
thinly  and  evenly  upon  a  screen  of 
bamboo,  and  there  exposing  them  to 
the  action  of  the  air.  The  state  of  the 
weather  determines  this  stage  of  the 
manufacture,  but  in  no  case  is  the 
screen  exposed  to  hot  sunshine.  For 
this  would  evaporate  the  moisture  too 
quickly,  leaving  the  tea  crisp  and 
coarse,  and  unfit  for  the  next  process. 
This  consists  in  replacing  the  soft  and 
pliant  leaves  in  the  drying-pans  over 
a  slow,  steady  fire.  The  tea  must  not 
be  scorched  or  burned.  So  one  worker 
looks  carefully  after  the  fire,  while  the 
others  bend  over  the  pans  and  begin 
to  mix  and  stir  the  leaves  with  their 
hands. 

As  the  heat  increases,  small  bam- 
boo whisks  are  used,  the  leaves 
being  thrown  against  the  sloping  sides 
of  the  pans  and  allowed  to  roll  back  to 
the  bottom.  Under  this  treatment 
the  tea,  gradually  parts  with  its  mois- 
ture, and  twists  and  curls;  and  after 
about  an  hour  it  is  taken  from  the 
pans,  and  sorted  and  packed. 

This  is  the  process  of  making  green 
tea.  Black  teas  are  allowed  to  stand 
longer  in  the  open  air,  usually  for  two 
or  three  days.  During  this  time  they 
undergo  a  fermentation  which  does 
not  take  place  in  the  manufacture  of 
green  teas.  In  the  firing  or  final 
drying  of  black  tea,  great  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  heat  steady. 
Usually  the  grandfather  of  the  family, 
having  the  most  experience,  tends  to 
the  furnace,  while  his  descendants 
keep  the  leaves  constantly  stirred  in 
the  pans. 


Why  some  tea  is   green  and  some 

BLACK 

The  scandal  over  the  manufacture 
of  Chinese  teas  occurred  at  Canton, 
where  the  green  teas  were  mainly 
exported.  In  order  to  increase  the 
color  and  brilliancy  of  the  leaves,  they 
were  treated  with  gypsum  and  Prussian 
blue — a  highly  poisonous  product. 
The  tea-tasters  at  the  London  market, 
who  had  to  sample  very  large  numbers 
of  consignments  of  these  teas,  were  at 
times  liable  to  attacks  of  poisoning. 
These  were  at  first  put  down  to  heavy 
tea-drinking,  and  few  tasters  now 
swallow  much  of  the  beverages  they 
sample.  But  chemical  analysis  proved 
that  it  was  the  poisonous  coloring 
matter  used  by  the  Chinese  that  pro- 
duced the  serious  illnesses. 

No  doubt  at  the  present  day  the 
green  teas  of  China  are  generally  pre- 
pared for  the  foreign  markets  in  this 
manner.  But  the  injury  to  the  repu- 
tation of  the  Chinese  tea  manufac- 
turers has  not  yet  been  fully  repaired. 
The  malpractices  have  greatly  helped 
to  advance  the  prestige  of  the  cleanly 
and  scientifically  prepared  teas  of 
India  and  Ceylon.  In  1885,  China 
exported  283,833,466  pounds  of  tea. 
In  1909  she  only  marketed  abroad 
199,792,400  pounds. 
Tea  culture  in  British  india 

There  are  about  half  a  million  acres 
of  tea  plantations  in  India,  the  greater 
part  of  which  are  in  Eastern  Bengal 
and  Assam.  In  Ceylon,  somewhat 
under  four  hundred  thousand  acres  of 
land  are  planted  with  the  tea  shrub, 
and  the  value  of  the  richly  productive 
plantations  has  recently  been  further 
enhanced  by  interplanting  them  with 
rubber-trees.  The  average  size  of  an 
estate  is  about  three  hundred  acres; 
and  though  there  has  been  a  tendency 
of  late  years  to  group  several  planta- 
tions under  one  working  staff,  to 
reduce    working    and    managing    ex- 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


penses,  a  large  number  of  estates  are 
of  comparatively  small  size,  and  di- 
rected by  British  planters  resident  on 
the  land. 

Yet  a  good  many  planters  are  now 
only  the  servants  of  some  company, 
instead  of  being,  as  they  used  often  to 
be,  the  actual  owners  of  the  estates. 
An  enormous  labor  supply  of  400,000 
coolies  is  necessary  to  run  the  Ceylon 
plantations.  The  Tamils  of  Southern 
India  form  the  principal  recruits. 
Entire  families  of  men,  women  and 
children  are  collected  in  their  villages 
and  transported  to  Ceylon.  The 
majority  are  fairly  good  workers,  and 
return  home  with  an  amount  of  savings 
that  often  enable  them  to  rise  in  life, 
but  some  are  so  pleased  with  the  good 
wages  they  earn  that  they  settle  down 
permanently  by  the  tea  plantations. 

In  opening  out  a  new  tea  garden, 
the  coolies  begin  by  clearing  and  hoe- 
ing and  trenching  a  piece  of  the  jungle. 
This  forms  a  nursery.  It  is  carefully 
fenced  to  prevent  damage  from  cattle 
or  wild  animals,  and  planted  with  seed, 
which  has  been  sprouted  in  seed-beds. 
Then  it  is  covered  with  thatching  to 
protect  it  from  the  scorching  sun.  In 
the  meantime,  the  site  of  the  future 
plantation  is  being  cleared  and  hoed, 
and  roads  and  drains  are  made  through 
it.  Stakes  are  then  placed  in  the  soil, 
about  four  feet  apart,  marking  the 
rows  in  which  the  young  tree  plants  are 
to  be  grown.  The  plants  are  taken  from 
the  nursery,  when  about  a  foot  high, 
and  very  carefully  planted  in  the  lines 
of  holes  prepared  for  them.  The 
planter  has  then  to  wait  for  three  years 
for  any  return  on  the  young  plantation, 
and  he  has  to  bear  a  considerable 
running  expense  for  the  incessant 
labor  needed  to  keep  down  the  vigorous 
tropical  weeds.  He  has  to  endure  also 
the  hot,  stagnant,  steaming  heat  of 
the  jungle,  which  is  so  vital  a  necessity 
to   the   Indian   tea   plant   that   when 


Chinese  methods  of  cultivating  were 
first  adopted  the  native  shrub  refused 
to  grow  properly. 

How  THE  TEA  LEAVES  ARE  CLASSIFIED 

When  grown  in  accordance  with 
their  native  habit,  the  plants  at  the 
end  of  three  years  begin  to  send  out  an 
abundance  of  young  leaf  shoots,  known 
as  tiie  "flush."  The  plucking  is  then 
carried  out  at  regular  intervals,  and 
from  time  to  time  the  bushes  are 
pruned.  This  not  only  keeps  the; 
growth  of  the  plant  within  bounds,  and 
allows  the  plucking  being  done  easily, 
but  it  promotes  the  growth  of  abundant 
flushes.  In  the  colder  climate  of  China 
and  Japan,  the  flushing  ceases  in  the 
winter.  In  Ceylon,  however,  it  con- 
tinues throughout  the  year,  and  the 
flush  is  ready  for  picking  every  ten  or 
twelve  days.  Upon  the  size  of  the  leaf 
when  picked  depends  the  quality  of 
the  tea.  In  fine  plucking,  the  bud  at 
the  top  of  the  shoot  and  the  two  young 
leaves  just  below  it  are  taken.  In 
medium  plucking,  three  lea ves  are  taken 
with  the  bud.  In  coarse  plucking,  four 
leaves  and  the  bud  are  gathered. 

The  teas  known  as  Pekoes  are  made 
from  the  fine  plucking.  Flowery  Pekoe 
consists  of  the  youngest  leaf.  Orange 
is  made  from  the  second  leaf,  and 
Pekoe  from  the  third  leaf.  From  the 
larger  leaves  Souchongs  and  Congous 
are  prepared,  and  there  is  also  a  mix- 
ture of  young  and  old  leaves  which  is 
known  as  Pekoe-Souchong.  In  ]>ur- 
chasing  tea  it  is  best  to  buy  one  of 
the  Pekoes,  because  the  quality  of  the 
beverage  made  from  the  youngest 
leaves  is  finer  and  more  wholesome; 
and,  besides,  a  less  quantity  of  tea 
is  needed  in  the  teapot.  All  the 
money  lavished  on  the  advertisements 
of  cheap,  coarse  teas  made  from  large 
old  leaves  will  not  alter  this  fact. 
Curing  tea  by  machinery 

Gathered  into  baskets  by  women, 
and  taken  into  the  factory,  the  flush 


THE    PREPARATION    OF    TEA    FOR    THE    MARKETS 


TIERS  OF  TRAYS  ON  WHICH  THE  TEA  LEAVES  ARE  TOUGHENED  BY  EXPOSURE  TO  THE  AIR 


MODERN   MACHINERY  EMPLOYED  IN  SORTING  TEA 

369 


360  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

is  weighed,  and  then  thinly  spread  out  about  two  hours — the  leaf  is  fired  in  the 
on  shelves  of  canvas  or  wire  mesh,  drying-machines,  and  all  other  fer- 
placed  one  above  the  other,  where  the  mentation  is  arrested  by  the  heat, 
leaf  naturally  withers  in  good  weather  Besides  checking  the  fermentation, 
in  about  eighteen  hours.  The  with-  the  firing  process  removes  all  the 
ered  leaves  are  then  shot  into  the  moisture  without  driving  off  the 
rolling-machines,  where  they  are  essential  oil  and  other  constituents 
bruised  to  allow  their  juices  to  become  that  give  a  tea  most  of  its  value, 
mixed,  and  they  are  also  curled  or  There  are  many  types  of  firing- 
twisted.  From  the  rolling-machine  machines.  But  all  of  them  act  by 
the  tea  falls  in  yellow  clinging  masses  sending  a  current  of  hot,  dry  air 
into  a  roll  breaker,  that  breaks  up  the  through  the  damp,  fermented  leaf,  and 
masses  and  drops  the  tea  into  a  sifter,  making  it  dry  and  brittle.  After 
where  the  coarser  leaves  are  separated  being  fired  the  tea  is  taken  to  the 
from  the  younger,  finer  growth.  sorting  room,  and  sifted  by  a  machine 
Then  comes  the  important  process  through  a  series  of  moving  sieves  of 
of  fermentation.  On  its  success  largely  varying  sizes  of  mesh.  The  siftings 
depend  the  quality  and  character  of  the  are  classed  as  Flowery  Orange  Pekoe, 
tea.  As  we  have  already  explained,  Orange  Pekoe,  and  Pekoe  No.  1. 
green  tea  that  was  formerly  so  popular  These  are  unbroken  teas.  But  the 
is  manufactured  by  omitting  the  coarser  leaves,  which  do  not  shoot 
fermentation  process,  but  all  black  through  the  meshes,  are  transferred  to 
teas  are  fermented.  This  is  accom-  breaking-machines,  and  broken  up  and 
plished  by  putting  the  rolled  leaf  in  passed  through  the  sieves.  They  form 
drawers  or  on  mats,  which  are  placed  the  products  known  as  Broken  Orange 
one  above  the  other  so  as  to  permit  Pekoe,  Pekoe  No.  2,  and  so  on.  The 
the  air  freely  to  enter  and  work  on  the  tea  dust  is  shipped  separately  as 
bruised  leaves.  During  the  fermenta-  "dust"  and  "fannings."  The  green 
tion  the  leaf  emits  a  peculiar  odor,  and  teas  are  sifted  in  a  similar  manner  into 
changes  color;  and  when  the  right  a  descending  scale  of  quality,  rep  re- 
gradation  of  copper-brown  tint  has  sented  by  Young  Hyson,  Hyson  No.  1, 
been    attained — which    usually    takes  Hyson  No.  2,  Gunpowder,  and  Dust. 


THE  COFFEE  PLANT  AND  COFFEE  PRODUCTION 

THE  coffee  trade  of  Great  Britain  as  it  ripens,  turns  from  a  dark  green 

is  much  inferior  in  importance  to  a  deep  crimson.     The  outer  portion 

to  its  tea  trade.      In  Germany  of  the  fruit  somewhat  resembles  that 

and  America  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  of  an  ordinary  cherry,  and  inside  the 

national  breakfast  beverage,  and  so  it  is  pulp  are  the  two  beans,  of  a  greenish- 

in  Holland.     The  Arabian  coffee  plant  gray    tint,    that    form   the    coffee   of 

is  a  shrub  that  grows  to  a  height  of  commerce.       Besides      the      Arabian 

about  fifteen  feet.     It  has  been  found  coffee  plant,   there  are  about  eighty 

wild  in  Abyssinia,  and  there  are  good  known  varieties  of  the  shrub,  but  only 

grounds  for  supposing  that  this  region  two  of  them  are  cultivated  in  consider- 

of  Africa  was  the  natural  home  of  the  able  quantity.     One  is  found  on  the 

plant.     The  flowers  are  white  in  color  West   Coast  of  Africa,   and  is  called 

and    exquisitely    fragrant,    and    from  Liberian  coffee.     By  reason  of  the  fact 

them  is  born  the  coffee  cherry,  which,  that  it  is  more  resistant  to  disease,  and 


WHERE   THE  FRAGRANT  COFFEE-BERRY   TR   GROWN 


A  cup  of  coffee  begins  its  existence  as  a  tiny  shrub.  When  six  months  old  it  is  transferred  with  others  to  the  plantations 
and  in  three  years  grows  to  between  six  and  ten  feet  high.  It  then  bears  fruit,  and  does  so  for  about  twenty  years.  The 
fruit  is  something  like  dark  red  cherries,  but,  instead  of  containing  one  stone,  there  are  two  seeds,  or  berries,  of  a  light, 
(reen  or  yellow  color.    Here  we  see  the  coffee  being  picked. 

S61 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


more  vigorous  in  growth  than  the 
Arabian  coffee  plant,  it  has  gradually 
won  for  itself  a  place  in  the  Orient. 

The  third  variety  of  coffee  plant 
is  the  Maragogipe,  discovered  in  1870 
near  the  town  of  that  name  in  Brazil. 
It  is  very  hardy  and  twice  as  large  as 
the  Arabian  plant,  and  its  berries  are 
double  the  size  of  the  latter.  It  com- 
mands a  very  good  price,  and  it  is  a 
special  favorite  in  Germany,  but  our 
best  judges  are  disinclined  to  allow 
that  the  quality  of  its  infusion  is  in 
any  .way  superior  to  that  of  the  Mocha 
coffee  berry.  Experiments  are  still 
being  made  with  the  numerous  other 
varieties  in  the  hope  of  finding  a  kind 
especially  fitted  for  cultivation  in 
different    regions. 

How     BRAZIL     DOMINATES     THE     COFFEE 
MARKET 

The  Brazilians  now  exercise  over  the 
coffee  market  a  greater  influence  than 
even  the  British  planter  exercises  over 
the  tea  market.  They  produce  at 
least  three-fourths  of  the  beans,  and 
with  little  or  no  effort  their  planters 
could  flood  the  market.  They  refrain 
at  present  from  so  doing,  in  accordance 
with  an  agreement  which  was  drawn 
up  to  prevent  a  continual  over-supply 
from  lowering  the  price  of  the  produce. 
In  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil, 
where  the  most  important  plantations 
are  established,  the  average  yield  is 
1500  lbs.  of  berries  from  a  thousand 
trees.  But  by  clearing  new  land  in  the 
jungle  and  planting  trees  there  the 
extraordinary  return  of  10,000  lbs.  is 
obtained  from  the  same  number  of 
trees.  It  is  this  immense  reserve  of 
productive  force  which  enables  Brnzil 
to  maintain  her  commanding  position. 

A  hot,  moist,  tropical  climate,  with 
a  high  rainfall,  and  a  rich,  well- 
drained  soil  at  a  height  of  two  thousand 
feet  above  sea  level,  is  best  for  a  coffee 
plantation.  For  though  excellent 
coffee  can  be  grown  in  dry  regions,  the 


crop  is  usually  very  small.  In  a  moist 
climate,  no  nursery  is  used,  for  the 
seeds  are  planted  directly  in  the  fields, 
at  a  distance  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
apart.  In  Brazil,  catch-ciops  of 
maize  and  beans  are  cultivated  be- 
tween the  young  shrubs.  They  not 
only  yield  a  good  return,  but  serve 
to  shelter  the  coffee  from  the  sun.  In 
some  countries,  permanent  shade-trees 
are  often  planted;  this  is  not  done  in 
Brazil  or  Jamaica,  but  it  is  said  to  be 
absolutely  necessary  in  Porto  Rico. 
Gathering  the  coffee  crop 

As  a  rule  the  coffee  shrub  first  flowers 
in  its  third  year,  bearing  then  only  a 
small  crop.  It  is  in  the  fifth  year  that 
the  planter  reaps  the  full  fruit 
of  his  labor.  A  coffee  estate  in  full 
flower  is  a  very  beautiful  sight,  but 
its  glory  quickly  passes.  The  setting 
of  the  fruit  occurs  within  twenty-four 
hours;  then  seven  months  and  more 
are  necessary  to  ripen  it.  The  dark 
red  cherries  are  stripped  from  the 
branches  by  hand  in  Brazil,  but  in 
Arabia  they  are  allowed  to  fall  off 
naturally  on  to  a  cloth  spread  beneath 
the  tree.  This  ensures  only  quite 
ripe  fruit  being  collected,  and  is  no 
doubt  one  reason  for  the  excellent 
qualities  of  Mocha  coffee.  The 
Arabians  also  keep  to  the  old-fashioned 
method  of  spreading  out  the  cherries 
on  stone  drying-grounds,  and  exposing 
them  to  strong  sunlight.  In  two  or 
three  weeks  the  pulp  dries,  and  is  then 
removed  by  pounding  the  fruit  in  a 
mortar.  In  Brazil,  the  wet  method  of 
preparation  is  cominggenerally  into  use. 

The  cherries  are  put  into  pulping- 
machines,  that  consist  of  a  thing  like  a 
huge  nutmeg-grater  revolving  close  to 
a  curved  metal  plate.  Between  the 
grater  and  the  plate  there  is  no  room 
for  the  cherries  to  pass,  and  they  are 
ground  to  pulp.  The  mixture  of  pulp 
and  seeds  travels  into  a  vat  full  of 
water  that  is  kept  agitated  by  machin- 


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363 


ery.  The  heavy  seeds  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom, while  the  lighter  pulp  is  removed 
by  an  overflow  of  water.  The  beans 
are  drawn  oflP  by  another  stream  of  water 
into  a  large  sieve,  and  from  there 
they  are  taken  to  a  fermentating  vat. 

They  ferment  for  perhaps  two  days, 
until  the  pulpy  layer  that  clings  to  the 
bean  is  removed .  The  beans  are  then 
sent  into  another  vat,  through  which  a 
shallow  stream  of  water  runs;  and 
there  they  are  trampled  by  the  bare 
feet  of  the  working  people,  and  rin- 
sed and  raked  by  machinery  until  the 
parchment  coverings  are  quite  clean. 

During  this  washing  process  the 
beans  which  have  not  developed 
properly  rise  up  and  float  on  the  sur- 
face, and  they  are  collected  for 
making  inferior  coffee. 
Removing  the  parchment  from  the 

BEAN 

After  washing,  the  beans  are  dried, 
either  by   sunlight    or   artificial   heat. 


and  then  their  silver  parchment  skin 
is  peeled  off  by  machinery.  The 
machines  are  of  various  ty])es,  but 
the  essential  operation  of  all  of  them 
is  to  crack  the  parchment  without 
damaging  the  bean. 

The  light  pieces  of  skin  are  removed 
by  a  winnowing  fan,  and  another  rub- 
bing and  winnowing  instrument  gets 
rid  of  the  silver  skin,  leaving  the  beans 
clean  and  in  the  condition  of  ordinary 
unroasted  coffee. 

Some  central  American  States, 
however,  such  as  Costa  Rica  and 
Guatemala,  and  other  countries 
with  a  tropical  climate,  send  us 
their  coffee  with  the  skin  on;  this  is 
known  in  the  trade  as  parchment 
coffee.  It  is  done  partly  to  save 
the  planters  from  the  expense  of 
erecting  machinery,  but  mainly  be- 
cause freshly  husked  coffee  is  of  a 
brighter  and  more  attractive  color 
than    the  other  sort. 


PRODUCTION   AND    USES    OF    COCOA   AND    CHOCOLATE 


SEVERAL  populous  nations,  and 
the  Germans  in  particular,  seem 
now  to  be  becoming  cocoa  and 
chocolate  drinkers  instead  of  coffee 
drinkers.  In  the  United  States  there 
has  been  an  increase  of  70  per  cent  in 
four  years  in  the  consumption  of  cocoa 
products.  In  Germany  for  the  same 
period,  the  increase  was  61  per  cent;  in 
France,  21  per  cent;  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  11  per  cent.  No  doubt 
much  of  this  remarkably  large  and 
sudden  increase  is  due  to  the  growing 
popularity  of  the  various  kinds  of 
chocolate  sweet  meats.  But  it  must 
also  be  attributed  in  part  to  a 
growing  taste  for  cocoa  beverages  at 
the  expense  of  the  morning  cup  of 
coffee  that  the  Americans,  Germans, 
and  French  used  to  prefer.  The 
fact  that  the  product  of  the  cacao- 
tree  is  a  food-drink  as  well  as  a  stimu- 


lating beverage  is  no  doubt  partly 
responsible  for  its  increasing  popular- 
ity. But  the  main  factor  in  the  matter 
is,  we  think,  the  recent  improvements 
which  have  variously  been  made  in 
the  machine  processes  of  its  manu- 
facture. 

Cocoa  is  naturally  somewhat  too 
fatty  a  beverage,  and  the  ground 
kernels  are  also  somewhat  insoluble. 
So  the  modern  manufacturer  has  been 
faced  with  the  difficult  task  of  reducing 
the  fat  of  the  kernels,  and  making  the 
ground  powder  rapidly  soluble  in 
boiling  water.  Thus  the  manufacture 
of  cocoa,  in  a  fine  and  con^•enient 
form,  has  involved  certain  chemical 
and  mechanical  problems  far  more 
difficult  of  solution  than  the  problems 
of  tea  and  coffee  manufacture. 
This  is  the  reason  of  the  long  delay 
in     the     widespread     popularity     of 


WHERE    THE    CHOCOLATES    COME    FROM 


^«S?f. 


These  are  the  cocoa-beans  as  they  arrive  at  the  factory  in  this  country.  They  grow  in  large  pods,  looking  like  cucum- 
bers, on  trees  in  the  West  Indies,  in  the  hottest  parts  of  America,  and  in  Africa.  The  pods,  seen  on  the  right,  have  to  be 
opened,  and  the  beans  are  taken  out  and  dried.     On  the  left  of  the  picture  we  see  the  beans. 


If  we  taste  the  cocoa-bean  in  its  natural  state  it  Is  far  from  palatable.    So  It  Is  improvea  by  a  thorough  roasting.    ThiB 
picture  shows  a  man  roasting  the  beans. 


8M 


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365 


the  "food  of  the  gods,"  which 
Cortes,  the  conqueior  of  Mexico, 
introduced  into  Europe  in  1528,  when 
he  returned  to  the  Court  of  Spain. 
For  many  years  the  Spaniards  closely 
guarded  the  secret  of  chocolate  prepara- 
tion, which  they  learned  from  the 
Mexicans,  but  in  1606  an  Italian  dis- 
covered the  process  of  roasting  the 
beans,  and  revealed  it  to  the  rest  of 
Europe. 

The  French  started  to  grow  cocoa  in 
Martinique  in  1679,  about  the  same 
time  that  the  Spaniards  began  to 
cultivate  it  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  British  also  took  to  planting 
cacao-trees  in  the  West  Indies  and 
Guiana. 
Laying  out  a  cacao  plantation 

The  cacao-tree  sometimes  grows  to 
a  height  of  forty  feet,  but  in  cultivation 
from  fifteen  to  twenty -five  feet  are  the 
usual  limits  of  size  of  fully  grown  trees. 
There  are  many  wild  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  coming  into  cultivation. 
Yet  the  cacao-tree  proper,  which  is  a 
native  of  the  tropical  regions  extending 
from  Mexico  to  Brazil,  still  supplies 
the  greater  quantity  of  beans  for  cocoa 
and  chocolate  making.  The  small  red 
flowers  are  curiously  carried  on  the 
trunk  or  main  branches.  They  are 
succeeded  by  pods  of  a  cucumber  shape, 
that  turn  from  green  to  red  as  they 
ripen — a  process  which  takes  about  four 
months.  The  trees  are  usually  raised  in 
nurseries,  and  planted  out  in  warm,  low- 
lying,  sheltered  plantations.  It  is  best 
for  the  trees  to  be  protected  from  the 
tropical  sunlight,  and  the  planters  are 
finding  a  new  and  large  source  of  profit 
in  the  use  of  rubber-trees  as  a  shelter. 
When  the  trees  are  three  or  four 
years  old  they  begin  to  flower;  and 
after  they  have  once  produced  fruit, 
regular  crops  may  be  obtained,  with 
proper  -are,  for  fifty  or  more  years.  A 
cacao  plantation  is  thus  a  valuable 
property;  and  where  rich  jungle  soil  is 


The  cocoa  tree  belongs  to  a  family  of  trees  called  by  a 
Greek  name  meaning  "food  for  the  gods."  This  picture 
is  a  very  close  view  of  the  cocoa-pods  growing  out  of  the 
stem  of  a  tree  in  a  plantation  in  Ecuador,  the  chief  country 
where  this  tree  is  grown.  It  needs  a  very  hot  climate,  a 
deep,  rich  soil,  and  abundant  moisture. 


FROM     GRINDING     MILL     TO     CHOCOLATE     MOLDS 


When  roasted  and  broken  up,  the  bean  will  make  either  cocoa  to  drink  or  chocolate  to  eat.  Here  chocolate  is  being 
made  for  famous  shops,  so  the  baked  bean  is  ground  in  mills.  The  beans  come  out  of  these  in  the  form  of  powder,  and 
fine  sugar  is  afterwards  mixed  with  it  to  give  the  chocolate  a  pleasant  taste. 


Now  we  have  the  substance  of  the  chocolate,  but,  as  it  is  still  a  powder,  it  must  be  melted  by  great  heat  into  liquid 
paste,  so  that  glrlg  can  pour  it  into  molds,  which  will  make  it,  when  cool,  into  pretty  shapes. 

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367 


available,  a  skilful  planter,  possessing 
an  adequate  supply  of  labor,  can  often 
make  a  large  fortune  in  a  few  years. 

Gathering  and  roasting  the  great 
BROWN  beans 

The  ripe  pods  are  gathered  by  means 
of  a  hand-knife,  and  the  pods  are  then 
broken  and  the  beans  removed,  and 
allowed  to  ferment  in  vats  until  they 
acquire  a  cinnamon-red  color.  It  is  in 
the  process  of  fermentation  that  skill 
and  experience  are  of  vital  importance. 
Certain  microbes  in  the  vats  or  fer- 
menting sacks  attack  the  embryo  of  the 
bean,  and  kill  it;  and  then  fermenting 
agents,  known  as  enzymes,  diffuse 
through  the  dead  tissues,  and  alter  the 
composition  of  the  bean.  The  process 
lasts  from  nine  to  twelve  days,  and 
shrinks  and  toughens  the  skin,  and 
alters  the  color  and  taste  of  the  kernel. 
When  the  required  color  and  aroma 
are  obtained,  the  beans  are  stirred  and 
scrubbed  under  running  water,  and 
made  clean  and  smooth,  and  spread  out 
on  drying-floors,  and  dried  either  by 
sunlight,  hot  water,  or  steam-pipes. 
Then,  packed  in  sacks,  they  are  read\' 
for  the  market. 

After  buying  the  beans  in  this  state, 
however,  some  manufacturers  submit 
them  to  further  fermentation.  This  is 
done  by  soaking  the  beans  in  water  for 
two  days,  and  drying  them  off  in  a 
mild  heat.  The  beans  then  usually 
pass  through  a  sorting  and  cleaning 
machine,  that  rocks  them  through  a 
series  of  sieves  of  varying  mesh,  and 
winnows  away  the  dirt  and  hollow 
beans  by  means  of  a  power-driven  fan. 
It  is  necessary  to  sort  the  beans,  so  that 
the  next  process  of  roasting,  which 
is  an  operation  of  great  delicacy  and 
far-reaching  effect,  may  be  perfectly 
performed.  It  does  not  do  to  roast  a 
small  bean  with  a  large  bean.  For 
though  they  may  be  naturally  of  the 
same  quality,  they  will  differ  very 
considerably  after  the  same  treatment. 


By  arranging  the  beans  according  to 
size,  the  manufacturer  is  able  to  sub- 
mit them  to  a  varying  roasting  process 
that  tends  to  keep  them  of  even  quality 
throughout.  The  roasting  is  done  on 
a  large  scale  by  means  of  machines, 
through  which  hot  air  or  gas  is  circu- 
lated with  a  forced  draft.  Th(^ 
roasting  process,  whether  conducted 
over  an  open  fire  or  in  a  machine, 
develops  the  aroma  of  the  beans, 
changes  their  coloring  matter,  and 
renders  their  starch  granules  soluble. 

After  roasting,  the  beans  are  rapidly 
cooled  down  on  a  cooling-machine; 
and,  while  still  slightly  warm,  they  are 
passed  between  rollers  that  break  the 
husks  and  collect  and  fan  and  clean  the 
nibs.  In  adulterated  cocoa  or  choco- 
late, however,  some  of  the  roasted 
husk  is  left  to  be  ground  up  with  the 
nibs.  But  honest  manufacturers  not 
only  keep  the  nibs  perfectly  pure,  but 
pass  them  through  another  machine, 
which  extracts  the  hard,  gritty  germ 
which  will  impart  a  coarse  flavor  to  the 
finished  product. 
Final  preparation  for  the  market 

When  free  from  their  husk  and  germ, 
the  nibs  are  milled  or  ground.  In 
milling  they  are  heated  as  they  fall 
on  the  milling-stones;  and  by  reason 
of  their  large  percentage  of  fat  they  are 
reduced  by  the  heat  to  a  liquid  state, 
and  melted  and  ground  together.  The 
cacao  flows  out  from  the  mill  in  a  warm 
mass  and  then  solidifies  in  pans.  Thus 
are  formed  the  blocks  of  raw  cacao, 
which  are  ready  to  be  mixed  with 
sugar  and  flavoring  matter  for  the 
manufacture  of  chocolate,  or  to  be 
remelted  and  sent  through  a  hydraulic 
press  for  the  extraction  of  their  fat. 
Some  years  ago  it  was  a  general  prac- 
tice to  add  a  considerable  amount  of 
starch — obtained  from  potatoes, 
wheat,  arrowroot — to  the  raw  cacao. 
This  was  done  to  balance  the  natural 
amount  of  cocoa  fat. 


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..«...*.,  ^^&^ 


POURING    MOLTEN    METAL    ON    THE    CASTING-TABLE    IN    A    PLATE    GLASS    WORKS 

MARVELS      OF      GLASS-MAKING 


ONCE  upon  a  time  some  Phoe- 
nician merchants  beached 
their  galley  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Belus,  in  Palestine,  and 
prepared  to  cook  their  meal  on  the 
sands.  Finding  no  stones  on  which 
to  set  their  cooking-vessel  above  the 
fire,  they  brought  some  blocks  of 
natron  from  the  galley  for  this  pur- 
pose. When  the  repast  was  over, 
and  the  fire  was  cold,  they  went  to 
take  up  the  blocks  of  natron,  and 
found  that  these  had  melted  in  the 
fire,  and  combined  with  the  fine 
river-sand  to  form  a  strange  and  won- 
derful transparent  substance. 

It  was  thus  that  the  first  and  most 
important  step  in  the  art  of  glass- 
making  was  discovered  by  these  ad- 
venturous merchants  from  Sidon.  For 
the  natron  that  they  used  to  support 
their  cooking-vessel  was  an  impure 
form  of  carbonate  of  soda,  and  the 
fire,  blown  perhaps  to  a  great  intensity 
by  the  sea-wind,  melted  the  soda  and 
sand  together  and  produced  a  glass- 
like material. 

The  Phoenicians  were  a  very  intelli- 
gent  race;     they   experimented   with 


the  inferior  glass  they  had  discovered, 
and  at  last  found  that  by  adding  a 
certain  quantity  of  manganese  they 
could  produce  a  marvelous  material 
of  crystal  clearness  that  could  be 
made  into  a  variety  of  objects. 

Such,  according  to  traditional  re- 
searches in  the  matter,  was  the  acci- 
dental origin  of  one  of  the  most  won- 
derful things  of  human  manufacture. 
In  the  last  twenty-five  years  so  many 
marvels  have  been  discovered  that 
men  have  had  their  sense  of  wonder 
dulled  by  continual  excitement.  We 
can  now  create  strange  rays  that  can 
make  many  substances  transparent  to 
our  vision,  and  we  are  so  proud  of 
these  new  wonders  that  we  lose  sight 
of  equally  marvelous  things  of  every- 
day use  that  surround  us.  Yet  the 
discovery  of  glass  is  just  as  extraordi- 
nary an  achievement  of  human  genius 
as  the  discovery  of  x-rays  and  radium. 
When  men  were  able  to  manufacture 
in  a  large  way  a  firm,  solid  material 
that  was  transparent  to  light,  the 
destinies  of  the  human  race  were 
altered.  Mankind  became  possessed 
of  faculties  undreamed  of  by  the  most 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


369 


imaginative  of  wizards;  for  glass  was 
an  instrument  of  tremendous  power, 
that  enabled  man  to  open  the  two  gates 
of  infinity — the  infinity  of  the  outer 
universe  of  space,  the  infinity  of  the 
inner  universe  of  life. 

How  INDUSTRY  GIVES  EYES  TO  SCIENCE 

Glass  is  the  tool  by  means  of  which 
man  controls  light.  It  enables  him 
to  flood  his  dwelling-place  with  the 
cheerful  and  vital  radiance  of  the  sun, 
placing  him  beyond  the  chances  of  the 
weather,  doubling  his  powers  of  work, 
and  keeping  down  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease that  undermine  his  health.  It 
is  glass  that  renews  his  faculty  of 
vision  when  his  eyesight  grows  dim. 
It  is  glass  that  enables  him  to  con- 
struct a  multitude  of  finer  and  more 
delicate  senses,  by  which  he  penetrates 
to  the  bounds  of  the  universe,  dissolv- 
ing a  flaming  star  on  the  confines  of 
space  into  its  original  elements,  and  by 
which  he  discovers  the  secret  and  in- 
visible forms  of  life  in  the  dust  be- 
neath his  feet.  And  the  wonderful 
pictures  that  print  themselves  upon 
the  sensitive  plate  of  a  camera  are 
obtained  by  means  of  lenses  of  glass. 

Without  the  chance  discovery  of 
the  process  of  glass-making,  man 
could  never  have  grown  to  his  full 
stature.  There  would  have  been  no 
hope  of  his  ever  obtaining  a  large  con- 
trol over  the  resources  of  nature,  for 
it  is  simple  truth  that  glass  is  the 
grand  foundation  of  modern  science. 

The  time  when  glass  was  worth  its 
weight  in  gold 

For  many  centuries  glass-making 
was  mainly  a  fine  art  of  an  exquisite 
kind.  Even  when  the  Book  of  Job 
was  written  glass  was  worth  its  weight 
in  gold;  and  the  Phoenicians  seem  to 
have  traded  glass  beads  as  jewels 
among  the  savages  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope. It  used  to  be  thought  that  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  at  an  early  epoch, 
anticipated   the    discovery    made   by 


the  merchants  of  Sidon,  for  a  drawing 
of  two  workmen,  apparently  engaged 
in  glass-making,  has  been  discovered 
in  a  toint  of  the  eleventh  dynasty. 
But  the  best  authorities  now  agree 
that  the  drawing  represents  some 
other  process  of  manufacture. 

The  Sidonians  certainly  held  for  a 
long  time  the  monopoly  in  glass-mak- 
ing, and  they  spread  the  use  of  the 
new  material  throughout  the  Mediter- 
ranean. But  gradually  a  knowledge  of 
the  secret  of  its  manufacture  extended 
to  Italy,  Spain,  and  Gaul,  and  the 
Romans  especially  became  admirable 
artists  in  glass. 

The  ROMAN  CHEAPENING  OF  GLASS— 
FROM  TABLE  USE  TO  WINDOW  USE 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  wealthy  Romans 
used  to  pay  extraordinary  prices  even 
for  small  glass  vases  of  exquisite  work- 
manship. They  were  esteemed  above 
vessels  of  wrought  gold.  Table-glass 
of  fine  and  elaborate  shape  was  at 
first  the  principal  glass  industry  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  but  mosaic  work, 
made  by  combining  bits  of  colored 
glass  into  a  pictorial  design,  was  soon 
developed  in  a  variety  of  beautiful 
ways. 

But  the  practical  Romans  at  last 
found  the  cheaper  process  of  making 
window-glass;  and  just  as  their  em- 
pire was  falling  under  the  attacks  of 
the  Northern  barbarians,  the  use  of 
common  glass  for  lighting  purposes 
was  extended.  A  small  pane  in  a 
bronze  frame  may  be  seen  at  Pompeii, 
and  fragments  of  window-glass  have 
been  picked  up  from  the  ruins  of 
Roman  villas  in  England.  Glass  of 
this  kind  was  cast  on  a  stone,  and  was 
usually  very  uneven  and  full  of  de- 
fects; and  though  it  was  capable  of 
transmitting  light,  it  must  have  al- 
lowed only  an  imperfect  view  of  ex- 
ternal objects.  Very  likely  this  de- 
fective method  of  manufacture  was 
one  of  the  causes  why  the  builders  of 


ART  GLASSWARE  MADE  DURING  THE  LAST  1500  YEARS 


Rock  crystal  ewer,  Italian,  sixteenth  century 


Glass  bowl  with  cover,  Venetian,  sixteenth  century 


Vase,  Roman,  lourtli  century 


Wineglass,  Venetian,  sixteenth  cen-        Goblet,  Venetian,  sixteenth  century 
tury. 


Examples  of  glassware  made  In  the  twentieth  century  at  the  Whitefriars  Glass  Works,  London 
SPECIMENS  OF  BEAUTIFUL  WORK  IN  GLASS  FROM   A  WIDE  RANGE  OF  TIME  AND  PLACE 


370 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  371 

the  early  Christian  churches  adapted  In  the  creation  of  the  now  famous 

the  lovelier  mosaic   work   in  colored  Jena  glass,  was  discovered  the  barium 

glass  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  and  glass     which     combines     the     superb 

beautifying  their  sacred  buildings.  optical  qualities  of  flint  glass  with  the 

The  SECRETS  OF  GLASS-MAKING  DEARER  "seful    properties   of    ordinary    crown 

TO  THE  VENETIANS  THAN  LIFE  glass.     It  would  be  iicccssary  to  go  too 

Alongside  this  general  development  far  into  the  subject  of  lens  construction 

of  glass-making,  there  continued,  chiefly  to  explain  at  length   the   possibilities 

in  Venice,  the  more  ancient  traditions  opened  up  to  the  optician  by  the  in- 

of  the  art  of  making  exquisite  table-  vention  of  the  newer  varieties  of  glass, 

glass   and   other   vessels   of   use   and  But  one  of  the  consequences  of  the 

beauty.     Like  the  Sidonians,  the  glass-  work  of  Schott  and  Abbe   was  that 

makers   of   Venice   carefully   guarded  Germany  became  for  awhile  supreme 

the    secret    processes    by    means    of  in  the  manufacture  of  the  best  kinds 

which  they  obtained  a  practical  mo-  of    scientific    instruments    in    which 

nopoly    of    fine    glass-work.     If    any  glass  plays  an  important  part, 

workman  transported  his  craft  into  a  The    finest    microscope    objectives, 

foreign  country,  an  emissary  was  sent  the  finest  photographic  lenses,  and  the 

by  the  State  to  assassinate  him.     Two  best   telescope   glasses   are   all   based 

men  from  Muranc,  the  little  island  at  upon  the  German  invention  of  Jena 

Venice   where   the   glass-makers    still  glass.     And    though    at    the    present 

live,   were   induced   by   the   Emperor  time  glasses  of  the  newer  types  are 

Leopold  of  Belgium  to  migrate  to  his  produced  in  French  and  English  manu- 

dominions,  but  they  were  killed  by  the  factories   in   quantity  and  quality  at 

order  of  the  Council  of  Ten.  least  equal  to  the  output  of  the  Jena 

Any  artisan  caught  attempting  to  works  themselves,  these  great  optical 

go  to  foreign  parts  was  sent  to  the  achievements  stand  as  a  lasting  monu- 

galleys.     In   1550   eight   glass-makers  ment  of  the  pioneer  work  of  Schott 

from   Murano   were   engaged   by   the  and  x\bbe. 

English  government  to  found  a  fine-  As  a  matter  of  fact,  these  two  re- 
glass  manufactory  at  Crutchett  Friars,  markable  men  arrived  at  their  dis- 
in  London.  But  they  were  so  afraid  coveries  by  quite  primitive  methods. 
of  assassination  by  the  emissaries  of  They  merely  tried  everything  likely 
the  Council  of  Ten  that  they  tried  to  to  make  a  useful  ingredient  in  a  glass 
run  away,  and  were  imprisoned  in  the  mixture,  until  they  obtained  the  kind 
Tower,  from  which  place  they  sent  a  of  transparency  which  they  needed, 
petition  for  mercy  to  the  Council.  They  were  compelled  to  use  the  ancient 
The  Government  of  Venice  tried  to  method  of  trial  and  error,  or  rule  of 
excuse  their  policy  of  maintaining  thumb.  For  too  little  is  yet  known 
the  glass  monopoly  by  murder,  by  about  the  scientific  aspects  of  glass- 
alleging  that  the  workmen  who  re-  making  to  enable  a  more  foreseeing 
mained  at  Murano  were  thrown  out  process  of  research  to  be  usefully  em- 
of  work  for  two  and  a  half  months  a  ployed.  Men  of  science,  indeed,  are 
year  by  the  spread  of  glass  factories  in  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  fundamental 
Spain  and  Flanders.  Undoubtedly,  problems  of  glass-making.  Glass  is 
they  frightened  their  migrating  ar-  still  an  unknown  world,  and  its  nature 
tisans  sufficiently  to  conserve  the  and  its  constitution  have  yet  to  be 
Murano  industry,  and  transmit  its  discovered.  So  it  is  regarded  at 
methods  to  us.  present  as  a  structureless  solid,  with 


372 


THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


the  same  lack  of  arrangement  in  the 
grouping  of  its  molecules  as  is  found  in 
water. 

It  is  a  congealed  liquid,  in  which  the 
process  of  congealing  involves  no 
change  of  structure,  but  merely  brings 
about  a  gradual  stiffening  of  the  liquid 
until  it  behaves  like  a  solid.  And  the 
strange  thing  is  that  the  ingredients 
out  of  which  glass  is  made  are  not 
reduced  to  their  liquid  or  molten  state 
of  combination  simply  by  heat.  It 
is  the  chemical  dissolving  action  that 
they  produce  on  each  other  which  is 
the  main  factor.  For  instance,  in 
ordinary  process  of  glass-making,  suit- 
able proportions  of  sand,  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  mixed 
together  by  machinery,  and  shut  into 
a  vessel  of  fireclay  enclosed  in  a  gas 
furnace.  The  heat  of  the  furnace  first 
sets  the  mixture  working.  For  by  the 
mere  action  of  the  heat  the  carbonate 
of  soda  melts,  and  the  carbonate  of 
lime  loses  its  carbonic  acid,  and  is 
burned  into  caustic  lime.  Thus  is 
produced  a  mass  consisting  of  grains  of 
sand  and  grains  of  decomposing  car- 
bonate of  lime,  all  cemented  together 
by  the  melted  soda.  By  this  time, 
however,  the  sand  acquires  a  strong 
acid  action;  it  attacks  the  carbonate  of 
lime,  and,  moreover,  does  more  than 
the  heat  of  the  furnace  can  by  attack- 
ing and  decomposing  the  carbonate  of 
soda.  The  final  result  is  the  complete 
expulsion  of  all  carbonic  acid,  and  the 
formation  of  compounds  of  lime  and 
sand  and  soda  and  sand,  which  remain 
in  the  finished  glass  in  a  condition 
partly  of  mutual  chemical  combina- 
tion and  partly  of  mutual  solution. 

Where  salt-cake  is  used  to  make 
glass,  neither  the  action  of  the  heat  nor 
the  dissolving  power  of  the  sand  is 
sufficient  to  bring  about  the  rapid  de- 
composition of  the  soda.  So  carbon 
has  to  be  introduced  in  the  form  of 
coke  or  charcoal  or  anthracite  coal, 


and  this  supply,  assisted  by  the  carbon 
already  in  the  gases  of  the  furnace,  pro- 
duces the  desired  effect. 

The  original  glass  made  by  nature 
in  volcanic  processes 

It  may  not  be  generally  known  that 
one  very  curious  kind  of  glass  is  some- 
times manufactured  by  purely  natural 
forces.  This  takes  place  in  a  volcanic 
eruption,  in  favorable  circumstances, 
where  the  intense  heat  sets  up  chemical 
actions  on  various  substances,  that  fuse 
together  into  an  impure,  semi-trans- 
parent glass  known  as  obsidian.  It 
varies  in  color  from  gray  to  black,  and 
has  been  used  in  making  works  of  art 
by  the  Egyptians,  Romans,  and 
Mexicans. 

So  what  we  do  in  a  glass-furnace, 
after  all,  is  merely  to  imitate  some  of 
the  chance  processes  of  volcanic  action. 
But  by  selecting  our  materials,  and 
using  them  in  proportions  that  do  not 
occur  in  Nature,  we  produce  something 
that  conduces  in  a  remarkable  degree 
to  progress  in  knowledge  and  art,  in 
health  and  comfort  and  luxury.  The 
vitriable  element  in  glass  is  practically 
always  sand.  The  purest  sand  used 
only  to  be  obtained  from  a  deposit  at 
Fontainebleau,  near  Paris,  but  an 
equally  good  material  is  now  found  at 
Lippe,  in  Germany. 

The  chemical  ingredients  of  differ- 
ent KINDS  OF  GLASS 

When  the  standard  of  quality  is 
relaxed,  a  great  number  of  sand  de- 
posits become  available ;  and  the  manu- 
facturers of  each  district  rely  on  more 
or  less  local  supplies.  Finally,  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  cheapest  class  of 
bottles,  sands  containing  considerable 
traces  of  iron  and  other  substances  are 
often  used.  Flint  glass  used  to  be 
made  by  grinding  flints  to  powder;  and 
sandstone  and  certain  other  rocks  are 
still  sometimes  treated  in  this  manner. 
But  crushing  stone  is  an  expensive 
ajid  difficult  process,  and  in  practice 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY  373 

only  certain  kinds  of  feldspar  are  widely  In  recent  years  the  ancient  craft  of 
used  instead  of  sand.  Their  value  is  the  glass  blower  has  been  transformed 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  not  only  to  a  considerable  extent  into  a  factory 
contain  the  acid  but  also  the  alkali  process  by  the  use  of  ingenious  ma- 
necessary  in  glass-making.  chines  and  metal  molds  into  which  the 

More  usually,  however,  the  alkali  is  molten   glass   is   driven  by   steam   or 

obtained  in  a  separate  form  from  the  compressed  air.     But  in  the  production 

acid  of  the  sand.  Various  alkalies,  such  of  the  finest  optical  glass  the  method 

as  carbonate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  of     manufacture     remains     strangely 

soda,    are    produced    in    the    famous  primitive.     A  single  pot  of  fireclay  is 

English     alkali-works,      which     have  built  into  a  furnace    heated   by   coal 

almost  a   universal  monopoly  in  the  or  gas.     When  the  pot  is  red-hot,  the 

manufacture      of      these     chemicals,  raw    material    is    slowly    shoveled    in 

The  Germans,  on  the  other  hand,  have  small  quantities  into  its  mouth,  and 

a    similar    monopoly    of    the    potash  it  is  ten  hours  after  the  last  charge 

industry;  and,  having  swept  the  old  has  been  added  that   the  furnace  is 

sea-weed  burners  out  of  existence,  they  driven  to  its  highest  temperature.     It 

supply   most   of   the   potash   used   in  is  kept  at  this  temperature  for  twenty 

making    potash    glasses.       Recently,  hours,  and  then  the  molten  glass  is 

however,    millions   of   tons   of  potash  stirred    for    another   fifteen   hours    or 

have  been  discovered  in  the  Mohave  more.     This  is  done  by  means  of  a  rod 

Desert  in  Arizona  and  California.  of  fireclay,  balanced  on  an  iron  beam 

How   PRIMITIVE  METHODS  HOLD  THEIR  above    the    fumace,    with    a  wooden 

OWN  IN  THE  FINEST  GLASS-WORK  handle  uiovcd  by  a  workman  clad  in 

In  addition   to  the  alkali  basis  of  an  asbestos  dress, 

glass,  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  The  heat  is  terrific,  but  the  stirrer 

other  substances  that  are  largely  em-  must  not  relax  his  efforts  for  a  minute, 

ployed.     For  instance,  lime  is  used  for  The  work  is  so  trying  and  arduous  that 

the  production  of  all  varieties  of  plate  it  has  to  be  performed  in  short  shifts, 

and  sheet  glass,  as  well  as  for  bottles  On  it  depends  the  ultimate  success  of 

and  certain  kinds  of  pressed  glass  and  the  operation.     The  constant  and  pro- 

blow^n  glass.     And,  as  we  have  already  longed  stirring  is  necessary  to  remove 

seen,  the  famous  flint  glass  of  England  from  the  glass  the  transparent  threads 

i.  is  based  upon  lead.  In  Jena  glass,  and  veins  which  are  invariably  found 
a  preparation  of  the  silver-like  metal  in  ordinary  glass.  For  the  different 
I  of  barium  is  of  importance,  and  zinc  ingredients  have  a  tendency  to  separ- 
I  and  magnesia  and  aluminum  are  used  ate,  and  rise  or  sink  in  the  pot,  accord- 
[in  the  manufacture  of  special  glasses  ing  to  their  comparative  lightness  or 
I  for  scientific  purposes,  where  special  weight.  It  is  this  process  of  separation 
I  properties  are  required.  By  using  an  that  produces  the  common  defects  of 
!  electric  furnace  or  an  intense  oxygen  glass,  and  it  is  only  partly  prevented 
:  flame,  quartz  is  now  melted  down  into  by  keeping  the  whole  molten  mass  of 
a  valuable  glass.  Unlike  ordinary  the  bath  in  a  state  of  gentle  but  con- 
kinds  of  glass,  the  fused  quartz  is  tinual  agitation.  While  the  stirring 
•  transparent  to  the  invisible  ultra-  goes  on,  the  temperature  of  the  furnace 
violet  rays  of  light,  and  it  is  largely  is  allowed  to  diminish.  The  result  is 
coming  into  use  for  scientific  purposes,  that  the  fluid  gradually  stiffens,  until 
and  for  the  medical  treatment  of  the  fireclay  rod  can  only  be  moved 
certain  diseases.  with  great  difficulty.     The  rod  is  then 


H-; 

H 

H 
O 
pq 

o 

in 

O 


o 
< 

>^ 

o 

Q 
W 

Ph 
P 

>H 

P^ 

w 
w 


374 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


375 


T^emoved,  and  the  furnace  allowed  to 
cool  for  another  five  hours. 

The  cooling  is  stopped,  and  the 
whole  furnace  is  sealed  up  with  brick- 
work and  fireclay,  and  the  glass  is  left 
to  anneal  gradually  for  one  or  two 
weeks.  The  pot  is  then  drawn  out, 
usually  in  a  cracked  condition,  and  is 
broken  away  by  the  aid  of  a  hammer. 
In  especially  favorable  circumstances, 
the  whole  of  the  glass  may  have  cooled 
into  a  solid  lump,  but  it  is  more  usual 
to  find  it  broken  into  fragments. 
These  are  picked  over,  and  the  pieces 
that  are  found  to  be  absolutely  clear  are 
used  in  making  the  finest  kind  of  lens. 
The  manufacture  of  glass  bottles 

At  the  other  extreme  of  the  glass 
industry  is  a  huge  tank  furnace,  heated 
by  producer  gas,  which  turns  out  with 
punctual  regularity  the  material  from 
which  bottles  are  shaped  by  machin- 
ery in  millions  every  year.  The  tank 
is  built  of  large  blocks  of  fireclay,  in  the 
shape  of  an  oblong  basin,  over  which 
plays  an  intense  flame  of  aerated  gas. 
The  raw  materials  are  thrown  into 
the  furnace  at  the  square  end  of  the 
tank,  and  the  gas  flows  uninter- 
ruptedly down  the  furnace  to  the  colder 
semi-circular  end  of  the  tank  that  is 
])ierced  with  working  holes. 

The  workman  thrusts  an  iron  rod 
through  one  of  these  holes,  and  twirls 
around  it  a  charge  of  the  sticky  fluid, 
which  he  drops  into  the  machine.  The 
liquid  glass  flows  into  a  mold,  from 
which  it  receives  the  shape  of  the  neck 
of  a  bottle;  and  while  it  still  retains  its 
liquidity,  a  plunger  makes  a  hole 
through  it,  and  a  stream  of  compressed 
air  sweeps  into  this  hole  and  blows  the 
glass  out,  shaping  the  shoulder  of  the 
bottle.  The  glass  is  now  growing 
decidedly  stift',  and  it  passes  into  a 
finishing  mold,  where  it  is  blown  by 
powerful  air  pressure  into  its  final 
shape,  though  in  some  cases  another 
macliine  is  needed  to  form  the  inden- 


tation at  the  base.  By  pressing  a 
lever  the  workman  then  releases  all 
the  molds,  thus  leaving  the  bottle 
completely  finished  and  entirely  free. 
Two  men  and  a  boy  work  the  whole 
machinery:  one  man  gathers  the  glass 
from  the  tank,  another  works  the  levers 
that  bring  the  molds  into  action,  and 
the  boy  carries  the  finished  bottles  to 
a  kiln  where  they  are  annealed  by 
passing  on  trucks  down  a  tunneJ  that 
is  hot  at  one  end  and  cold  at  the  other. 

How  PLATE  GLASS   IS  MADE 

The  tank  furnace  is  also  used  for 
making  plate  glass.  It  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  for  a  single  furnace  to  have 
a  weekly  output  of  a  hundred  and 
fifty  tons  of  glass.  The  glass  is  with- 
drawn from  the  furnace  by  means  of 
huge  iron  ladles,  holding  two  hundred 
pounds  of  burning  fluid,  and  carried 
by  slings  attached  to  trolleys  running 
on  an  overhead  rail.  But  a  workman, 
covered  in  thick  felt,  with  his  face 
protected  by  a  mask,  in  which  there 
are  eyeholes  glazed  with  green  glass, 
has  to  guide  the  ladle  to  the  tank,  and 
twist  it  into  the  fiercely  hot  molten 
glass.  He  then  jerks  off  the  threads 
and  sheets  of  stiffening  fluid  that  hang 
to  it,  and  attaches  the  handle  of  the 
ladle  to  the  overhead  trolley.  He  next 
has  to  bear  all  his  weight  on  the  handle, 
to  draw  the  whole  ladle  up  from  the 
molten  bath  in  the  furnace  and  out 
through  the  working  hole  in  the  tank. 
The  operation  only  takes  a  few  seconds 
to  perform,  but  while  it  lasts  the  ladler 
is  exposed  to  terrible  heat,  as  an  intense 
flame  shoots  through  the  working  hole 
and  curls  up  under  the  hood  of  the 
furnace. 

Aided  by  a  boy,  the  ladler  then  runs 
the  charge  of  glass  to  an  iron  table,  and 
there  he  empties  out  the  molten  liquid 
in  front  of  a  massive  iron  roller.  Im- 
pelled by  steam  power,  the  roller 
passes  over  the  glass,  flattening  it  into 
a  soft,  red-hot  sheet  that  has  to  remain 


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THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 


on  the  iron  table  to  cool  and  harden 
before  it  can  be  safely  removed.  The 
sheet  is  then  taken  on  a  stone  slab 
into  a  long,  low  tunnel,  hot  at  one  end 
and  cold  at  the  other,  and  down  this 
tunnel  it  very  slowly  passes,  cooling 
and  annealing,  ready  for  cutting  in  the 
cutting-room. 
Making  ordinary  sheet  glass 

Ordinary  sheet  glass  is  also  made  in 
a  tank  furnace.  Sometimes  three  in- 
dependent furnaces  are  connected  with 
each  other  by  small  openings  through 
which  the  fused  materials  flow,  refining 
as  they  flow.  By  this  means  a  finer 
glass  is  produced,  which  has  many  of 
the  properties  of  polished  plate  glass. 
The  process  of  making  sheet  glass  is 
very  interesting.  It  is  done  by  three 
groups  of  workmen  —  the  pipe- 
warmers,  the  gatherers,  and  the 
blowers.  The  pipe-warmer  heats  a 
blowing-pipe,  formed  of  an  iron  tube, 
about  four  and  a  half  feet  long,  pro- 
vided at  one  end  with  a  wooden  handle 
and  a  mouthpiece,  and  at  the  other  end 
with  a  thick  cone.  After  heating  the 
pipe,  the  warmer  blows  through  it,  to 
see  that  the  passage  is  clear,  and  then 
places  the  thick  end  in  the  tank  of  glass. 
Then  the  gatherer  intervenes.  With  a 
knack  born  of  long  experience,  he 
collects  a  quantity  of  glass  round  the 
butt-end  of  the  pipe,  by  twisting  it 
slowly  in  the  molten  fluid. 

Cooling  his  first  gathering,  the 
gatherer  dips  the  pipe  in  again  and 
collects  more  glass,  doing  this  with  a 
skill  that  prevents  any  air-bubbles 
forming  between  the  cool-glass  and  the 
fresh  gathering.  The  pipe  is  then 
rotated  across  an  iron  trough  filled 
with  water.  This  helps  to  cool  the 
pipe  itself  and  stifl'en  the  glass;  and 
again  the  gatherer  takes  the 
pipe  to  the  tank  and  collects  more  of 
the  molten  fluid.  In  some  places  the 
process  is  repeated  five  times;  and  the 
care  and  skill  with  which  the  operations 


of  gathering  are  carried  out  largely 
determine  the  quality  of  the  glass. 
Any  want  of  regularity  in  the  shape 
of  the  gatherings  inevitably  leads  to 
variations  of  thickness  in  different 
parts  of  the  sheet,  while  a  careless 
gatherer  introduces  bubbles  and  other 
markings  in  the  finished  product. 
When  the  gatherings  have  been  well 
done,  the  cooling  glass  forms  a  round 
mass,  with  the  nose  end  of  the  pipe 


Rough-grinding  plate  glass  on  a  rotating  table 


Pulishiim  plaU-  t;l:i«s  with  It-lt-uuvored  disks 

at  its  center.  By  means  of  special 
shaping  instruments  the  glass  is  then 
molded  into  a  sort  of  bottle,  the  neck 
of  which  fits  over  the  nose  of  the  blow- 
pipe. 
Blowing  out  the  sheet  of  glass 

At  this  point  the  blower  begins  his 
work.  He  works  on  a  stage,  with  some 
small  furnaces,  called  blowing-holes, 
in  front  of  him,  or  sometimes  the  stage 
is  erected  against  the  main  melting 
furnace.  It  is  simply  a  platform 
placed  over  a  pit,  called  the  blower's 
pit.     The  glass-maker  first  heats  the 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


377 


bulb  of  glass  in  one  of  the  blowing- 
holes,  and  then  swings  the  pipe  with 
a  pendulum  movement  in  the  pit. 
Purely  by  its  own  weight,  the  half- 
remelted  glass  cylinder  at  the  end  of  the 
pipe  begins  to  elongate  itself.  Any 
tendency  to  collapse  is  checked  by 
the  blower  blowing  with  his  mouth 
through  the  pipe,  which  he  also  at 
times  rotates.  The  operation  of  heat- 
ing and  lengthening  the  cylinder  is 
repeated  until  the  glass  is  equally  dis- 
tributed on  all  sides,  forming  a  long 
tube,  hanging  by  a  thin  neck  from  the 
blowpipe  and  closed  at  the  lower  end 
with  a  rounded  dome.  This  rounded 
end  is  then  opened  by  heating  it  till 
it  is  soft  enough  for  a  circle  to  be  cut 
out  with  a  pair  of  shears.  Again  the  glass 
is  heated,  and  hung  downwards  in  the 
pit  and  twisted  rapidly  by  the  blower. 
The  soft  glass  at  the  lower  end  im- 
mediately opens  out  under  the  whirling 
action,  which  the  blower  continues 
until  the  soft  end  straightens  out  in 
agreement  with  the  rest  of  the  glass 
tube. 

When  cooled  and  broken  from  the 
blow-pipe,  the  tube  is  split  open  by  a 
hot  iron  or  a  diamond.  It  is  then  placed 
on  a  smooth  slab  in  a  hot  kiln,  where 
it  grows  soft  enough  to  be  flattened  out 
on  the  slab  by  means  of  a  wooden  tool. 
Then,  like  other  ordinary  glasses,  it  is 
moved  through  a  long  tunnel,  and 
annealed  by  being  exposed  to  a  change 
of  temperature  from  hot  to  cold.  It 
will  be  thus  seen  that  the  usual  manu- 
facture of  sheet  glass  is  a  long,  compli- 
cated, and  laborious  process,  needing 
workmen  of  high  skill.  Various  ma- 
chines have  recently  been  invented  to 
do  the  work  and  cheapen  the  cost  of 
the  glass,  but  none  of  them  is  yet  as 
perfect  in  achievement  as  are  the  hands 
of  the  gatherer  and  the  blower. 

In  the  finest  kinds  of  sheet  glass,  the 
tank  furnace  is  not  used.  The  in- 
gredients are  put  into  pots,  and  a  num- 


ber of  these  are  set  in  what  is  called 
a  pot  furnace,  and  exposed  to  the  flame 
of  aerated  gas.  The  method  is  more 
costly  than  that  of  the  tank  furnace; 
the  fuel  consumption  is  greater,  and 
the  output  smaller.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  composition  of  glass  can  be 
more  accurately  calculated  in  a  pot 
furnace  than  in  a  tank  furnace,  as  the 


Engr;iving  a  tumbler  by  means  of  a  copper  wheel  and 
emery-powder. 

molten  fluid  is  better  protected  from 
contamination  by  the  furnace  gases  or 
dropping  matter.  It  is  also  possible 
to  melt  thoroughly  in  pots  materials 
which  could  not  be  made  to  combine  in 
the  open  basin  of  a  tank.  In  flint 
glass  especially  the  molten  material 
must  be  put  in  a  closed  pot,  to  protect 
it  from  the  reducing  action  of  the 
furnace  gases. 

How    LAMP     CHIMNEYS    AND    DRINKING 
GLASSES  ARE  MADE 

All  the  best  hollow  glassware  is  in 
many  ways  costlier  to  manufacture 
than  tank-fused  glass.  A  good  deal 
of  hollow  glassware,  however,  has  been 
cheapened  by  means  of  machines  in 
which  molds  are  used.  A  lamp  chim- 
ney, for  instance,  is  made  in  the  same 


HOW  A  FRAGILE  WINE  GLASS  IS  SHAPED 


The  blower  first  collects  some  mol-  By   blowing   through   the   pipe   he  He  next  molds  the  big  bubble  into 

ten    glass   from    the   furnace   on    the        forces  the  soft  glass  into  the  form  of      the  smooth  bowl  by  rolling  it  on  an 
end  of  his  pipe.  a  big  bubble.  iron  table. 


He  then  casts  on  sutflcient  molten  metal  to  form  the  The  workman  next  marks  a  circle  round  the  bowl  with 
stem  which  he  fashions  with  iron  tools  and  afterwards  adds  moistened  iron  pincers  and  breaks  free  the  glass  by  a 
the  foot  similarly.  smart  tap  on  his  pipe. 


The  top  of  the  glass  is  well  heated  in  the 
furnace  and  is  sheared  to  the  required  height. 


The  glass  is  now  carefully  removed  from  its  holder  and  taken  lo  the 
annealing  oven  where  it  Is  cooled  very  gradually  to  obviate  brittlenes? 


S78 


BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND  INDUSTRY 


379 


way  as  the  bottle,  being  blown  in  a 
mold  with  a  flat  bottom  and  a  domed 
top,  both  of  which  are  subsequently  cut 
oft'.  Molds  are  also  employed  in 
making  electric  light  bulbs,  and  many 
of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  tumblers  and 
glasses. 

Yet  the  old-fashioned  glass-blower 
still  produces  the  finest  varieties  of 
hollow  glassware.  At  his  best  he  is  a 
craftsman  of  the  old  school,  with  a  true 
feeling  for  the  artistic  qualities  of  his 
material.  His  implements  are  few  and 
simple.  He  sits  on  a  rough  wooden 
bench,  on  which  there  are  two  project- 
ing side-rails.  On  these  rails  he  rolls 
his  pipe,  and  close  to  him  on  the  bench 
is  a  small  rod  and  some  shears  and 
pincers,  together  with  a  flat  board 
and  a  small  slab  of  stone  or  metal. 
Gathering  some  melted  glass  on  his 
l)ipe,  he  blows  it  into  a  small  bulb, 
and  lengthens  the  bulb  by  gently 
swinging  it  at  the  end  of  the  pipe. 
Having  obtained  the  shape  he  wants,  he 
presses  the  bulb  on  the  stone  slab,  and 
so  gives  it  a  flat  bottom.  He  then 
breaks  the  bulb  off  the  ])ipe  by  means 
of  a  hot  wire,  and  sends  the  article  to  be 
annealed  by  gradual  chilling.  The 
rough  edge  is  afterwards  rounded  oft' 
by  the  aid  of  a  blowpipe  flame,  and  a 
glass  tumbler  of  perfect  shape  is  ready 
for  use. 

Such  is  one  of  the  simplest  examples 
of  the  glass-blower's  craft.  For  more 
artistic  work  he  makes  use  of  the  pasty 
qualities  of  cooling  glass.  By  raising 
or  lowering  the  temperature  of  his 
material,  he  makes  it  now  stiffer  and 
now  more  fluid.  He  distends  it  by 
blowing,  or  he  draws  it  out  by  swinging 
his  pipe,  and  molds  it  with  the  aid  of 
rods  and  tongs;  or  he  holds  it  aloft 
and  lets  it  fall  in  festoons  under  its  ow^n 
weight.  With  all  these  manijjula- 
tions  at  his  disposal,  the  glass-blower 
of  the  old  school  works  the  glass  to  his 
will,   and  fashions   it   into  objects  of 


great  variety  and  beauty.  Every- 
thing that  he  makes  is  original,  having 
little  of  the  regularity  of  size  and 
shape  of  machine-nuide  articles.  For 
there  is  a  natural  variability  in  the 
curves  and  festoons  made  by  the  glass- 
blower,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  him, 
in  his  best  work,  ever  to  repeat  himself. 
In  the  machine  work  that  now  com- 
petes with  the  beautiful  things  made 
by  the  glass-blower,  two  dift'erent 
methods  are  used.  In  one,  the  glass 
is  blown  by  compressed  air  into  the 
various  molds;  in  the  other  the  mate- 
rial is  pressed  into  shape  by  means 
of  a  mechanical  plunger.  The  articles 
molded  in  these  two  ways,  however, 
lack  the  fine  fire-polish  possessed  by 
glass  that  is  allowed  to  cool  freely  from 
the  molten  state.  An  attempt  to 
produce  a  similar  brilliance  of  surface 
on  molded  and  pressed  wares  is  often 
made    by    exposing    them,    in     their 


^  '-if''- 1 


Polisliing  a  large  cut-glass  bowl  on  :i  wuudeu  wheel 

finished  form,  to  the  heat  of  a  furnace. 
This  softens  the  surfaces  and  gives 
them  a  new  brilliancy.  But  as  the 
process  cannot  be  carried  out  without 
softening  the  entire  article,  great  skill 
is  required  to  prevent  serious  deforma- 


S80  THE  HUMAN  INTEREST  LIBRARY 

tion,  and  all  sharp  corners  and  angles  particularly  as  the  coloring  elements 

tend  to  be  melted  and  rounded  off.  can  be  employed  in  almost  any  com- 

Imitation  cut  glass  is  easily  detected  bination  to  produce  exquisitely  gradu- 

by  the  blunting  effect  of  angles  and  ated  tints.     Even  stained  glass-work  of 

corners  produced  during  the  reheating  the  finest  quality  is  no  longer  a  lost 

process.  art.     Modern  craftsmen  have  at  their 

Molded    articles    can    also    be    dis-  disposal  materials    quite  as  excellent 

tinguished   by   the   slight   projections  as  those  employed  in  the  thirteenth 

caused  by   the  pressed   glass   getting  century. 

in    the    fine    interstices    between    the  The  jewel-like  splendor  of  the  best 

various   parts   of   the   hinged    molds,  ancient  glass  was  for  many  years  un- 

Probably  it  is  in  order  to  hide  these  attainable,  owing  to  a  curious  cause, 

defects  that  so  much  machine-made  Modern  glass  was  too  good  for  the 

glass  is  over-decorated  with  grooves  purpose.     It  was  so  transparent  that 

and  spirals  and  ribbings.  the  light  passed  through  it,  instead  of 

Colored  and  stained  glass  bringing  out  the  interest  and  mystery 

At    present,    the    wonderful    color  of  the  glass  itself.     It  was  found  that 

resources  of  the  glass-maker  are,  in  a  the   ancient    stained    glass   was   very 

great    many    cases,    hopelessly    mis-  badly  made,  with  an  irregular  surface 

applied.     But  in  the  hands  of  a  fine  and     an     extraordinary     number     of 

designer  few  other  materials  are  ca-  internal    defects — airbells,    veins    and 

pable  of  yielding  results  equal  in  beauty  even    bits    of    foreign    matter.     But 

to  that  of  colored  glass.     Many  of  the  these  things  scattered  and  twisted  and 

coloring  agents  are  cheap,  as  only  a  reflected  back  the  light,  until  the  rays 

minute  quantity  is  needed  to  produce  appeared  to  emanate  from  the  body 

lovely,   delicate,  and   jewel -like  tints,  of  the  glass  itself,  which  thus  seemed 

Indeed,  the  sole  difficulty  involved  in  to  shine  with  an  internal  light  of  its 

the  use  of  several  important  coloring  own.     So,  by  having  his  glass  made 

substances  is  that  so  little  of  them  is  very    badly,    the    modern    worker    in 

needed  that  it  is  hard  to  weigh  exactly  stained  glass  has  been  able  to  equal 

the   amount   that    is   required.      The  the    lovely     effects    of    the    ancient 

range  of  colors  is  practically  unlimited,  masters  of  his  craft. 


MEMORY      TESTS       ON      VOLUME      TWO 


BOOK  OF  EARTH  AND  SKY 

Why  did  men  once  think  the  earth  was  flat?     9 

How  do  we  know  that  the  earth  is  round?  1 1  - 
12 

What  composes  the  suns  family?     13-14 

How  did  the  sun  originate?     It 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  fixed  star 
and  a  planet?     17 

What  are  the  distances  of  the  planets  from 
the  sun?     18 

What  is  a  comet?     18 

What  are  shooting  stars?     20 

How  was  the  earth  made?     21-22 

What  is  the  law  of  gravitation  and  who  dis- 
covered it?     23 

Who  was  Herschel  and  what  did  he  do?     23 

How  did  the  moon  originate?     26 

How  was  the  earth's  crust  formed?     28 

What  is  the  origin  of  rocks?     29;  Minerals?  30 

How  did  animal  remains  get  into  the  rocks 
and  rock  formations?     31-33 

How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land?     34 

What  do  fossils  teach?     34 

How  did  animals  in  the  past  ages  differ  from 
those  of  to-day?     35 

How  were  animals  distributed  over  the  earth? 
3.5-36 

How  do  we  know  when  animal  life  began? 
36-37 

How  is  the  face  of  the  earth  changed  from 
time  to  time?     39 

What  is  a  glacier,  and  why  does  it  move?    40 

What  is  meant  by  a  geological  fault?     41 

How  does  the  fire  break  through  the  crust  of 
the  earth?     41-44 

Do  land  and  water  areas  interchange?     44 

Were  America  and  Europe  ever  connected  by 
land?     How?     45 

What  was  the  "lost  continent?"     45 

What  resemblance  between  alchemists  and 
astrologers?     47 

What  difference  between  astrology  and  as- 
tronomy?    47 

What  advances  were  made  in  astronomy  by 
Copernicus  and   Galileo?     49-50 

What  is  meant  by  the  solar  system?     52 

What  are  nebulae?  How  do  they  differ  from 
stars  and  constellations?     52-53 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  path  of  a  comet?     53 

What  causes  the  brightness  of  the  moon?     54 

Why  do  we  see  but  one  .side  of  the  moon?     55 

Why  do  we  know  the  moon  better  than  other 
phinets?     55-56 

Why  does  not  the  surface  of  the  moon  change 
like  that  of  the  earth?     59 

What  is  the  path  of  the  moon  round  the  earth? 
59 

Why  should  we  know  the  principal  constella- 
tions in  the  sky?     61 

How  were  the  constellations  and  stars  named? 
62 

Why  cannot  we  understand  the  real  bright- 
ness of  the  stars?     66 

How  are  the  distances  of  stars  determined?  66 

Do  we  know  the  weight  of  stars?     67 


Where  do  heat  and  light  come  from?  W^hat 
are  they?     (i8-70 

What  is  air?     72 

Could  we  live  without  oxygen?     73 

What  is  water?     75 

What  are  atoms  and  molecules?     74 

How  do  the  chemical  elements  combine  to 
produce  water?     75-76 

Who  was  Lavoisier,  and  what  great  scientific 
discovery  did  he  make?     79-80 

BOOK  OF  NATURE 

Name  six  important  species  of  the  cat  family 


82 


92 


How  have  animals  changed?     84 
Describe  the  first  bird.     86 
What  animals  live  on  ants?     88 
Which  are  the  strongest  animals  in  the  world? 
I 

How  does  the  lion  get  his  supper?     92 
What  animal  is  trained  to  hunt  the  antelope? 

96 

What  are  the  habits  of  the  Polar  bear?     98 
Are  there  any  wild  dogs  today?     Where?    100 
What  are  the  birds  of  most  gorgeous  plumage? 

102-103 

How    many    kinds    of    humming-birds    are 

there?     105 

What  birds  build  the  most  remarkable  nests? 

106 

Where  is  the  Ij^re-bird  found?     107 

What  bird  brings  up  its  young  in  prison?     108 

Where  do  we  find  the  quetzal?     109 

What  are  the  chief  hunting  birds?     112-117 

Whv  are  birds  valuable  to  farm  and  orchard? 

119-124 

What  is  the  manner  of  living  among  birds? 

122-123 

Where  does  the  mocking-bird  live,  what  is  its 

size  and  what  are  its  habits?     125 

What  are  the  habits  of  the  night  hawk?     127 
On   what   does   the   bob  white  feed?     Where 

does  it  live?     133 

How  and  why  do  bees  swarm?     134-137 
How  are  the  cells  of  bees  formed?     139 
What  is  the  province  of  the  worker  bee?    140 
How  does  the  grasshopper  deposit  her  eggs? 

142 

How   does   the   carpenter   bee   construct   its 

house?     146 

How  does  a  mother  spider  protect  her  young? 

147 

What  are  infusoria  and  what  are  their  uses? 

152-154 

How  does  the  starfish  feed?     161 

Why  is  the  sperm  whale  called  the  "tiger  of 

the  deep?"     162-163 

What  is  meant  by  intelligent  plants?     165-166 
What  causes  a  leaf  to  change  color?     166 
What    wonderful    powers    does    the    sundew 

possess?     170-172 

MARVELS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM 

How   were   X-rays   discovered?     By    whom? 
175 

What  are  cathode  rays?     175-177 

How  are  X-ray  pictures  made?     179-180 


381 


How  and  by  whom  was  radium  discovered? 
183 

How  may  radio-activity  be  demonstrated? 
184 

How  is  radium  produced?     185-186-187 
What  kind  of  rays  are  emitted  by  radium?  188 
What  is  the  spinthariscope?     189 
To  what  extent  is  radium  effective  in  the  treat- 
ment of  disease?     191-192 

How  were  moving  pictures,  or  animated  pho- 
tography, discovered?     195-196 

Who  were  the  chief  improvers  of  moving 
picture  mechanism?     196 

How  are  moving  picture  plays  staged?     197 
How  are  the  "impossible"  pictures  obtained? 
202-205 

How  did  men  first  tell  the  time?     206 
What  are  the  dimensions  of  Big  Ben?     207 
What  devices  were  used  for  measuring  time 
in  the  early  ages?     209-211 

What  was  the  mystery  of  Stonehenge  and  its 
association  with  time  measurement?     212 

How  does  the  mariner  find  his  location?     216 
How  was  the  law  of  the  pendulum  discovered? 
218 

Who  invented  the  weight  clock?     218 
What  makes  the  clock's  wheels  go  round?  219 
How  does  electricity  drive  a  clock?     221 
How  is  a  telegram  sent  and  received?     223-225 
How  is  an  ocean  cable  made  and  laid?  228-233 
What  is  wireless  telegraphy?     233-234 
How  are  electric  waves  set  in  motion?     234 
W^hat  are  high  frequency  currents?     234 
What  kind  of  instruments  are  necessary  to 
send  and  receive  wireless  messages?     237 

How  is  a  wireless  message  sent  and  received? 
238-239 

How  are  large  guns  constructed?     244-249 
What  are  the  steps  in  the  manufacture  of 
rifles?     249-251 

How  are  cartridges  and  shell  made?     251-253 
How  are  shot  made?     255 
In  how  many  different  ways  may  the  princi- 
ple of  the  inclined  plane  be  adapted?     256 

What  are  the  six  sources  of  mechanical  power? 
257 

What  is  man's  value  as  a  human  machine?  259 
What  are  the  fiv-e  sources  of  energy  on  the 
earth?     260 

What  is  a  catalyser?     268 

BOOK  OF  ENGINEERING  AND 
INDUSTRY 

What  was  the  French  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany?    271 

How  was  the  right  of  the  United  States  to 
build  the  Panama  Canal  obtained?     271 

Who  was  the  chief  engineer  who  finished  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal?     273 

When  were  the  waters  turned  into  the  Panama 
Canal?  273;  The  first  boat  to  pass  through 
the  Gatun  locks?     273 

What  were  the  greatest  obstacles  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal?     274 

What  is  the  commercial  value  of  the  canal? 
278 


What  saving  in  distance  is  effected  by  the 
opening  of  the  canal?     278-279 

What  rental  does  the  United  States  pay  for 
canal  zone?     283 

What  is  the  cost  of  a  modern  ocean  liner?     284 

What  was  the  first  steamboat  built?     285 

What  was  the  first  steamship  to  cross  the 
Atlantic?     285,  289 

Who  were  the  chief  inventors  in  connection 
with  early  steam  navigation?     286 

What  was  Fulton's  place  among  the  early 
inventors  of  steamboats?     287 

How  is  a  great  steamship  constructed?  289- 
293 

What  are  some  of  the  wonders  of  a  modern 
battleship?     296-300 

What  is  the  strongest  ship  in  the  world  and 
for  what  used?     300 

How  is  armor-plate  manufactured?     302-305 

What  and  where  was  the  first  lighthouse?  306 

Where  was  the  first  American  lighthouse 
built?     308 

What  is  the  tallest  lighthouse  tower  in  the 
United  States?     312 

How  are  lighthouses  lighted?     312-313 

What  are  the  chief  fog  signals  now  in  use?  315 

How  are  life-saving  bells  fixed  ar  worked? 
317 

What  was  the  beginning  and  present  extent 
of  water  power  development  at  Niagara  Falls? 
320 

How  is  the  power  diverted  from  the  Falls, 
conserved,  and  distributed?     320-325 

What  European  waterfalls  are  used  for  power 
purposes?     325 

What  is  the  history  and  present  effectiveness 
of  the  Keokuk  dam  power  plant?     326-329. 

What  are  the  reasons  to  be  assigned  for 
underground  structures?    330. 

What  cities  lead  in  elevated  and  underground 
railways?     330. 

What  is  the  longest  underground  aqueduct  in 
the  world?     333. 

What  are  the  dimensions  of  the  Jawbone 
siphon?     334. 

What  is  the  estimated  underground  popula- 
tion of  New  York?     335. 

Who  was  the  first  great  reformer  in  bridge 
building?     341. 

What  was  the  first  great  iron  bridge  built? 
341. 

How  is  a  caisson  built?     344. 

How  does  the  cantilever  bridge  rank?    345. 

What  are  the  most  notable  bridges  in  New 
York?     347. 

Of  what  type  is  Tower  Bridge,  London? 
348. 

What  are  the  chief  coffee  producing  countries? 
353. 

Why  is  some  tea  black  and  some  green? 
357. 

How  are  tea  leaves  classified?     358. 

How  are  chocolate  and  cocoa  produced? 
363-367. 

How  is  glass  made?    368-380. 

How  are  bottles  made?    375. 

How  is  a.  wine  glass  shaped?    378. 

How  are  colored  and  stained  glass  effects 
obtained?     380. 


S82 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  II 


Actors,  In  moving  pictures,  199. 

Aeroplane,  in  warfare,  261,  264 
265,  267. 

Afte,  of  earth,  44. 

Air,  action  on  rocks.  30;  elements  of. 
72;  relation  to  earth,  24;  what  It 
Is,  71.  72,73. 

Alchemists,  47,  4S. 

Aldebaran,  62. 

Alftol.  62. 

.Mpha  Rays,  188. 

America,  once  connected  with  Eu- 
rope, 45. 

Anemone,  sea,  155,  159. 

Animal  Life,  beginnings  of.  36. 

Animal  Remains,  in  rocks,  31,  32, 
33. 

Animals,  animal  power,  259.  260; 
bat,  89;  cheetah,  82;  civet.  97: 
cougar,  96;  development  of  animal 
life,  84,  85:  distribution  of,  35;  ele- 
phant, 91;  ermine,  96;  fox,  99, 
100;  greatanimal  world,  84;  grizzly 
bear,  95;  how  the  Hon  gets  his  sup- 
per, 92;  how  they  come  into  the 
world,  85;  how  those  of  past  ages 
differed  from  those  of  today,  35; 
how  we  find  those  that  lived  long 
ago,  86:  how  we  know  about  ex- 
tinct monsters,  89:  hyena,  95; 
ichthyosaurus,  87;  jackal,  99,  100; 
Jaguar,  82,  96;  leopard,  82,  94;  life 
in  ocean  depths,  152;  Hon,  90;  lords 
of  the  wild  kinsdom,  93;  lynx,  82; 
many  great  destroyed  by  Ice  age, 
89;  marten,  96;  members  of  cat 
family,  82;  mongoose,  97;  myloden, 
89;  otter,  96;  panther,  96;  polar 
bears.  95,  97,  98.  puma,  82,  96; 
reptiles,  flying  aragons,  birds  and 
man,  84;  sables,  97;  sloths,  87; 
some  monsters  of  the  past,  85; 
stoat,  or  ermine,  96;  that  live  on 
ants,  88:  three  strongest  things  in 
animal  world,  92;  tiger,  90,  93,  94; 
use  of,  89;  weasels,  96:  what  causes 
their  extinction,  36;  wild  in  their 
homes,  90;  wolf,  98.  99,  100. 

SEE     ALSO     NAMES     OF     INDIVIDUAL 
ANIMALS 

Animated  Photography,  develop- 
ment of,  195:  how  discovered,  195; 
see  moving  pictures,  194. 

Anode,   175. 

Ant  Eaters,  88. 

Ants,  Industry  of,  143. 

Apparatus,  X-ray,  174,  179. 

Appendix,  X-ray  picture  of,  181. 

Apertvx  or  Kiwi,  87. 

Aqueducts,  jawbone  siphon,  334; 
Los  Angeles,  333:  New  York,  333; 
Soledad  siphon,  335. 

Archaeopteryx,  or  oldest  bird,  86. 

Arcturus,  62. 

Areas,  land  and  water  Interchange, 
44;    water  and  land  of  earth,  34. 

Argon.  72. 

Arm,  X-ray  picture  of  bones,  181. 

Armor,  how  plates  are  hardened,  302; 
how  the  plates  are  cast,  302;  manu- 
facture of,  302,  305. 

Armor-plate,  302,  305:  ballistic  test 
of,  305;  Barbette  of  "Texas,"  305; 
carbonizing  of,  305;  reaming  ma- 
chine, 304;  sawing  machine,  303: 
steel  Ingot,  303. 

Art  glassware,  370. 

Astrologers,  47,  48. 

Astronomy,  early  discoveries  and 
discoverers.  49;  how  It  developed, 
47,  48. 

BEE    ALSO    STARS,    CONSTELLATIONS, 

8KT, MOON,  SON,  COMETS,  MILKY 

WAY 

Atomic  theory,  14. 

Atoms,  74;  how  they  mix,  76;  radio- 
activity of,  189;  theoretical  dif- 
ference between  ordinary  and  radio- 
active matter,  176. 


Ball,  great  upon  which  we  live,  9. 

Banded  cotlnga,  109. 

Barbette,  of  battleship  "Texas,"  304. 

Barn  swallow.  128. 

Basalt,  29. 

Bat,   89. 

Battle,  with  sperm  whale,  164. 


Battleship,  a  modern  dreadnaught 
fully  equipped,  297,  Z9S,  299;  cross- 
section  ol,  showing  interior,  298, 
299;  guns  of,  296,  297;  men  neces- 
sary for,  296;  munitions  ot,  296; 
tour  of,  296,  300;  working  chamber 
of,  297;  Barbette  of  -Texas,"  304; 
U.  S.  squadron  at  Hampton  Roads, 
284:   wonders  of  a,  296. 

SEE  ALSO  SHIP  BUILDING 

Beacons  of  the  sea,  306:  buoys,  313, 
314;  fog  horns,  fog  signals,  315: 
light  vessels,  314:  life  saving  bells. 
317. 

Bears,  grizzly,  95;   polar,  95,  97. 

Becquerel,  Henri,  experiments  with 
radium,  183. 

Bee,  bodily  structure  of.  140;  drone, 
136:  growth  of  in  cell,  136;  how 
wings  are  hooked  together,  135; 
pollen  pocket  of,  135:  queen,  136; 
tongue  of,  135;    wings  of,  135. 

SEE    ALSO    INSECTS 

Bees,  Carpenter,  144,  146;  how  they 
work,  137;  Industry  of,  143;  life 
of  In  hive,  138,  139;  solitary  homes 
of,  146;  swarming  of,  134;  what 
happens  In  a  hive,  134. 

SEE  ALSO   INSECTS,   BEE 

Beetle,  how  mother  makes  a  cradle, 
148;    water,  150. 

Beginning,  of  animal  life,  36;  of  the 
earth,  of  the  sun,  14. 

Bell-bird,  109,  110. 

Bells,  life-saving,  317. 

Beta  rays,  188.  190.  191. 

Big  Ben,  207. 

Big  Dipper,  62. 

Birds,  Apteryx  or  kiwi,  87;  arch- 
aeopteryx,  or  oldest  bird,  86;  as 
Insect  destroyers.  119;  banded 
cotlnga,  109;  barn-owl,  131,  132; 
barn  swallow,  128;  beauty  birds  of 
foreign  lands,  107;  Bell-bird,  109, 
110;  bluebird,  124;  blue  jay,  126: 
bobolink,  125;  bobwhite,  133;  brew- 
er's blackbird,  125;  buzzards,  117; 
care  of,  124;  cassowary,  121;  cat- 
bird, 128:  chatterers,  110;  chick- 
adee. 128;  cock  of  the  rock,  109, 
110;  condor,  115;  Cooper's  hawK 
130;  crow,  122;  crow,  common, 
126;  description  of  familiar,  124; 
dinosaurs,  87;  dodo,  86;  do  .ny 
woodpecker,  133;  eagle,  112,  113, 
114;  emu,  121;  English  sparrow, 
129;  falcons,  117;  family  of  vul- 
tures, 117;  farm  and  orchard,  119; 
first  cousins  of  the  ostrich,  121; 
flamingoes.  111;  flicker,  127;  foes 
of,  124;  Gorget  Bird  of  Paradise, 
103,  104:  great  Bird  of  Paradise. 
102.  103,  104;  gray  parrot,  107,  108. 
110;  handsomest  In  the  world,  103; 
hawk  owl,  122;  hawks,  120,  122; 
hornbllls,  107,  108;  house  wren, 
128;  how  they  seek  safety.  101; 
hummingbird.  103,  104,  105:  hunt- 
ing birds,  112;  Indian  starling,  110; 
Jackdaw,  122;  Java  sparrow.  103. 
106;  kaka  parrot,  107,  108,  110; 
kllldeer,  130;  kingbird,  132;  king- 
fisher. 110:  kites.  117;  laughing 
Jackass,  107,  108,  110;  love  birds, 
107,  108;  lyre-bird.  106;  manakin. 
109,  110;  manner  of  living,  122; 
meadowlarks,  126:  mocking  bird, 
125;  mourning  dove,  130;  nests 
and  eggs,  123;  nlghthawk.  127; 
night-Jar,  109:  noted  for  their 
beauty,  101;  of  Paradise,  101,  102, 
103;  osprey,  114;  owls.  120,  122; 
peacock.  107.  108:  Pharaoh's 
chickens,  115:  purple  martin,  129; 
quetzal.  109.  110;  red-tailed  hawk, 
129;  red-winged  blackbird,  126; 
Rhea.  121;  Robin.  124;  rose- 
breasted  grosbeck.  125;  ruffed 
grouse,  132;  satin  bower-bird,  103, 
106;  screech  owl,  132;  some  that 
hunt  for  beasts,  118:  sparrow 
family,  120;  sparrow  hawk.  129 
Toucan,  107,  108;  trogon,  110 
twelve-wired  Bird  of  Parad'se,  103 
104;  umbrella  bird,  109,  110 
upland  plover,  130;  vultures,  114 
waxwlng,  109;  weaver,  101,  106 
what  the  first  looked  like,  86;  what 
they  eat.  122,  123;    with  strange 


feathers.    109;     yellow-belUed  sap- 
sucker.  127. 

SEE     ALSO     NAMES     OF     INDIVIDUAL 
BIRDS 

Blackbird,  Brewer's.  125;  red- 
winged,   126. 

Blackwell's  Island  Bridge,  349. 

Bladderwort.  how  It  traps  insects, 
170. 

Bluebird,   124. 

Bobolink,   125. 

Bobwhite,   133. 

Bombs,  air,  261. 

Boston,  congestion  In,  330;  light 
house.  308. 

Bottles,  how  made,  374.  375. 

Brazil,  production  of  cocoa  beans. 
365;    production  of  coffee,   362. 

Brewer's   blackbird.    125. 

Bridges.  Blackwell's  Island.  349; 
Britannia,  341:  Brooklyn,  347.  349. 
350;  caisson,  343;  cantilever,  345: 
early  construction  of.  341;  foot- 
paths In  the  air,  341;  Forth,  345, 
346:  how  the  building  Is  begun, 
343;  Inside  workshop  of  caisson. 
344:  Manhattan.  347;  modern 
steel  across  the  Rhine  at  Cologne, 
345;  new  bridge  over  Hell  Gate, 
New  York,  341,  351;  of  John 
Rennle,  341;  of  Stephenson,  341: 
old-fashioned  in  picturesque  lands, 
342;  Saltash,  347;  suspension,  347, 
349,  350,  351;  Williamsburg.  347. 
349.     350. 

Brightness  of  the  Stars,  what  It 
means,  66. 

Brooklyn  Bridge,  347,  349,  350. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  discoveries  of. 
martyrship  of.  theory  of  the  stars, 
50. 

Buzzards,  117. 

Bullets,  how  cast,  252;  shape  of 
In   cartridges,    252. 

Bumble-bees.  144. 


Cables.  At  the  bottom  of  the  Atlan- 
tic. 227;  cross-section,  228;  how 
Joined  at  sea,  231;  how  raised  and 
lowered,  232;  how  ship  lays  it,  230; 
telegraph,  226.  227.  228,  229,  230, 
231,  232. 

SEE  ALSO  TELEGRAPH,  TELEGRAPHY 

Cablegrams,  233. 

Caisson,  343;   Inside  of,  344. 

Camera,  cinematograph,  196;  mov- 
ing picture,  196. 

Canals,  Panama,  271. 

Cancer,  radium  treatment,   192. 

Cantilever  bridges,  345. 

Capital,  nvested  in  moving  picture 
production,   197. 

Carpenter  bees,  144 ;  wonderful  home 
of,  146. 

Cartridges,  automatic  loading  of. 
252;  how  head  Is  formed,  252; 
manufacture  of,  251,  252,  253. 

SEE   ALSO   SHELLS 

Cassiopeia,  62. 

Cassowary,  121. 

Castor  and  Pollux.  66. 

Catbird,  128. 

Cathode,  175. 

Cathode  Rays,  explanation  of,  175. 

Ceylon,  cultivation  of  tea.  354.  355. 

Chalk,  how  formed,  154. 

Chatterers,  110. 

Cheetah,  82 ;  how  It  Is  made  to  hunt 
the  antelope,  96. 

Chemical  affinity,  77,  78. 

Chemical  compound,  74. 

Chemical  elements,  71,  72,  73:  argon. 
72;  nitrogen.  72;  oxygen.  72; 
radium,  186. 

Chemical  mixture,  71,  72,  73;  sym- 
bols, 77. 

Chemistry,  of  Are,  78. 

Chicago,  congestion  In.  330;  sub- 
ways. 331. 

Chickadee,   128. 

China,  cultivation  of  tea.  353,  354. 
356.  357. 

Chlorophyll,  how  It  changes  color  In 
leaves,  166;  movement  In  granules, 
167. 

Chocolate,  where  It  comes  from,  353. 

Chocolates,  where  they  come  from, 
364. 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME   II 


1 


cinematograph,  camera  used,  196. 

SEE    ALSO    MOVING    PICTURES 

Civet,  97. 

Classification,  of  guns,  249. 

Clematis,  wild,  168. 

Cleric-Maxwell,  James,  discoveries- 
in  vfireless  telegraphy,  233,  234. 

Cliffs,  fossil  remains  in,  153. 

Climbing  plants,  examples  of,   168. 

Clocks,  Baylonian  water-clock,  216; 
Big  Ben,  207;  candle  clock  and 
hour-glass,  217,  218;  clock  at  Green- 
wich, England,  which  gives  stand- 
ard time,  206:  corrected  by  tele- 
graph, 213;  driven  by  electricity, 
221;  electric  world-clock,  222; 
first  clock  the  heavens,  206;  how 
regulated  by  the  stars,  213,  214, 
215;  invention  of  weight^clock, 
218;  law  of  the  pendulum,  218.  219; 
limits  of  accuracy,  211 ;  mechanism 
of,  219;  what  makes  the  wheels  go 
round,  219. 

SEE   ALSO   TIME 

Cock  of  the  Rock,  109,  110. 

Cocoa,  a  cacao  plantation,  365;  pro- 
duction and  use  of,  363;  produc- 
tion of,  352;   the  cacao  tree,  365. 

Cocoa  Beans,  from  grinding  mill  to 
chocolate  molds,  366;  gathering 
and  roasting,  367;  how  prepared, 
364;    preparation  for  market,  367; 

Coffee,  Arabian  plant,  360;  countrlea 
that  grow  It,  353;  how  crop  is 
gathered,  362;  how  grown,  361; 
preparation  of  bean  for  market, 
363;  production  in  Brazil,  362; 
production  of,  352;    the  fruit,  360. 

Combustion,  true  nature  of,  80; 
what  it  is,    80. 

Comet,  18;  journey  of,  53;  path 
of,  53. 

Composition,  of  water,  73. 

Condor,   115. 

Conservation,  of  radium,  193. 

Constellations,  65;  Big  D'.pper,  62; 
Cassiopeia,  62;  Great  Bear,  62; 
map  of  in  Autumn  and  Winter,  65; 
map  of  In  Spring,  63;  map  of  in 
Summer,  64;  names  of,  62;  nam- 
ing of,  61;  Northern  Crown,  or 
Corona  Borealls,  60;  Orion.  62; 
Perseus,  62;  Pleiades,  62;  study  of, 
60. 

SEE   ALSO   STARS,    SKY 

Construction  of  bridges,  341,  351. 

Cooper's  hawk,   130. 

Coral,  builders,  154,  155;    how  it  is 

built  up,  154,  155;  Insects,  how  they 

work,   154,   155. 
Cordouan   Lighthouse,  307,   310. 
Corona  Borealls,  60. 
Cougar,  96. 
Could  a  Man  tumble  off  the  earth? 

10. 
Craters     10. 

Crlcketl  mother  and  family,  147. 
Crookes,  Sir  William,   discoveries  In 

connection  with  X-rays,  175. 
Crow,  122;  common,  126. 
Crust  of  earth,  27;    changes  In,  39; 

how  earth's  is  split,  43;  how  made. 

28;   story  of  the  rocks,  32,  33. 

SEE   ALSO    EARTH 

Curie,  Madam, discoveries  Inradlum, 

183,   185. 
Curing  tea,   358. 


D 


Darwin,  Charles,  on  glaciers,  39. 
Dslta  rays,  190,  191. 
Development  of  animals,  84,  85;  of 

animated     photography,     195;      of 

steamships,  284. 
Diatom,   160. 
Dinosaurs,   87. 
Discovery,  of  animated  photography, 

195. 
Distances,  betweenthe  world's  ports, 

279,  280;    of  the  stars,  66;    table 

of,  affecting  the  world's  sea  traffic, 

279. 

SEE   ALSO   PANAMA    CANAL 


Dodo,     86. 
Dove,  mourning,  130. 
Downy  woodpecker,   133. 
Drilling  machine,  257. 
Dry  dock,  327. 


Eagle,  112,  113.  114. 

Earth,  age  of,  44;  air,  water  and  flre, 
71;  American  and  Europe  once 
connected,  45;  as  it  is  today,  27; 
before  it  was  Inhabited,  57;  burn- 
ing flre  Inside,  38;  changes  in  struc- 
ture of,  29;  changing  crust  of.  39; 
changing  from  age  to  age,  32; 
could  a  man  tumble  off,  10;  crust 
of,  27;  distance  of  moon,  54:  dis- 
tribution of  animals,  35;  energy 
from  its  rotation,  260,  261,  263, 
264;  first  men  who  tried  to  sail 
around,  12;  formation  of  minerals, 
30;  fossils,  34,  35;  geology  of,  28; 
great  ball  upon  which  we  live,  9; 
heat  and  light,  68 ;  heat  energy  of, 
260,261,262 ;  hot  tide  that  once  rolled 
over,  25;  how  crust  was  made, 
28;  how  earthquakes  and  volca- 
noes change  the  earth's  face,  40: 
how  it  was  made,  21;  how  men 
found  It  was  round,  12;  how  moun- 
tains and  boulders  tell  its  story,  39; 
how  old  it  is,  29;  how  we  know  it  Is 
round,  11;  lost  continent,  45;  made 
of  same  matter  as  sun,  22;  may 
once  have  been  pear-shaped,  24; 
men  who  thought  it  was  flat,  9; 
mystery  of  the  underworld,  9; 
once  a  globe  of  gas,  24,  25;  path 
of  moon  round,  59;  relation  to  air, 
24,  25;  rock  structures,  29:  size 
compared  with  universe,  51 ;  size  of, 
27;  story  of,  13;  viewed  from 
moon,  58,  59;  water  and  land  areas 
of,  34;  what  men  thought  about 
the  sun,  10;  when  Its  spinning  be- 
gan, 16. 

SEE    ALSO   VOLUME    1 

Earth  and  Sky,  7. 

Earwig,  guarding  her  young,  147. 

Eddystone  lighthouse.  306.  307;  in- 
terior, 307. 

Edison,  Thomas  A.,  improvements  in 
animated  photography,  196. 

Eggs,  Birds',  123:  of  bumble-bees, 
144;  of  insects,  how  hatched,  142, 
143;   of  water-beetle,  150. 

Eiffel  Tower,  electric  world-clock  of. 
222. 

Electricity,  discoveries  of  Clerk- 
Maxwell  and  Hertz,  233,  234;  gen- 
erated from  waterfalls,  319,  325; 
high  frequency  currents,  234:  how 
It  drives  clocks,  221;  sending  a 
telegram,  223,  224,  225. 

SEE  ALSO  TELEGRAPHY,  WIRELEaS 

Electric  Waves,  how  set  In  motion, 

234,  235,  240,  241. 
Electrons,   177. 

Elements,  chemical,  71;    of  air,  72. 
Elephant,   91. 
Elevated  railways,  330. 
Emu,   121. 

Energy,  flve  sources  of,  260. 
Engineering,  elevated  railways,  330 

how   bridges  are   built,    341,    351 

marvels     of     underground.     330 

Panama  Canal,  274. 

SEE     ALSO     BRIDGES,     UNDERGROUND 
ENGINEERING 

English,  daisy,  168;   sparrow,  129 

•■Ermack"  strongest  ship  In  the 
world,  300,  301. 

Europe,  once  connected  with  Amer- 
ica, 45. 

European  water  power,  325. 


Falcons,  how  taught  to  catch  other 

birds,  117. 
Faults,    geological,    40;     geological, 

what  causes  them,  41. 
Fire,   chemistry  of,   78,   79;    how  it 

comes  out  of  the  earth,  42;    inside 

the  earth,  38:  what  it  is,  71,  72,  73. 
Fishes,  phosphorescent,  158,  159. 
Fitch,  John,  steam  navigator.  286. 
Flamingoes,   111. 
Flicker,   127. 
Flowers,  hours  when  they  open,  170; 

why  they  burst  open,  169. 
Fog,  signals,  315. 
Foghorns,   315 
Food  products,  water  In,  79. 
Foot,  X-ray  picture  of,  181. 
Forests,  as  sources  of  power.  260. 
Forth  bridge,  345,  346. 
Fortilcations,  267,  268. 
Fossils,  what  they  teach.  34. 
Fox,  99,  100. 

S 


French  Panama  canal  company.  271- 
Frog,  X-ray  picture  of  skeleton,  181. 
Fuel,  as  source  of  power,  260,  268. 
Fulton,  Robert,  first  steamboat,  287. 


Galileo,  discovery  of  the  moons.  17; 
invented  telescope,  49. 

Gamma  rays.  190,  191. 

Gary,  Blasco,  de,  steam  navigation, 
286. 

Gatun  locks,  272;  first  boat  to  pass 
through,  273. 

Geology,  study  of  earth,  28:  how  re- 
lated to  botany  and  other  sciences, 
30,  31. 

Glaciers,  39,  40. 

Glass-making,  among  the  Venetians, 
371;  art  glassware  of  1500  years, 
370;  chemical  Ingredients  used,  372; 
colored  and  stained  glass,  380; 
grinding  and  polishing,  376;  his- 
tory of,  368,  369;  how  a  wine  glass 
!a  made,  378:  how  bottles  are 
made,  374,  375;  how  plate  glass  Is 
made,  375;  how  sheet  glass  is  made, 
376;  Introduced  into  England,  371; 
Jena  glass,  371.  lamp  chimneys 
and  drinking  glasses,  377:  ma- 
chinery superseding  handwork,  374; 
marvels  of,  368:  methods  used,  373: 
polishing  cut-glass,  379;  processes 
of,  371,  372. 

Gnats,  Eggs  of,  148. 

Goethals,  Colonel,  chief  engineer  of 
Panama  Canal.  273. 

Granite,   29. 

Grasshopper,  how  it  deposits  Ita 
eggs,   142. 

Gravitation,  23;  force  of  upon 
moon,  57. 

Great,  ball  upon  which  we  live,  9. 

Great   Bear,  62. 

Grouse,  ruffed,   132. 

Guns,  assembling  the  parts,  246; 
breech  mechanism,  248;  how  class- 
ified, 249:  how  forged  and  turned, 
246 ;  Krupp  siege  guns,  263 ;  machin- 
ing large  guns,  244;  manufacture  of. 
244,  262,  263;  steel  used  in  their 
construction,  244;  three  stages  in 
growth  of,  247;  typea  used  in 
warfare,  245:   used  in  warfare,  244. 

SEE   ALSO   RIFLES 


H 


Hand,  radiograph  of  structure,  174. 
Hawk,  Cooper's,  130;  red-tailed.  129: 

sparrow,  129. 
Hawk  Owl,   122. 
Hawks,   120,   122. 
Heat,  what  it  is,  68. 
Heat  and  Light,  68;    theory  of,  69. 
Heavens,  the  first  clock,  206. 
Hell  Gate  bridge,  341,  351. 
Herschel,  makes  a  list  of  stars,  23. 
Hertz,  Heimrlch  Rudolf,  discoveries 

in  electric  waves,  234. 
Honeysuckle,  how  It  unfolds,  169. 
Hops,    168. 
Hornbills,   107,  108. 
Hour-Glass,  217,  218. 
How  A  grasshopper  deposits  its  eggs, 

142. 
How  Animals  came  Into  the  world, 

85. 
How  Animals  of  past  ages  differed 

from  those  of  today,  35. 
How  armor-plates  are  made,  302,  305. 
How  a  root  seeks  moisture.  166. 
How  atoms  mix,  76. 
How  bees  work,  137. 
How  birds  live,  122. 
How  birds  seek  safety,  101. 
How  bridges  are  built,  341,  351. 
How  chalk  is  made,  154. 
How     earthquakes     and     volcanoes 

change  the  earth's  face,  40. 
How  flre  comes  out  of  the  earth,  42. 
How  lighthouses  are  built  and  main- 
tained, 306  to  313. 
How  long  It  would  take  a  train  to 

reach  the  planets,  19. 
How  men  found  the  earth  is  round, 

12, 
How  moving  picture  plays  are  staged 

197. 
How  old  the  earth  is,  29. 
How  telegraph  cables  are  made  and 

laid,  228,  229,  230,  231,  232. 
How  earth's  crust  is  spilt,  43. 
How  the  earth  was  madCt  21. 


INDEX   TO  VOLUME  II 


How  fhe  lion  gets  his  supper,  92. 

How  the  root  of  a  plant  grows,  165, 
166. 

How   time  is   measured,    206. 

How  water  is  formed,  75,  76. 

How  we  know  about  extinct  monsters 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  89. 

How  we  know  the  earth  Is  round,  11. 

How  we  look  at  another  world,  46. 

How  we  send  a  telegram,  223,  224, 
225. 

How  wings  of  a  bee  are  hooked  to- 
gether. 135. 

How  wireless  telegraphy  Is  accom- 
plished, 233  to  242. 

Hulls,  Jonathan,  steamship  naviga- 
tion, 286. 

Hunting  Birds,  112. 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  on  fossils,  34. 

Hydrogen,  75. 

Hydraulic  Press,  as  source  of  power, 
258. 

Hyena.  95. 


Ichthyosaurus,  87. 

•"Imperator,"  290:  a  floating  Rltz- 
Carlton,  295;  equipment  of,  293; 
magnificence  of,  295;  maiden  voy- 
age of,  294. 

India,  cultivation  of  tea,  357. 

Indian   Starling,   110. 

Induced  radio-activity,  191. 

Industry,  engineering  and,  269; 
of  ants,  143;   of  bees.  143. 

Infusoria,  in  the  sea,  152;  what  be- 
comes of  dead,  152. 

Insects,  bumble-bees,  144;  carpenter 
bees,  144;  earwig  guarding  her 
young  147;  gnats  and  mosquitoes, 
148;  how  a  beetle  mother  makes  a 
cradle,  148;  how  they  guard  their 
young,  141;  industry  of  ants  and 
bees,  143;  many  kinds  of  homes 
made  by,  144;  mother  mole  cricket 
and  her  family,  147;  mother  spider 
carrying  her  young,  147;  mothers 
that  are  short-lived,  143:  Scarab, 
150;  solitary  bees,  146;  spider 
hatching  eggs,  142,  143:  wasps, 
144;  water-beetle,  150;  water 
spider,  148. 

SEE   ALSO    BEE3 

Intrenchments,  construction  of,  267 
268. 

Inventors,  Edison,  Thomas,  A  .  196; 
Fitch,  John,  286;  Fulton,  Robert, 
286,  287;  Gary,  Blasco  de,  286; 
Hulls,  Jonathan,  286:  Lumiere, 
196;  Papin,  Denis,  286;  Rumsev, 
James,  286:  Scottish,  288:  Syming- 
ton, William,  288. 


Jackal.  99,  100. 
Jackdaw,   122. 
Jaguar,  82,  96. 
Java  Sparrow,   103,   106. 
Jupiter,  planet  of,  17. 


Keokuk  dam,  distribution  of  power, 
327;  Riant  power  house,  328:  in- 
dustrial value  of,  329;  lock  and  dry 
dock,  327;  turbines  used,  328; 
what  it  is  and  what  it  does,  326  to 
329;    wonderful  lock  gates,  329. 

SEE   ALSO   POWER 

Kllauea  Ughthouse,  313. 

Klildeer,   130. 

Kingbird,    132. 

Kingfisher,   110. 

Kites,  good  and  evil  work  of.  117. 

Koppernlk,  or  Corpernicus,  Nicolas, 

work  in  Astronomy,  49. 
Krupp  Siege  Guns.  263. 


Laughing  Jackass,  107.  108.  110. 

Lavolssier.  discovered  true  nature  of 
combustion,  79,  80. 

Law  of  gravitation,  discovery  of,  23. 

Leaves,  ciiange  in  color,  166;  why 
they  fold  up,  169. 

Leopard,  82,  94. 

Lesseps,  Count  Ferdinand  de,  con- 
nection with  Panama  Canal,  271. 

Lever,  as  a  source  of  mechanical 
power,  257,  258. 

Life  Saving  bells,  317. 


Light,  how  lighthouses  are  supplied, 
312,  313;  planetary,  51;  what  It 
Is,  68. 

Lighthouses,  306.  313;  ancient,  306; 
Boston  light,  308:  Kddystone,  306, 
307;  famous  shore  lights,  312;  first 
American,  308:  how  lighted,  312; 
interior  structure  of,  307;  Kilauea, 
313;  location  and  construction  of, 
309;  Minot's  ledge,  310;  Navcslnk, 
powerful  liglit  of,  313:  number  In 
Great  Britain,  307;  Pharos,  306; 
reflectors,  lenses  and  prisms  used, 
313;  Sandy  Hook,  308,  309-  St. 
George  Reef,  312;  Tillamook  Rock 
Light,  311;  tower  of  Cordouan.  307, 
310;  troubles  from  ice,  birds  and 
sand,  312;   white  shoal  light.  311. 

Lion.  90,  9.3:  how  he  gets  his  supper, 
92:  lords  of  the  wild  kingdom,  93; 
mountain,  or  puma.  96;  roar  of,  92; 
strength  of,  92;   tongue  of,  92. 

SEE    ALSO    ANIMALS,    NATURE 

Locks,  Keokuk  dam,  327,  329;  Gatun 
272;  wonderful  gates  at  Keokuk, 
329. 

London,  behind  the  face  of  Big  Ben, 
207;  bridges  of,  347,  348;  conges- 
tion in,  330;  subways  in,  330,  331; 
tower  bridge,  347,  348. 

Los  Angeles,  aqueducts,  333. 

Lost  Continent,  45. 

Love  Birds,  107.  108. 

Lumiere.  improvements  In  animated 
photography,  196. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geological  dis- 
covery, 39. 

Lvnx     82 

Lyre-bird,  106,  107,  108. 

M 

Magnitude,  of  stars,  62. 

Man,  as  a  machine,  259. 

Manakin,   109.   110. 

Manhattan  bridge,  347. 

Manufacture,  of  ammunition,  249; 
of  armor,  302,  305;  of  guns,  244; 
of  rifles,  249;  of  shells,  251,  252,  253. 

Map,  of  constellations  and  stars  in 
autumn  and  winter,  65;  of  con- 
stellatinns  in  summer,  64;  of  stars 
in  spring,  63. 

Mariner,  how  he  tells  the  time,  216. 

Marten,   96. 

Martin,   purple,   129. 

Marvels,  of  glass-making,  368;  of 
mechanism,  173;  of  plants,  165, 
172;  of  underground  engineering, 
330. 

Matter,  mystery  of,  176. 

Meadowlarks,   126. 

Measurement,  of  power  of  X-rays, 
180;    of  time,  206. 

Mechanics,  principle  of  power  in  the 
inclined  plane,  256. 

Mechanism,  of  clocks,  220;  marvels 
of,   173. 

Medical,  uses  of  radium,  191. 

Meteors.   20. 

Mexico,  production  of  cocoa  beans, 
365. 

Minerals,  how  formed,  30. 

Mines,  submarine,  259,  260,  262. 

MInots  ledge  lighthouse,  310. 

Mixture,  chemical,  what  is  meant 
by  it,  71. 

Mocking  Bird.   125. 

Molecules.  74;   of  water,  75. 

Mongoose.   97. 

Moon,  54:  best  known  of  planets, 
55;  discovery  of  by  Galileo,  17; 
distance  from  earth,  54;  earth 
viewed  from,  58,  59;  force  of 
gravitation  upon.  57:  how  flung 
oft  from  Earth,  26;  light  of  com- 
pared with  sun,  54:  path  of  round 
the  Earth,  59;  photograph  of,  56; 
shadows  from,  57;  side  men  have 
not  seen,  55 ;  why  a  dead  planet.  54 ; 
why  subject  to  fewer  changes  than 
the  earth,  59. 

SEE   ALSO   SK.r,  TELESCOPE 

Mosquitoes,  how  they  are  propa- 
gated,  148. 

Mother  love  in  the  Insect  world,  141. 

Motography,    197. 

Mountains  and  boulders,  how  they 
tell  the  story  of  the  earth,  39. 

Mourning  Dove,   130. 

Moving  pictures,  actors  In,  199; 
capital  Invested  In  production  of, 
197;  celluloid  negative,  196;  cine- 
matograph camera,  196;  future 
posslbllites,  197 ;   how  local  color  Is 


secured,  200:  how  plays  are  staged, 
197;  how  realism  is  attained,  199; 
how  scenes  are  produced  inside 
studios,  201;  how  the  "impossible" 
Is  done,  202,  203,  204,  205;  how 
tricks  are  done,  203,  204,  205;  Im- 
provements of  Edison  and  Lumiere, 
196;  mechanism  of  camera,  196; 
motography,  197;  picture  stage 
settings,  199:  Professor  Starr  on, 
194;  Selig  studios  for  making,  198; 
stage  for  production  of,  195;  stag- 
ing for  "The  Yankee  Spy,"  200; 
tricks  in,  203,  204,  205. 

SEE      ALSO      CINEMATOGRAPH,      ANI- 
MATED PHOTOGRAPHY,   MOTOG- 
RAPHY 

Muybrldge,  Edward,  moving  picture 

inventions,   196. 
Mystery,  of  lowest  forms  of  sea  life, 

162;    of  matter,  176. 


N 

Names,  of  constellations,  62. 

Naming,  constellations,  61. 

Nature's  Wonderful  family,  83. 

Navesink  lighthouse,  powerful  light 
of,  313. 

Navigation,  conquest  of  the  sea,  284. 

Nebulse,  of  Orion,  53;  star,  52;  what 
they  are,  21,  22,  23. 

Nests.  Bird's,   123. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  advances  science 
of  Astronomy,  50:  discovery  of  law 
of  gravitation,  23. 

New  York,  Bridges  of,  341,  347,  349, 
350,  351;  elevated  railways,  330; 
subways,  330,  331,  333;  water 
tunnels  and  aqueducts,  333. 

Niagara  Falls,  Birdseye  view,  show- 
ing power  plants,  318;  gigantic 
turbine  used  in  power  plant,  322; 
how  power  is  carried  to  distant 
cities  321;  how  power  is  generated 
and  controlled,  323;  how  the  Falls 
are  harnessed,  321;  power  produced 
by  plants,  320. 

SEE     ALSO     POWER,     POWER     PLANTS 
Nighthawk,    127. 
Nightjar,    109. 
Nitrogen,   72. 
Northern   Crown,   or  Corona-Bore- 

alis,  60. 
Number,  of  stars,  67. 
Nummulltes,   how  they  have  built 

mountains.   154. 
Nutation.   165.  166. 


O 

Observatory,  at  Greenwich,  222;    at 

Paris,  222. 
Ocean,  Animal  life  in,  152;    bed  of, 

how  explored,  160;   living  light  In, 

158,  159. 
Orchids,  Mexican,  171. 
Orion,  62:   nebula  of,  53. 
Osprey,  114. 
Otter,  96. 

Owl,  barn-owl,  131,  132;  screech,  132. 
Owls,  120,  122. 
Oxygen,  72:    necessary  to  life,  73. 


Palaeontology,  what  It  teaches,  34. 
Palisades,  const' uction  of,  267. 
SEE   ALSO   FORTIFICATIONS, 

INTRENCHMENTS 

Panama,  city  of,  281 ;  finances  of, 
283;  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  treaty' 
271;  Independence  guaranteed  by 
U.  S.  273;  map  of,  281;  resources. 
283. 

Panama  Canal,  acquisition  of  fran- 
chise by  U.  S.,  271;  bed  in  which 
two  seas  met,  276;  Colonel  Goe- 
thals,  chief  engineer,  273:  distances 
saved,  278,  279;  first  boat  to  pass 
through  Ine  locks,  273;  French 
company,  271;  Gatun  locks,  272; 
giant  shovels  used,  275;  prodigious 
landslides,  274;  severing  the  two 
Americas,  271;  trip  through.  274; 
triumph  of  engineering,  274;  turn- 
ing in  the  waters,  273;  walla 
through  which  the  seas  flowed,  277: 
what  It  means,  278:  wonderful 
steps  up  which  ships  climb,  270. 

SEE    ALSO   ENGINEERING 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME   II 


Panama  Canal  Zone,  map  of,  281, 
283;   rental  paid  by  U.  S.,  283. 

Paris,  congestion  in,  330;  electric 
world  clock  in  Eiffel  Tower,  222; 
how  burrowed  with  subways  and 
excavations,  332 ;  observatory  of, 
222;  subways  in,  331,  332. 

Parrots,   gray  parrot,   107,   108. 

Peacock,    107,   108. 

Pebble!^,  secrets  locked  in,  153. 

Pekoe  teas,  358. 

Pendulum,  law  of,  218,  219. 

Perseus,  62. 

Phantoscope,  195. 

Pharaoh's  chickens,  115. 

Pharos  lighthouse,  306. 

Philadelphia,  congestion  in,  330. 

Phosphorescent  fishes,  158,  159. 

Photography,  by  X-rays,  180. 

Photograph,  of  moon,  56. 

Pictures,  moving,  194. 

Pitchblende,  184. 

Planets,  13;  d-istance  from  sun,  18; 
how  long  it  would  take  a  train  to 
reanh,  19;  how  they  differ  from 
stars,  17;  revolving  about  the  sun, 
15;    why  so  called,   17. 

SEE   ALSO   8KT,   TELESCOPES 

Plants,  change  in  color  of  leaves,  166 ; 
creeping  and  climbing,  167;  English 
daisy,  168;  examples  of  climbing, 
168;  hops,  168;  hours  when  flowers 
open,  170;  how  a  root  seeks  mois- 
ture, 166;  how  the  bladderwort 
raps  insects,  170;  how  the  root 
grows,  165,  166;  nutation,  165, 
166;  one  that  breaks  the  rules,  171; 
peculiarities  of  sundew,  170;  sensi- 
tive, habits  of,  167;  some  intelli- 
gent, 165;  Venus's  flytrap,  169; 
weapons  of,  170;  what  chlorophyll 
does,  166;  why  flowers  burst  open, 
169;  why  some  leaves  fold  up,  169; 
wild  clematis,  168:  wisdom  dis- 
played by  root  tips,  165. 

Plate  glass,  how  made,  375. 

Pleiades,   62. 

Plover,  upland,  130. 

Polar  Bear,  what  it  eats,  97,  98. 

Pole  star,  62. 

Polonium,  185. 

Power,  animal,  259,  260;  develop- 
ment of  at  Niagara  Falls,  319  to 
325;  electric,  how  measured  and 
sold,  325;  generated  by  Keokuk 
dam,  326  to  329;  how  European 
waterfalls  have  been  harnessed, 
325  Keokuk  dam,  326  to  .328;. 

BEE   ALSO    NIAGARA   FALLS,    KEOKUK 
DAM 

Power  Plants,  history  of  at  Niagara 
Falls,  319,  320;  Keokuk  dam,  326; 
view  of  at  Niagara  Falls,  318. 

Price  of  radium,  193. 

Principle  of  inclined  plane,  256. 

Procession,  oi  worlds,  8. 

Procyon,  66. 

Production,  of  cocoa,  coffee  and  tea. 
352. 

Puma,  82,  96. 

Purple  martin,  129. 


Quetzal,  109,  110. 


R 


Radiant  energy,  of  the  sun,  68,  69.  70. 

Radio-Activity,  how  demonstrated, 
184:  induced,  191;  how  measured, 
186;   of  an  atom  of  radium,  189. 

Radiographs,  of  hand,  174. 

Radium,  character  of  radiation,  188; 
conservation  of,  193;  emanation, 
191;  extraction  from  ores,  187; 
how  discovered,  183;  how  it  differs 
from  other  elements,  186:  master 
energy  of,  183;  measuring  radio 
activity,  186;  medical  uses  of,  191: 
P'llonium,  185;  price  of,  193; 
production  of,  185,  187;  properties 
of,  186,  187;  rays  of,  188,  190,  191; 
sources  of,  184,  185,  187;  stand- 
ardization of,  193;  therapeutic 
application,  191;  treatment  of  can- 
cer, 192;  treatment  of  rheuma. 
tism,   192. 

Radium  Ores,  chemical  treatment, 
187;  fractionization,  188:  mechan- 
ical preparation  of,  187. 


Radium  rays.  188,  190,  191;  sepa- 
ration of,   190. 

Rays,  Alpha  rays,  188;  Beta  rays, 
188,  190,  191;  Cathode,  175; 
Delta  rays,  190,  191;  Gamma  rays, 
188,  191;  Radium,  188,  190,  191; 
separation  of  radium  rays,  190; 
X  discovered,  175,  176. 

Red-tailed   hawk,    129. 

Red-winged  blackbird,   126. 

Rennie,  John,  bridges  of,  341. 

Rhea,    121. 

Rheumatism,  Radium  treatment  of, 
192 

Rifles,  249;  hardening  the  steel,  251; 
how  rifled,  249;  lining  up  the 
sights,  251,  254;  making  wooden 
parts,  251;  proving  them,  250; 
steel  used  in  manufacture  of,  249; 
straightening  the  barrels,  249,  250; 
testing  for  accuracy,  254;  testing 
for  action  and  accuracy,  250,  251. 

SEE    ALSO    GUNS,    SHELLS 

Rifle  Barrels,  steps  In  manufacture, 

249,  250. 
Robin,   124. 
Rocks,  action  of  air  and  water,  30; 

animal  remains  in,  31;    basalt,  29; 

different   strata,    37;     granite,    29; 

origin  of,  29;    structure  and  origin 

of,  29:    value  of  to  man,  37;  what 

they  tell  us,  31 ;  wonder  story  of,  32 

33. 

SEE   ALSO   EARTH 

Roebling,  John  A.,  Brooklyn  bridge, 

349. 
Roentgen,  William  Konrad,  discover 

of  X-rays,  175,  176. 
Root,  how  it  seeks  moisture,  166;  of 

plants,  how  it  grows,  165,  166. 
Rose-breasted   Grosbeak,    125. 
Ruffed  grouse,  132. 
Rumsey,   James,   steam  navigation, 

286. 
Rushlight  holder,  209. 


Sables,  97. 

Saltash  bridge,  347. 

Sand,  shell-forms  in,  151. 

Sandy  Hook  lighthouse,  308,  309. 

Satin  bower  bird,  103,  106. 

Scarab,  150. 

Screech  owl,  132. 

Screw,  as  a  mechanical  power,  258. 

Sea ,  beacons  of,  306 ;  conquest  of,  284 . 

Sea-Anemones,  155,  159;  forms  of, 
156,  157,  159;  how  they  grow  and 
live,   157,   159. 

Sea-cucumber,   161. 

Sea-Life,  Arctic  whale,  163:  Diatom, 
160;  Infusoria,  152;  mystery  of 
lowest  forms,  162;  rorqual,  or  sul- 
phur bottom,  163:  sea-cucumber, 
161;  specks  of,  160;  sperm  whale, 
162;  starfish,  161;  tiger  of  the 
deep,  162. 

Secrets,  locked  in  pebbles,  153. 

Selig,  how  their  scenes  are  produced, 
200;  moving  picture  studio,  198; 
Zoo  used  in  producing  moving  pic- 
ture scenes,  202. 

Sensitive  plants,  habits  of,  167. 

Shadows,  thrown  by  the  moon,  57. 

Shells,  how  shot-gun  shells  are  made, 
253;  manufactureof,  251,252,  253; 
Primers.  253. 

Shell-sand,  beautiful  forma  of,   151. 

Ship,  how  it  shows  the  earth  is  round, 
11,  12;  strongest  in  the  world,  300, 
301. 

Shipbuilding,  284. 

Shot,  how  made,  255;  how  sorted 
and  sized,  255;  Winchester  tower, 
254. 

Shrapnel,  264. 

Siphon,  jawbone,  334;  Soledad,  335. 

Size,  of  stars,  67. 

Sky,  and  earth,  7;  comets,  18;  depths 
of  space,  61;  heat  and  light,  68; 
meteors,  20;  moon,  54:  proces.sion 
of  worlds,  8:  stars  and  constel- 
lations, 60;  sun  and  its  family,  13; 
sun  and  planets,  15:  time  when  sun 
and  earth  were  atoms,  14;  worlds 
in,  47. 

SEE     ALSO     HEAVENS,     SUN,     MOON, 
STARS,    CONSTELLATIONS, 
PLANETS 

Sloths,   87. 

Smeaton,   John,  lighthouse  builder, 

307. 
Solar  system,  what  it  is,  52. 


Solitary  Bees,  how  they  build  homes. 

146. 
Souchong  teas,  358. 

Sources  of  radium,  184,  185. 

Sparrow,  English,  129. 

Sparrows,    120. 

Sparrow-hawk,   129. 

Sperm  Whale,  "tiger  of  the  deep." 
162;  battle  with,  163,  164;  char- 
acteristics as  a  warrior,  163;  how 
captured,  163;  what  it  produces, 
163. 

Spider,  mother  carrying  her  young, 
147;    water  spider,  148. 

Spiders,  how  some  carry  their  eggs. 
148;  wonderful  way  in  which  cer- 
tain hatch  their  eggs,  142,  143. 

Spintharoscope,  how  it  shows  radio- 
activity of  an  atom,  189. 

Squirrel,  X-ray  picture  of  skeleton, 
181. 

Stage,  for  moving  pictures,  195;  how 
moving  pictures  are  staged,  197; 
how  realism  is  attained  in  movint; 
pictures,  199;  how  scenes  are  pro- 
duced Inside  .studios,  201 ;  settings 
for  moving  pictures,   199. 

Standardization,  of  radium,  193. 

Starr,  Frederick,  on  moving  pictures, 
194. 

Starfish,  r61;    frame  of,  156. 

Stars,  Aldebaran  62;  Algol,  62;  Arc- 
turus,  62;  as  guides  to  travelers. 
48;  brightness  of,  66;  Castor  and 
Pollux,  66:  distance  of,  66;  Dubhe 
and  Merak,  62;  early  views  about. 
60;  how  list  of  was  made,  23;  how 
time  is  measured  by,  214,  215; 
magnitude,  62;  map  of  constel- 
lations in  autumn  and  winter,  65: 
map  of  constellations  in  summer. 
64;  map  of  in  spring,  63;  number 
of,  67;  Pole  star,  62;  Procyon,  66: 
Sirius,  62;  size  of,  67;  study  of,  60: 
their  countless  number,  52;  Vega, 
62:  weight  of,  67;  what  men  once 
thought  about  them,  48. 

SEE   ALSO    SKY 

Steam  engine,  as  a  source  of  power, 
260. 

Steam  navigation,  building  an  ocean 
liner,  289;  Scottish  inventors,  288: 
Denis  Papin,  286;  first  steamship  to 
cross  the  Atlantic,  289;  Fitch,  John, 
286;  Gary,  Blasco  de,  286;  Rum- 
sey, James,  286. 

SEE    ALSO    SHIPS,    BATTLESHIPS 

Steamship  navigation,  Fulton,  Rob- 
ert, 280. 

Steamship,  first  to  cross  the  At- 
lantic,  289. 

Steamships,  building  an  ocean  liner. 
289;  'Clermont,"  285;  develop- 
ment of,  284;  "  Ermack,"  strongest 
in  the  world,  300,  301;  from  the 
caravel  of  Columbus  to  the  "  Im- 
perator,"  290;  "Great  Western," 
289;  immense  culinary  equipment 
necessary  for  voyage,  296;  'John 
Fitch,"  285;  maiden  voyage  of  the 
"Imperator,"  294;  •'Mauretanla," 
building  of,  291;  "Oceanic,"  285: 
"Savannah,"  285,  289;  Symington. 
William,  288;  types  in  the  develop- 
ment of,  285;  "  Vaterland,"  siie  of. 
291;  "Vaterland,"  under  construc- 
tion, 292. 

SEE    ALSO    STEAM    NAVIG.ITION 
BATTLESHIPS 

Steel,  u.sed  for  guns,  244;  used  for 
rifles,  249. 

Stephenson,  Robert,  bridges  built 
by,  341,  345. 

Stoat,  96. 

Stonehenge,  211,  212. 

Submarine  Boat,  256,  2.';7.  258. 

Submarine  Mine,  259,  260. 

Subways,   330. 

Sun,  and  its  family,  13;  and  planets, 
15;  atomic  theory  of  origin,  14; 
distance  from  planets,  18;  how  time 
was  measured  by,  209;  made  of 
same  matter  as  the  earth,  22;  radi- 
ant energy  of,  68,  69,  70,  260,  261: 
what  men  once  thought  about  it, 
10. 

SEE     ALSO     SKY,     TELBSCOPE 

Sundew,  how  it  digests  insects,  172; 

peculiarities  of,  170. 
Sundial,  200,  210,  211;   why  it  does 

not  keep  true  time,  213. 


INDEX  TO   VOLUME   II 


Suspension  Bridge,  347.  349,  350, 
351. 

Swallow,   128. 

Swarming  of  Bees,  134. 

Svmington,  William,  steam  naviga- 
tion, 288. 


Table  of  Distances  in  the  World'* 

sea  traffic,  279. 

Tea,  best,  354;  cultivation  of  In 
Ceylon,  355;  cultivation  in  China, 
356;  cultivation  in  India,  357;  cur- 
ing by  macliinery,  358;  how  leaves 
are  classitted.  358;  Pekoes,  358; 
preparation  for  marltet.  359;  pro- 
duction of,  352;  Souchongs,  358; 
why  some  is  green  and  some  black, 
357. 

Telegram,  how  received,  225;  how 
recorded,  225,  226;  how  sent,  223, 
224,  225. 

Telegraph,  battery,  coil,  and  wires. 
224. 

Telegraph  cables,  226,  227,  228,  229, 
230,  231,  232. 

Telegraph  key,  224. 

Telegraph  Sounder,  224. 

Telegraph  Wires,  226,  227,  228,  229, 
230,  231,  232. 

Telegraphy,  correction  of  time  by, 
213;    wireless,  233. 

SEE  ALSO  TELEGRAM,  CABLE,  WIRE- 
LESS 

Telescope,  in  measurement  of  time, 
215;  Invented  by  Galileo,  49. 

Theory  of  heat  and  light,  69. 

Tiger,  90,  93,  94;  how  it  hunts  its 
prey,  94;  of  the  deep,  sperm  whale, 
162. 

Tillamook  Rock  lighthouse,  311. 

Time,  Babylonian  water-clock,  216; 
clock  that  gives,  206;  early  records 
of  the  heavens,  208;  early  recording 
devices,  217;  electric  clocks,  221; 
how  corrected  by  telegraph,  213; 
how  its  measurement  developed, 
208,  209,  210;  how  measured  by 
Druids,  211;  how  measured  by  the 
sun,  209;  how  the  mariner  finds  his 
location,  216;  law  of  the  pendulum, 
218;  limits  of  accuracy,  211;  mea- 
surement by  early  nations,  208,  209, 
210;  measured  by  the  stars,  214, 
215;  measure  by  transit  instrument, 
215;  measurement  of.  206;  mech- 
anism of  clocks  and  watches,  220; 
Stonehenge.  211,  212. 

SEE  ALSO  CLOCKS,  TELESCOPE 

Tongue,  of  bee,  135. 

Torpedoes,  in  warfare,  261,  262; 
sky,  262. 

Torpedo  Tubes,  258. 

Toucan,   107,   108. 

Tower  bridge,  London,  347,  348. 

Transit  instrument,  its  use  in  measur- 
ing time,  215. 

Trogon,  110. 


Turbines,  used  at  Keokuk  dam,  328; 
used  at  Niagara  Falls,  322,  323,  324. 


U 

Umbrella  bird,  109,  110. 
Underground  engineering,  subwa8,y 

330;    why  necessary,  330. 
Underground       Life,       department 

stores,  339;  in  big  cities,  330  to  340; 

newspaper  plants,  336;    New  York. 

335  to  340;    of  great  hotels.   336, 

339;  railway  stations,  337,  338. 

SEE   ALSO    ENGINEERING 

United  States,  Acquisition  of  Pana- 
ma Canal  franchise,  271;  battle 
ships  at  Hampton  Roads,  284. 

Upland  Plover,  130. 

Uranium,  184,  185. 


"Vaterland"    Size    of,    291;     under 

construction,  292. 
Vega,  62. 

Venus's  flytrap,  169. 
Vessels,  lighthouse,  314. 
Volcanoes,   10. 
Vultures,  114;  family  of,  116. 


W 

War,  newest  instruments  of,  256. 

Wasps,  144,  145;  how  the  mother 
protects  herself  from  other  Insects, 
145. 

Watch,  primitive,  209. 

Watches,  mechanism  of,  220. 

Water,  action  on  rocks,  30;  compo- 
sition, 73;  how  it  is  formed,  75.  76: 
in  food  products,  79;  molecules  of, 
75;    what  it  is.  71,  72,  73. 

Water  and  Land,  areas  of  the  earth, 
34. 

Waterfalls,  European,  325;  Niagara, 
319. 

Water  Power,  European  waterfalls. 
325;  Keokuk  dam,  327;  Niagara 
Falls,  319  to  324. 

Water  Spider,  Homes  of,  149. 

Waxwing,  109. 

Weapons,  of  plants,  170. 

Weasels,  96. 

Weaver  Birds,  103:  home  of,  101. 

Weight,  of  stars,  67. 

Whale,  Arctic,  163;  rorqual  or  sul- 
phur bottom,  163;   sperm,  163. 

What  Birds  eat,  123. 

What  causes  "faults"  In  earth's 
structure,  41. 

What  causes  the  extinction  of  ani- 
mals, 36. 

What  combustion  Is,  80. 

What  fossils  teach,  34. 

What  happens  in  a  hive  of  bees,  134. 

What  heat  is,  68. 

What  is  the  use  of  animals,  89. 

What  light  is,  68. 


What   men  once  thought  about  the 

stars,  48. 
What  nebulae  are,  21,  22. 
What  palaeontology  teaches,  34. 
What  the  rocks  tell  us,  31. 
When  the  spinning  of  the  earth  began. 

16. 
Where  Chocolate   comes   from,  353, 

364. 
Where  coffee  comes  from,  353. 
Where  tea  comes  from,  353,  354. 
White  Shoal  lighthouse,  311. 
Why  the  moon  is  a  dead  planet,  54. 
Why   the  moon  is  subject  to  fewer 

changes  than  the  earth,  59. 
Wild  animals  in  their  homes,  90. 
Wild  kingdom,  lords  of,  93. 
Williamsburg  bridge,  347,  349,  3,50 
Windmills,  as  sources  of  power,  261. 
Wireless  stations,  236. 
Wireless  telegraphy,  how  messages 

are  sent  and  received,  237,  238,  239; 

how  waves  are  set  in  motion,  234, 

235,  240,  241;  humane  uses  of,  242; 

instruments   used,    237,    238,    239; 

Inventors  of,  233,  234;    station  on 

Long  Island,  243;     Trans-Atlantic 

messages,  240,   241. 
Wolf,  98. 
Wolves,  99,  100. 
Woodpecker,  downy,  133. 
World,    great   ball   upon   which   we 

live,  9. 
Worlds,  In  the  skies,  47;    procession 

of,   8. 
World's  sea  trafllc,  distances  In  con- 
nection with,  279. 
Wren,    128. 


X-Rays,  Anode,  175;  apparatus  for 
examining  the  human  body,  179; 
cathode,  175;  discoveries  of  Pro- 
fessor Crookes,  175;  effects  upon 
operators,  178;  experiments  of  Sir 
J.  J.  Thompson,  176;  how  discovery 
was  made,  175,  176;  how  operators 
may  be  protected,  178;  how  they 
reveal  injuries  and  diseases,  178; 
measurement  of  power  of,  ISO; 
medical  value  of,  177;  photography 
by,  180;  Professor  Bragg's  theory, 
177;  radiograph  of  hand,  174; 
range  of  medical  application,  182; 
senses  of  pictures  by,  181. 

SEE   ALSO   HADIUM 


Yellow-bellied  sapsucker,  127. 


Zeppelins,  264,  265,  266,  267. 
Zodiac,  65. 


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